CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

• STONE

• MUD

• BRICK

• TIMBER

• STEEL

• GLASS

• CONCRETE

• FABRIC

MUD

• EARTH IS ONE OF THE OLDEST MATERIALS USED FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN RURAL AREAS.• IT IS USED FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES AND IS USED IN DIFFERENT WAYS. THERE ARE DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF STICKING IT TOGETHER AND MAKING IT INTO A WALL OR WHATEVER.• MUD AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL HAS BEEN EXTENSIVELY USED SINCE NEOLITHIC TIMES.

• MUD CONSTRUCTION IS MAINLY FOUND IN PLACES WHICH ARE: RELATIVELY DRY AND HAVE MUD IN ABUNDANCE.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

COB

RAMMED EARTH

ADOBE

WATTLE AND DAUB

MUD

COB• COB IS USED EXTENSIVELY IN TROPICAL

AFRICA, WHERE SUITABLE SOILS ARE OBTAINABLE OVER WIDE AREAS.

• THE BEST SOIL MIX CONSISTS OF GRAVEL, SAND, SILT AND CLAY IN ROUGHLY EQUAL PROPORTIONS. SOMETIMES CHOPPED GRASS OR STRAW IS ADDED TO REDUCE CRACKING.

• OPENINGS FOR DOORS, AND WINDOWS ARE A PROBLEM, WHICH CAN BE SOLVED BY USING TEMPORARY VERTICAL PLANKS OR SHUTTERING. ANOTHER VERY SIMPLE SHUTTERING FOR OPENINGS IS TO USE EMPTY KEROSENE TINS.

• WITH ONLY A LITTLE WATER TO FORM A VERY STIFF MUD, A LARGE LUMP IS ROUGHLY MOULDED INTO THE SHAPE OF A HUGE ELONGATED EGG.• THE USUAL SIZE IS ANYTHING BETWEEN 12 TO 18-INCHES, (30 TO 40-CM) LONG AND ABOUT 6-

INCHES (15-CM) IN DIAMETER.• A ROW OF THESE COBS OF MUD ARE LAID NEATLY SIDE-BY-SIDE - PREFERABLY SOMEWHAT

PRESSED TOGETHER.• THEN ANOTHER ROW OF COBS IS LAID ON

TOP.• WHEN THREE OR FOUR COURSES HAVE BEEN LAID, ONE ABOVE THE OTHER, THE SIDES ARE SMOOTHED OVER SO THAT THE HOLES AND CRACKS DISAPPEAR.

RAMMED EARTH

• THE SECOND METHOD HAS DEVELOPED FROM THE COB WALL SO AS TO STANDARDIZE OR REGULARIZE THE THICKNESS OF THE WALL.• IT IS ALSO AN ATTEMPT TO INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF THE WALL BY RAMMING IT. IT IS KNOWN AS THE RAMMED EARTH METHOD.

• TWO PARALLEL PLANKS ARE HELD FIRMLY APART BY METAL RODS AND CLIPS OR BOLTS, OR BY SMALL CROSSPIECES OF WOOD.• STIFF MUD IS THROWN IN BETWEEN THESE TWO PLANKS AND RAMMED DOWN WITH EITHER A WOODEN OR METAL RAMROD.• WHEN ONE SECTION IS COMPLETED AND HARD, THE TWO BOARDS ARE MOVED ALONG AND THE PROCESS IS REPEATED•THE TWO PLANKS ARE THEN RAISED UP AND A SECOND COURSE OF RAMMED EARTH IS REPEATED OVER THE FIRST.

ADOBE

• BLOCKS SHALL BE KEPT COVERED WITH AIR TIGHT POLYTHENE SHEETS FOR FIRST 48 HRS WITH RELATIVE HUMIDITY UP TO 100.• POLYTHENE SHEETS SHALL BE REMOVED AFTER 48 HRS AND THE BLOCKS SHALL BE KEPT IN SHADED AREA LIKE HAVING ENOUGH AIR CIRCULATION.

• SPRINKLE WATER OVER BLOCKS DAILY, AS MANY TIMES NEEDED, DURING 28 DAYS.

• WRITE DATE OF PRODUCTION ON BLOCK CORNER.• COVER STACKS TOP WITH COCONUT LEAVES OR ANY OTHER COVER

TO AVOID DIRECT SUNLIGHT.• PRINCIPLE IS THAT BLOCKS SHALL NOT DRY FOR 4WEEKS.

WATTLE AND DAUB• WATTLE AND DAUB METHOD IS AN OLD AND COMMON METHOD OF

BUILDING MUD STRUCTURES.• THERE BAMBOO AND CANE FRAME STRUCTURE THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF.• MUD IS PLASTERED OVER THIS MESH OF BAMBOO CANE AND STRAWS

• DUE TO EXCESSIVE RAINFALL THE WATTLE AND DAUB STRUCTURES GETS WASHED OFF.• HOWEVER, THE MESH OF CANE OR SPLIT BAMBOO REMAINS INTACT AND AFTER THE HEAVY RAIN IS OVER THE MUD IS PLASTERED ON AGAIN.

• Traditional wattle and daub consists of a structure made from cylindrical wood or bamboo (guadua) filled with earth

and straw inside a double structure made from bamboo strips or thin canes.

BRICK IS A BLOCK OR A SINGLE UNIT OF A CERAMIC MATERIAL USED IN MASONARY. THEY HAVE BEEN REGARDED AS ONE OF THE LONGEST LASTING AND STRONGEST BUILDING MATERIALS USED THROUGHOUT HISTORY. THE EARLIEST BRICKS WERE DRIED BRICK, MEANING THEY WERE FORMED FROM CLAY-BEARING EARTH OR MUD AND DRIED (USUALLY IN THE SUN) UNTIL THEY WERE STRONG ENOUGH FOR USE.

HISTORY OF BRICK MAKING

MESOPOTAMIA

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION EGYPT PERSIA

THE HISTORY OF BRICKS AND BRICKMAKING.

BRICKS ARE ONE OF THE OLDEST KNOWN BUILDING MATERIALS DATING BACK TO 7000BC WHERE THEY WERE FIRST FOUND IN SOUTHERN TURKEY AND AROUND JERICHO. THE FIRST BRICKS WERE SUN DRIED MUD BRICKS. FIRED BRICKS WERE FOUND TO BE MORE RESISTANT TO HARSHER WEATHER CONDITIONS, WHICH MADE THEM A MUCH MORE RELIABLE BRICK FOR USE IN PERMANENT BUILDINGS, WHERE MUD BRICKS WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN SUFFICIENT. FIRED BRICK WERE ALSO USEFUL FOR ABSORBING ANY HEAT GENERATED THROUGHOUT THE DAY, THEN RELEASING IT AT NIGHT.

BRICK

HAND FORMED, SUN DRIED MUD BRICKS

TYPICALLY BRICKS WERE STACKED TOGETHER OR LAID AS BRICKWORK USING MORTAR TO HOLD THE BRICKS TOGETHER AND MAKE A PERMANENT STRUCTURE. INITIALLY FOUNDATION TO FINAL FINISHING OF STRUCTURES WAS DONE BY BRICKS.

BRICK- A MUD BLOCK

BRICKS ARE MORE COMMONLY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS THAN ANY OTHER MATERIAL EXCEPT WOOD. THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICKS OF ALL SHAPES AND COLOURS. WITH MODERN MACHINERY, EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT, POWERFUL ELECTRIC MOTORS AND MODERN TUNNEL KILNS, MAKING BRICKS HAS BECOME MUCH MORE PRODUCTIVE AND EFFICIENT. BRICKS CAN BE MADE FROM VARIETY OF MATERIALS THE MOST COMMON BEING CLAY BUT ALSO CALCIUM SILICATE AND CONCRETE.

BRICK- PERFORATED AND KILN FRIED BLOCKS

COMMON CUT BRICK SHAPES

BRICK BOND TYPES

BRICK- SHAPES AND BOND TYPES

ARE MASONRY UNITS, CONTAINING CLASS C FLY ASH AND WATER. OWING TO THE HIGH CONCENTRATION OF CALCIUM OXIDE IN CLASS C FLY ASH, THE BRICK IS DESCRIBED AS "SELF-CEMENTING". THE MANUFACTURING METHOD SAVES ENERGY, REDUCES MERCURY POLLUTION, AND COSTS 20% LESS THAN TRADITIONAL CLAY BRICK MANUFACTURING.

FLY ASH BRICKS: (FAB)

CONCRETE BRICKS:CONCRETE BRICKS ARE MIXTURES OF CEMENT, SAND AND AGGREGATES VIBRATED IN MOULDS AND STEAM CURED.

GLASS BRICK: ALSO KNOWN AS GLASS BLOCK, IS AN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENT MADE FROM GLASS. GLASS BRICKS PROVIDE VISUAL OBSCURATION WHILE ADMITTING LIGHT.

CLADDING BRICK: BRICKS ARE NOW MORE OF USED AS AN AESTHETIC ELEMENT THAN A AN MASONARY ELEMENT. DUE TO GOOD ADHESIVE MATERIALS THE USE OF BRICK HAS INCREASED AS AN ONRAMENTING UNIT.

BRICK- AN AESTHETIC ELEMENT

LAURIE BAKERBAKER BECAME WELL KNOWN FOR DESIGNING AND BUILDING LOW COST, HIGH QUALITY, BEAUTIFUL HOMES, WITH A GREAT PORTION OF HIS WORK SUITED TO OR BUILT FOR LOWER-MIDDLE TO LOWER CLASS CLIENTS. HIS BUILDINGS TEND TO EMPHASIZE PROLIFIC - AT TIMES VIRTUOSIC - MASONRY CONSTRUCTION, INSTILLING PRIVACY AND EVOKING HISTORY WITH BRICK JALI WALLS, A PERFORATED BRICK SCREEN WHICH INVITES A NATURAL AIR FLOW TO COOL THE BUILDINGS.

Indian Coffee House, TrivendrumThe Hamlet, ThiruvananthapuramLoyola Hostel

SewaLaurie Baker Centre For Habitat

Studies

VARIOUS BRICK JALI PATTERNS AND FORMS BY BAKER

LAURIE BAKER

TIMBER AND OTHER NATURAL ORGANIC MATERIALS WERE AMONG THE VERY EARLIEST BUILDING MATERIALS AND IN ITS MODERN FORM TIMBER CONTINUES TO SERVE AS A BASIC BUILDING MATERIAL.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, DETAIL DESIGN AND PROCESSES OF TECHNOLOGY TAKE CARE OF A NUMBER OF THE SPECIFIC PROBLEMS OF TIMBER STRUCTURES, SUCH AS BUCKLING, BEHAVIOUR AROUND NOTCHES, PREVENTION OF INTERSTITIAL CONDENSATION, PROTECTION AGAINST MOISTURE, INSECT AND FUNGAL ATTACK, AND FIRE. TECHNICAL PROGRESS IN THE USE OF TIMBER HAS SOME MAJOR REPERCUSSIONS ON ARCHITECTURE.

• TRANSFORMATION OF THE BASIC TIMBER MATERIAL INTO ONE WITH NEW PROPERTIES

• NEW TIMBER PRODUCTS, FOR EXAMPLE, STRESSED SKIN PANELS AND VARIOUS TYPES OF BOARDS (PLYWOOD, FIBREBOARD, PARTICLEBOARD, ORIENTED STRANDED BOARD, WAFERBOARD, FLAKEBOARD), TAPERED, CURVED OR PITCHED CAMBERED BEAMS, GLUED THIN-WEBBED BEAMS, SANDWICH PANELS, PORTAL FRAMES AND ARCHES

• NEW TYPES OF ORGANIC ADHESIVES, INCLUDING THOSE ABLE TO WITHSTAND OUTDOOR EXPOSURE

• IMPROVEMENT OF PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCES (E.G. IMPROVING BEHAVIOUR IN FIRE)

• ENHANCEMENT OF THE STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF SOFTWOODS FOR USE IN GLUED STRUCTURES

• USE OF NEW FASTENERS, HANGERS, CONNECTORS

• NEW PRINCIPLES IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN, INCLUDING ADEQUATE CONSIDERATION OF THE INTERACTION BETWEEN LOADS AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES.

TIMBER- INTRODUCTION

TIMBER - TYPES OF WOOD JOINTS

DOWEL JOINT• DOWELS COME IN

DIFFERENT SIZES ¼”, 3/8”, ½” , 5/8” ETC.

• THESE JOINTS ARE HIDDEN AND ADD STRENGTH TO THE JOINT.

• DOWEL HOLES ARE DRILL AND GLUED AND CLAMPED TOGETHER.

TIMBER - TYPES OF WOOD JOINTS

DADO• DADO'S ARE TYPICALLY USED

IN MAKING BOOK SHELVES, THEY SUPPORT THE SHELF WITHOUT THE BENEFIT OF ANY ADDITIONAL FASTENERS, ANY GLUE OR HARDWARE SIMPLY HOLDS THE SHELF IN PLACE.

• DADOS MAY BE MADE WITH A DADO BLADE ON A TABLE SAW.

RABET• THIS TYPE OF JOINT IS MADE BY

USING THE DADO BLADE.• EACH SIDE OF WOOD IS CUT TO

A SPECIFIC LENGTH, THEN GLUED OR BRAD NAILED TO MAKE A STRONGER JOINT.

TIMBER – TYPES OF WOOD JOINTS

LAP JOINT• A LAP JOINT IS WHEN TWO

PIECE ARE CUT ON A DADO AND GLUED OR NAIL TOGETHER TO CREATE A STRONGER JOINT.

DOVETAIL JOINT• MOST COMMONLY USED TO

ATTACH DRAWER SIDES TO DRAWER FRONTS, DOVETAILS JOINTS ALMOST ALWAYS INDICATE QUALITY FURNITURE.

• TYPICALLY CUT USING A MANUFACTURED JIG TO CUT THESE. CAN BE DONE BY HAND.

TIMBER – TYPES OF WOOD JOINTS

MORTISE AND TENON JOINT• THE MORTISE AND TENON

JOINT IS ONE OF THE STRONGEST WOOD JOINTS.

• MORTISE AND TENON JOINT IS NORMALLY FORMED BY CUTTING A SQUARE TONGUE (THE TENON) ON THE END OF ONE PIECE OF WOOD AND AN EQUAL SIZE SQUARE HOLE OR SLOT (THE MORTISE) IN ANOTHER.

MITRED WITH WOOD SPLICE

• MITERED CORNERS MAKE THE JOINT DISAPPEAR. THEY HAVE A CLEAN LOOK, AND CAN BE STRENGTHENED WITH SPLICES. SPLICES CAN BE EITHER HIDDEN INSIDE THE JOINT OR CUT ON THE OUTSIDE.

TIMBER – TYPES OF WOOD JOINTS

TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT• TONGUE AND GROOVE IS A METHOD

OF FITTING SIMILAR OBJECTS TOGETHER, EDGE TO EDGE, USED MAINLY WITH WOOD: FLOORING, PARQUETRY, PANELING, AND SIMILAR CONSTRUCTIONS. TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINTS ALLOW TWO FLAT PIECES TO BE JOINED STRONGLY TOGETHER TO MAKE A SINGLE FLAT SURFACE.

• THE EFFECT OF WOOD SHRINKAGE IS CONCEALED WHEN THE JOINT IS BEADED OR OTHERWISE MOLDED.

TIMBER – EXAMPLES

TIMBER – EXAMPLES

• THE STRESSED SKIN PRINCIPLE, INTRODUCED IN THE PREVIOUS CENTURY, ENABLES THE INCLUSION OF THE PANELS IN THE STRUCTURAL CALCULATIONS. WITH GLULAM AND MECHANICALLY CONNECTED TIMBER COMPONENTS LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES COVERING LARGE SPACES MAY BE CONSTRUCTED.

• ONE OF THE LARGEST TIMBER STRUCTURED BUILDINGS IS THE OLYMPIC STADIUM IN HAMAR, NORWAY, WHICH WAS COMPLETED IN 1992 (ARCHITECT: NIELS TORP). IT HOUSES NO FEWER THAN13 000 SEATS, AND 2000 CUBIC METRES OF GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER WERE USED FOR ITS CONSTRUCTION. ITS VAULTED ROOF IS SUPPORTED BY ARCHED TIMBER TRUSSES.

• ANOTHER IMPORTANT TIMBER BUILDING IS THE DOME IN IZUMO, JAPAN, WHICH WAS ALSO COMPLETED IN 1992 (DESIGN: KAJIMA). THE DIAMETER OF THE BUILDING IS 143 METRES. IN APPEARANCE ITS DOME GIVES THE IMPRESSION OF BEING SHAPED LIKE AN OPEN UMBRELLA BUT ITS STRUCTURE IS BASED ON QUITE ANOTHER PRINCIPLE.

• THIRTY SIX HALF-ARCHES WERE ASSEMBLED, EACH 90 METRES LONG AND THESE WERE THEN RAISED TO THEIR FINAL POSITION. AS A GENERAL PRINCIPLE, IT CAN BE STATED THAT THE SCOPE OF APPLYING TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION IS WIDENING, INCLUDING TO MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS.

TIMBER – EXAMPLES

STEEL - INTRODUCTION

• THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF METALS USED FOR BUILDING: STEEL IS A METAL ALLOY WHOSE MAJOR COMPONENT IS IRON, AND IS THE USUAL CHOICE FOR METAL STRUCTURAL BUILDING MATERIALS. IT IS STRONG, FLEXIBLE, AND IF REFINED WELL AND/OR TREATED LASTS A LONG TIME ; OTHER METALS INCLUDE ALUMINUM ALLOYS, TIN, BRASS, CHROME, TITANIUM, GOLD AND SILVER.

• THE VARIOUS USES OF METALS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY INCLUDE: ARCHITECTURAL CLADDING, HANDRAILS AND BALUSTRADING, ROOFING, DRAINAGE AND RAINWATER GOODS, WALL SUPPORTS PRODUCTS AND STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS.

STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONSSTRUCTURALLY A BUILDING CAN EITHER BE A STEEL BUILDING OR A STEEL FRAMED BUILDING.

STEEL - PREFABRICATED STEEL STRUCTURES

JOINERY DETAILS IN PREFABRICATED STEEL STRUCTURES

STEEL - PREFABRICATED STEEL STRUCTURES

• MODULAR CONSTRUCTION USES LIGHT STEEL FRAMING AS ITS BASIC COMPONENT.  WALLS, FLOORS AND CEILINGS ARE CONSTRUCTED AS 3-DIMENSIONAL UNITS, WHICH ARE FULLY FITTED OUT BEFORE DELIVERY TO THE SITE.

•  THE DIMENSIONS OF THE MODULAR UNIT ARE LIMITED ONLY BY TRANSPORTATION (WIDTHS OF 3 TO 4 M ARE TYPICAL).

•  OPEN-SIDED UNITS CAN BE PLACED TOGETHER TO FORM LARGER SPACES.

• MODULAR CONSTRUCTION PRODUCT RANGES INCLUDE MODULAR PANEL AND FLOOR CASSETTE SYSTEMS IN WHICH THE BENEFITS OF MIXED CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES MAY BE REALISED FOR A RANGE OF BUILDING FORMS.  

• THE BASIC COMPONENTS ARE 100 MM DEEP C-SECTIONS FOR THE WALLS AND CEILINGS AND LONG-SPAN LATTICE JOISTS FOR FLOORS.  

• THE LONG-SPAN FLOOR JOISTS ARE NORMALLY CUSTOM-DESIGNED FOR THE SPAN AND DEPTH REQUIRED FOR THE FLOOR.

STEEL - MODULAR STEEL CONTRUCTION

• MOST BUILDINGS NEED A STIFF CORE TO PROVIDE STABILITY AND ENSURE THAT, UNDER LATERAL LOADS, SWAY MOVEMENTS ARE MINIMISED.

• FOR LOW RISE DWELLINGS CROSS BRACING IS USUALLY THE MOST COST EFFICIENT. THE BRACES CAN BE PLACED IN BETWEEN FENESTRATION CONSTRAINTS OR BETWEEN COLUMNS WITHIN WALLS.

• FOR LARGE MULTI-STOREY APARTMENT BLOCK CONSTRUCTIONS, A RIGID CORE IS MORE COST EFFICIENT. THESE RIGID CORES ARE NORMALLY WHERE STAIRCASES AND LIFTS ARE LOCATED, AND THE RIGID CORE IS CONTINUOUS UP THE HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING.

• A RAPIDLY CONSTRUCTED STEEL CORE IS CONSTRUCTED OF STEEL/CONCRETE SANDWICH PANELS THAT ARE WELDED MODULES. THESE ARE SUBSEQUENTLY ASSEMBLED ON SITE TO FORM THE STEEL CORE.

• THE GAP IN BETWEEN THE TWO STEEL PLATES IS THEN FILLED WITH CONCRETE. THE PLATES ACT AS PERMANENT FORMWORK; AND WHEN THE CONCRETE HAS SET, THE SANDWICH PLATES ACT AS STEEL REINFORCEMENT.

• THESE MODULES ARE RELATIVELY LIGHT IN WEIGHT FOR THEIR SIZE. THIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO ERECT THE STRUCTURE USING STANDARD SITE EQUIPMENT.

STEEL - STABILITY CORES

WALL CLADDING SYSTEMSTHESE CAN BE OF THE FOLLOWING TYPES:• WALL CLADDING• DOUBLE SKIN CLADDING• INSULATED PANELS: COMPOSITE OR SANDWICH PANELS• CLAY FINISHES

ROOFING SYSTEMSTHESE CAN BE OF THE FOLLOWING TYPES:• SINGLE ROOF METAL CLADDING• ROOF DECKING• INSULATED PANELS, COMPOSITE OR SANDWICH

PANELS

single roof metal cladding

Roof decking Insulated panels,

Clay finishesInsulated panelsDouble skin claddingSimple wall claddings

STEEL - ROOFING AND WALL CLADDING SYSTEMS

• THE TOWER SHOWS TWO DIFFERENT EXPONENTIALS, THE LOWER SECTION OVERDESIGNED TO ENSURE RESISTANCE TO WIND FORCES. 

• WORK ON THE FOUNDATIONS STARTED IN JANUARY 1887. THOSE FOR THE EAST AND SOUTH LEGS WERE STRAIGHTFORWARD, EACH LEG RESTING ON FOUR 2 M (6.6 FT) CONCRETE SLABS, ONE FOR EACH OF THE PRINCIPAL GIRDERS OF EACH LEG BUT THE OTHER TWO, BEING CLOSER TO THE RIVER SEINE, WERE MORE COMPLICATED: EACH SLAB NEEDED TWOPILES INSTALLED BY USING COMPRESSED-AIR CAISSONS 15 M (49 FT) LONG AND 6 M (20 FT) IN DIAMETER DRIVEN TO A DEPTH OF 22 M (72 FT)  TO SUPPORT THE CONCRETE SLABS, WHICH WERE 6 M (20 FT) THICK. EACH OF THESE SLABS SUPPORTED A BLOCK BUILT OF LIMESTONE EACH WITH AN INCLINED TOP TO BEAR A SUPPORTING SHOE FOR THE IRONWORK. EACH SHOE WAS ANCHORED INTO THE STONEWORK BY A PAIR OF BOLTS 10 CM (4 IN) IN DIAMETER AND 7.5 M (25 FT) LONG.

• THE EIFFEL TOWER, IS AN IRON LATTICE TOWER LOCATED ON THE CHAMP DE MARS IN PARIS, NAMED AFTER THE ENGINEER GUSTAVE EIFFEL, WHOSE COMPANY DESIGNED AND BUILT THE TOWER.

• ERECTED IN 1889 AS THE ENTRANCE ARCH TO THE 1889 WORLD'S FAIR

STEEL – EXAMPLES : EIFFEL TOWER

STEEL – EXAMPLES : STATUE OF LIBERTY

• DESIGNED BY FRÉDÉRIC BARTHOLDI IN COLLABORATION WITH THE FRENCH ENGINEER GUSTAVE EIFFEL (WHO WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR ITS FRAME) AND DEDICATED ON OCTOBER 28, 1886, THE STATUE OF LIBERTY IS A LARGE NEOCLASSICAL SCULPTURE ON LIBERTY ISLAND IN NEW YORK HARBOR. THE STATUE WAS A GIFT TO THE UNITED STATES FROM THE PEOPLE OF FRANCE.

• THE STATUE OF LIBERTY STANDS AT A HEIGHT OF 151 FEET 1 INCH (46 METERS). FROM GROUND TO TORCH IT IS 305 FEET 1 INCH (93 METERS) TALL.

• EIFFEL PRODUCED A 94-FT-HIGH WROUGHT-IRON SQUARE SKELETON WHOSE CHIEF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ARE FOUR POSTS THAT WORK IN COMPRESSION.

• THE SKELETON SUPPORTS A SECONDARY IRON FRAME THAT, IN TURN, CARRIES A SYSTEM OF FLAT WROUGHT IRON BARS. THESE MEMBERS CARRY THE COPPER PLATES THAT FORM THE STATUE'S EXTERIOR SKIN.

• EXTENDING FROM THE MAIN FRAME ARE A SMALLER FRAME SUPPORTING THE HEAD AND A SLIM 47-FT, 7-IN. SKELETON CARRYING THE ARM THAT HOLDS THE TORCH.

• THE FRAME IS BRACED WITH DIAGONAL MEMBERS AND WAS DESIGNED TO WITHSTAND A WIND LOAD OF 58 PSF. IN A 50-MPH WIND, THE MONUMENT MOVES 3 IN.

STEEL – EXAMPLES : MILLENIUM BRIDGE, LONDON

• SPANNING 320 METRES, IT IS A VERY SHALLOW SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

• TWO Y-SHAPED ARMATURES SUPPORT EIGHT CABLES THAT RUN ALONG THE SIDES OF THE 4-METRE-WIDE DECK, WHILE STEEL TRANSVERSE ARMS CLAMP ON TO THE CABLES AT 8-METRE INTERVALS TO SUPPORT THE DECK ITSELF.

• THIS GROUNDBREAKING STRUCTURE MEANS THAT THE CABLES NEVER RISE MORE THAN 2.3 METRES ABOVE THE DECK, ALLOWING THOSE CROSSING THE BRIDGE TO ENJOY UNINTERRUPTED PANORAMIC VIEWS AND PRESERVING SIGHT LINES FROM THE SURROUNDING BUILDINGS. AS A RESULT, THE BRIDGE HAS A UNIQUELY THIN PROFILE, FORMING A SLENDER ARC ACROSS THE WATER.

• THE BRIDGE OPENED IN JUNE 2000 AND AN ASTONISHING 100,000 PEOPLE CROSSED IT DURING THE FIRST WEEKEND. UNDER THIS HEAVY TRAFFIC THE BRIDGE EXHIBITED GREATER THAN EXPECTED LATERAL MOVEMENT, AND AS A RESULT IT WAS TEMPORARILY CLOSED.

• EXTENSIVE RESEARCH REVEALED THAT THIS MOVEMENT WAS CAUSED BY SYNCHRONISED PEDESTRIAN FOOTFALL − A PHENOMENON OF WHICH LITTLE WAS PREVIOUSLY KNOWN IN THE ENGINEERING WORLD. THE SOLUTION WAS TO FIT DAMPERS DISCREETLY BENEATH THE DECK TO MITIGATE MOVEMENT.

• GLASS PERFORMS A SIGNIFICANT FUNCTION IN SPACE DIVISIONS AND HEAT AND LIGHT CONTROL.

• IT HAS BEEN KNOWN SINCE EARLY TIMES SO IT FULLY JUSTIFIES BEING CONSIDERED AS A TRADITIONAL MATERIAL. GLASS, HOWEVER, WAS EXPENSIVE AND SO ENJOYED ONLY RESTRICTED USE UP TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

• MASS PRODUCTION OF SHEET GLASS, THE DEVELOPMENT OF STEEL FRAMES, CABLE STRUCTURES, FIXING DEVICES AND SYSTEMS AS WELL AS OF ELASTIC AND ELASTO-PLASTIC SEALANT CHANGED THIS AND RESULTED IN A NUMBER OF INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS AND SYSTEMS.

• DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY THE CURTAIN WALL EMERGED WITH NEW TYPES OF GLAZING. HOWEVER, ON THE FAÇADES OF THE SKYSCRAPERS, LINEAR GLASS FIXING COMPONENTS WERE STILL PRESENT.

GLASS – INTRODUCTION

THE GLASS PYRAMIDE AT THE LOUVRE, PARIS, 1988,ARCHITECT: I.M. PEI AND PARTNERS

• GRADUAL PROGRESS IN MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS ACHIEVED THE OBJECTIVE TO DEVELOP “ALL-GLASS FAÇADES” WITH UNINTERRUPTED GLASS SURFACES.

• THE BASIC GLAZING MATERIAL USED FOR EXTERNAL ENVELOPES IS THE GLASS PANE, WHICH MAY BE CLEAR WHITE, BODY TINTED, PHOTOSENSITIVE, OR PHOTO CHROMATIC.

• FOR GLASS ROOFS, INCREASED SAFETY LAMINATED GLASS MAY BE USED. THE LOW TENSILE STRENGTH OF GLASS CAN BE IMPROVED BY ITS THERMAL OR CHEMICAL TOUGHENING.

• THERMALLY TOUGHENED GLASS (TEMPERED GLASS) FRACTURES INTO SMALL PIECES AND THEREBY REDUCES RISK IN THE CASE OF GLASS BREAKAGE. SUCH GLASS IS REFERRED TO AS ‘SAFETY GLASS’.

• GLASS COATED BY ONE OR BY SEVERAL THIN COATING LAYERS MAY BE HEAT AND LIGHT ABSORBENT AND/OR REFLECTIVE.

GLASS – TYPES AND USES

ALL-GLASS GLAZING SYSTEMS EVOLVED FROM EARLIER CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS IN WHICH THE GLASS PANES WERE FIXED BETWEEN LINEAR FRAME COMPONENTS: GLASS BEADS, GASKETS OR PRESSURE PROFILES. LATER, SYSTEMS WERE DEVELOPED WHERE THE GLASS PANES WERE FIXED AT THE CORNERS ONLY, EITHER INDIVIDUALLY, OR WITH TWO OR FOUR PANES BEING FIXED BY A SINGLE FIXING DEVICE. THE GLASS FAÇADE IS SUSPENDED BY STRESSED CABLES TO THE STRUCTURE.

FURTHER DEVELOPED FIXING SYSTEMS:

BOLTED CORNER PLATE FIXING POINTSTHE COUNTERSUNK ‘PLANAR’ FIXING SYSTEMTHE BOLTED FIXING SYSTEM WITH SWIVEL JOINTS (RFR SYSTEM)

GLASS – GLAZING SYSTEM

THE NETHERLANDS ARCHITECTURE INSTITUTE, ROTTERDAM,THE NETHERLANDS, DESIGNER: JO COENEN,

WATERLOO INTERNATIONAL RAILWAY STATION, LONDON,1994, ARCHITECT: NICOLAS GRIMSHAW AND PARTNERS

WESTERN MORNING NEWS, PLYMOUTH, ENGLAND,1992, ARCHITECT: NICOLAS GRIMSHAW AND PARTNERS

CONCRETE – INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

• CONCRETE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL HAS BEEN USED IN RANGE OF CASTING METHODS DUE TO THE VARIETY OF WAYS OF WORKING WITH THE MATERIAL.

• CONCRETE IS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL COMPOSED OF COARSE GRANULAR MATERIAL (THE AGGREGATE OR FILLER) EMBEDDED IN A HARD MATRIX OF MATERIAL (THE CEMENT OR BINDER) THAT FILLS THE SPACE AMONG THE AGGREGATE PARTICLES AND GLUES THEM TOGETHER.

• CONCRETE IS WIDELY USED FOR MAKING ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES, FOUNDATIONS, BRICK/BLOCK WALLS, PAVEMENTS, BRIDGES/OVERPASSES, HIGHWAYS, RUNWAYS, PARKINGSTRUCTURES, DAMS, POOLS/RESERVOIRS, PIPES, FOOTINGS FOR GATES, FENCES AND POLES AND EVEN BOATS.

• FAMOUS CONCRETE STRUCTURES INCLUDE THE HOOVER DAM, THE PANAMA CANAL AND THE ROMAN PANTHEON.

• CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY WAS KNOWN BY THE ANCIENT ROMANS AND WAS WIDELY USED WITHIN THE ROMAN EMPIRE—THE COLOSSEUM IS LARGELY BUILT OF CONCRETE AND THE CONCRETE DOME OF THE PANTHEON IS THE WORLD'S LARGEST. AFTER THE EMPIRE PASSED, USE OF CONCRETE BECAME SCARCE UNTIL THE TECHNOLOGY WAS RE-PIONEERED IN THE MID-18TH CENTURY.

CONCRETE – INTRODUCTION OF CEMENT

• A CEMENT IS A BINDER, A SUBSTANCE THAT SETS AND HARDENS INDEPENDENTLY, AND CAN BIND OTHER MATERIALS TOGETHER.

• THE VOLCANIC ASH AND PULVERIZED BRICK ADDITIVES THAT WERE ADDED TO THE BURNT LIME TO OBTAIN A HYDRAULIC BINDER WERE REFERRED TO AS CEMENT.

• CEMENTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION CAN BE CHARACTERIZED AS BEING EITHER HYDRAULIC OR NON-HYDRAULIC. HYDRAULIC CEMENTS (E.G., PORTLAND CEMENT) HARDEN BECAUSE OF HYDRATION, A CHEMICAL REACTION BETWEEN THE ANHYDROUS CEMENT POWDER AND WATER. THUS, THEY CAN HARDEN UNDERWATER OR WHEN CONSTANTLY EXPOSED TO WET WEATHER. THE CHEMICAL REACTION RESULTS IN HYDRATES THAT ARE NOT VERY WATER-SOLUBLE AND SO ARE QUITE DURABLE IN WATER. NON-HYDRAULIC CEMENTS DO NOT HARDEN UNDERWATER; FOR EXAMPLE, SLAKED LIMES HARDEN BY REACTION WITH ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE.

• PORTLAND CEMENT (OFTEN REFERRED TO AS OPC, FROM ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT) IS THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF CEMENT IN GENERAL USE AROUND THE WORLD, USED AS A BASIC INGREDIENT OF CONCRETE, MORTAR, STUCCO, AND MOST NON-SPECIALTY GROUT. IT USUALLY ORIGINATES FROM LIMESTONE.

CONCRETE – PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF NORMAL STRENGTH PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE ARE INDICATED BELOW:

• DENSITY : 2240 - 2400 KG/M3 • COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH : 20 - 40 MPA• FLEXURAL STRENGTH : 3 - 5 MPA • TENSILE STRENGTH : 2 - 5 MPA• MODULUS OF ELASTICITY : 14000 - 41000

MPA

• THE INITIAL SETTING TIME OF CONCRETE IS 30 MIN AND THE FINAL SETTING TIME IS 600 MIN.

• GRADES OF CONCRETEM-15 = 1:2:4 (cement:stone:sand)m-20= 1:1.5:3 (cement:stone:sand)m-25= 1:1:2 (cement:stone:sand)

CONCRETE – CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

TILT UP CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING-(1940)TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION INVOLVES SITE-CASTING THE CONCRETE WALLS OF A BUILDING ON ITS FLOOR SLAB OR ON A SEPARATE CASTING BED AND THEN TILTING AND LIFTING THEM INTO POSITION BY CRANE. THE RESULT IS RAPID CONSTRUCTION ARISING FROM A WELL-PLANNED PROCESS MORE AKIN TO A FACTORY PRODUCTION LINE, BUT RETAINING THE FLEXIBILITY OF IN-SITU CONCRETE WORK.

CONCRETE – CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

CAST IN PLACE METHODS-(1950-60)

• PRECAST FLAT PANEL SYSTEMFLOOR AND WALL UNITS ARE PRODUCED OFF-SITE IN A FACTORY AND ERECTED ON-SITE TO FORM ROBUST STRUCTURES, IDEAL FOR ALL REPETITIVE CELLULAR PROJECTS.

• 3D VOLUMETRIC CONSTRUCTION3D VOLUMETRIC CONSTRUCTION (ALSO KNOWN AS MODULAR CONSTRUCTION) INVOLVES THE PRODUCTION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL UNITS IN CONTROLLED FACTORY CONDITIONS PRIOR TO TRANSPORTATION TO SITE.

• TUNNEL FORMTUNNEL FORM IS A FORMWORK SYSTEM THAT ALLOWS THE CONTRACTOR TO BUILD MONOLITHIC WALLS AND SLABS IN ONE OPERATION ON A DAILY CYCLE.

• HYBRID CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

HYBRID CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (HCC) COMBINES ALL THE BENEFITS OF PRECASTING WITH THE ADVANTAGES OF CAST IN-SITU CONSTRUCTION.

• INSULATING CONCRETE FORMWORKINSULATING CONCRETE FORMWORK (ICF) SYSTEMS CONSIST OF TWIN-WALLED, EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PANELS OR BLOCKS THAT ARE QUICKLY BUILT UP TO CREATE FORMWORK FOR THE WALLS OF A BUILDING.

CONCRETE - MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

PLACING OF REINFORCEMENTS

CONCRETE PLACEMENTS FOR PRECAST PANELS TEXTURING OF CONCRETE

TUNNEL FORM HYBRID CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

THIN JOINT MASONRY INSULATING CONCRETE FORMWORK

PRECAST CONCRETE FOUNDATION

CONCRETE – CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

PUMPING METHODA CONCRETE PUMP IS A MACHINE USED FOR TRANSFERRING LIQUID CONCRETE BY PUMPING. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF CONCRETE PUMPS.

THE FIRST TYPE OF CONCRETE PUMP IS ATTACHED TO A TRUCK. IT IS KNOWN AS A TRAILER-MOUNTED BOOM CONCRETE PUMP

THE SECOND MAIN TYPE OF CONCRETE PUMP IS EITHER MOUNTED ON A TRUCK AND KNOWN AS A TRUCK-MOUNTED CONCRETE PUMP OR PLACED ON A TRAILER, AND IT IS COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS A LINE PUMP OR TRAILER-MOUNTED CONCRETE PUMP.

FOR UNDERWATER CONCRETE,WORKABILITY CAN BE INTERPRETED AS 3 BASIC PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS AS FOLLOWS:• FLOWABILITY: CONCRETE MUST BE ABLE TO FLOW

OUT EASILY UNDERWATER AND COMPLETELY FILL THE PLACEMENT AREA WITHOUT TRAPPING WATER INSIDE.IT WORKS WELL WITH CONCRETE WITH SLUMP UP TO 150 MM.

• SELF-COMSOLIDATION: SINCE IT IS IMPRACTICAL TO CONSOLIDATE CONCRETE UNDERWATER BY MECHANICAL VIBRATION,THE CONCRETE MUST CONSOLIDATE ITSELF BY THE PRIMARY DRIVING FORCE WHICH IS ITS OWN WEIGHT,WHICH IS SUBSTANTIALLY REDUCED BY THE BUOYANCY IN WATER.

• COHESION: THE CONCRETE IS REQUIRED TO REMAIN COHESIVE UNDERWATER.THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVE IS TO ENSURE THE HOMOGENEITY AND STRENGTH OF UNDERWATER CONCRETE BY MINIMIZING CEMENT WASHOUT,SEGREGATION,AND LAITANCE.

CONCRETE – UNDER WATER CONSTRUCTION

CONCRETE – AKASHIKAKYO BRIDGE, JAPAN

IT IS 1991 M LONG SUSPENSION BRIDGE IN JAPAN.

First, they dug the gargantuan hole for the foundation.

Using the caisson to form the foundation. The caisson made up of steel rather than wood.

The tugboats tugged the caisson to the location.

Each caisson has the inner and outer wall, the gap between the walls forms the circular  Compartments filled with the air. This keep the caisson buoyant.

To sink the caisson, engineers fraught the compartments with the seawater.

Once the caisson located on the seabed, they filled with the concrete.

CONCRETE – CONCRETE SHELL STRUCTURES

• CONCRETE SHELL STRUCTURES, OFTEN REFERRED TO AS ‘THIN SHELLS’, HAVE BEEN AROUND SINCE THE 1930’S.

• THE DESIGN OF THESE THIN SHELLS WAS STIMULATED BY THE DESIRE TO COVER WIDE SPANS IN AN ECONOMICALLY ATTRACTIVE MANNER. TYPICALLY, THE THICKNESS OF CONCRETE SHELLS IS RELATIVELY SMALL COMPARED TO THE CURVATURE AND SPAN.

• THE MAIN REASON FOR CONCRETE SHELLS TO BE ECONOMICALLY FEASIBLE (ESPECIALLY FROM A MATERIAL POINT OF VIEW), IS THAT SHELLS ARE STRUCTURALLY EFFICIENT IN CARRYING LOADS ACTING PERPENDICULAR TO THEIR SURFACE BY IN-PLANE MEMBRANE STRESSES.

DESIGN-BASED CLASSIFICATION OF (CONCRETE) SHELL STRUCTURES • THE DIVERSITY OF SHELL STRUCTURES IS VAST. ANY SURFACE THAT IS CURVED

IN ONE OR MORE DIRECTIONS CAN BE CONSIDERED A SHELL SURFACE. • SHELL SURFACES MAY BE DEFINED BY THE CLASSIFICATION OF THEIR

CURVATURE, EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF GAUSSIAN CURVATURE.

CONCRETE – LES MANANTIALES RESTAURANT IN MEXICO CITY BY FELIX CANDELA

A BLOOMING PERIOD OF WIDESPREAD CONCRETE SHELL CONSTRUCTION TOOK PLACE FROM THE 1930’S, WHERE ENGINEERS LIKE FELIX CANDELA, EDUARDO TORROJA, ANTON TEDESKO AND PIER LUIGI NERVI MANAGED TO DESIGN, CALCULATE AND CONSTRUCT EXTREMELY ELEGANT CONCRETE SHELLS

• THE ORIGINS TRACED BACK OVER 44,000 YEARS TO THE ICE AGE AND THE SIBERIAN STEPPE WHERE SIMPLE TEXTILES WERE USED FOR SPATIAL DIVISION AND SHELTER

• THE FIRST DWELLINGS ACTUALLY CONSTRUCTED BY HUMANS

• PURPOSE: GENERATING SHELTER RATHER THAN AS ENCLOSURES OF PERMANENT SPACE. Tents: simple shelters constructed from

animal skins draped between sticks.

FABRIC – INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

Yurt: A simple, demountable structure consisting wooden parts and felt covering

Tipi: Structure of tied poles covered with canvas

Velarium: A horizontal and vertical support structure with textile panels suspended over

it

Timber structure covered with decorated canvas

Montreal German Pavilion (1967) by Otto Frei

F.W. Lanchester’s (1918 ) design for an 'air tent' in which it was proposed that a patterned balloon fabric could be inflated at a low pressure to form a habitable enclosure.

Mannheim Multihalle: A self standing gridshell structure covered with translucent, PVC coated polyester fabric.

MATERIALSTYPICALLY, THE FABRIC IS COATED AND LAMINATED WITH SYNTHETIC MATERIALS FOR INCREASED STRENGTH, DURABILITY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE. AMONG THE MOST WIDELY USED MATERIALS ARE POLYESTERS LAMINATED OR COATED WITH POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC), AND WOVEN FIBERGLASS COATED WITHPOLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE (PTFE).

Welded joint detail

Clamped connection between 2 members

Lopp fastner detailMembranes with plastic or metallic eyes connected by zigzag curved plastic rope

Tube in pocket

Edge clamping detail

JOINERY DETAILS

Edge cable with clamps

Clamped edge with plates

Ridge and valley cables

FABRIC – JOINERY AND MATERIALS

• THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM OF THE PRESTRESSED 50 CM MESHED STEEL CABLE NET AND THE SUSPENDED PRESTRESSED TEXTILE MEMBRANE.

• A SHINY WHITE AND TRANSLUCENT WEATHER SKIN WITH CLEAR EYE LOOPS, PUSHED UP NEEDLE-LIKE BY EIGHT MAST HIGH POINTS AND PULLED DOWN FUNNEL-LIKE AT THREE LOW POINTS, ALL OF THEM FREELY PLACED INSIDE AN UP-AND DOWN SWEEPING OUTLINE PERIPHERY, - CREATING A HUGE DIVERSIFIED INTERIOR SPACE OF ALMOST 8000 M² COVERED AREA, OPEN ALL AROUND TO THE OUTSIDE.

• IT WAS BOUNDED BY RESTRAINT 2.25 M HIGH WIND-DEFLECTOR GLASS WALLS ON MANIFOLD GROUND FLOOR LEVELS (OPEN ON TOP FOR NATURAL VENTILATION IN SUMMER AND CLOSED WITH APRONS AGAINST THE ROOF MEMBRANE FOR HEATING IN WINTER).

• WHICH WAS SUBDIVIDED SPATIALLY BY 1.25 M MODULAR GALVANIZED STEEL DECKS ON MUSHROOM-LIKE BRANCHING COLUMNS IN VARIOUS HEIGHTS.

• AND IT EVEN SHELTERED IN ONE CORNER TWO SMALL COMPRESSION STRESSED WOODEN GRID SHELL DOMES FOR A LECTURE HALL AND ITS ENTRANCE FOYER WITH AN IRREGULARLY SHAPED GROUND AREA OF ALMOST 300M²

FABRIC – EXAMPLE : MONTREAL GERMAN PAVILLION BY OTTO FREI

• THE AMOUNT OF PRESSURE REQUIRED IS A FUNCTION OF THE WEIGHT OF THE MATERIAL - AND THE BUILDING SYSTEMS SUSPENDED ON IT (LIGHTING, VENTILATION, ETC.) - AND WIND PRESSURE.

• INTERNAL PRESSURE IS COMMONLY MEASURED IN INCHES OF WATER, InAq, AND VARIES FRACTIONALLY FROM 0.3 InAq FOR MINIMAL INFLATION TO 3 InAq FOR MAXIMUM, WITH 1 INAQ BEING A STANDARD PRESSURIZATION LEVEL FOR NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS. IN TERMS OF THE MORE COMMON POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH, 1 INAQ EQUATES TO A MERE 0.037 PSI.

FABRIC - PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES

• PNEUMATIC STRUCTURE IS A MEMBRANE STRUCTURE THAT IS STABILIZED BY THE PRESSURE OF COMPRESSED AIR. AIR-SUPPORTED STRUCTURES ARE SUPPORTED BY INTERNAL AIR PRESSURE.

• A NETWORK OF CABLES STIFFENS THE FABRIC, AND THE ASSEMBLY IS SUPPORTED BY A RIGID RING AT THE EDGE. THE AIR PRESSURE WITHIN THIS BUBBLE IS INCREASED SLIGHTLY ABOVE NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND MAINTAINED BY COMPRESSORS OR FANS.

• AIR LOCKS ARE REQUIRED AT ENTRANCES TO PREVENT LOSS OF INTERNAL AIR PRESSURE.

• AIR-SUPPORTED MEMBRANES WERE FIRST DEVISED BY WALTER BIRD IN THE LATE 1940S.

• AIR-INFLATED STRUCTURES ARE SUPPORTED BY PRESSURIZED AIR WITHIN INFLATED BUILDING ELEMENTS THAT ARE SHAPED TO CARRY LOADS IN A TRADITIONAL MANNER.

• PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES ARE PERHAPS THE MOST COST-EFFECTIVE TYPE OF BUILDING FOR VERY LONG SPANS.

FABRIC - FABRIC FORM CONCRETE

FABRIC FORMWORK, AS A NEW CONCRETE FORMING TECHNIQUE, PROVIDES TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES AND NEW FREEDOM TO THE ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS AND CONCRETE FORMWORK INDUSTRY. FABRIC-FORMED CONCRETE MEMBERS ARE EASY TO FORM, IMMACULATE IN FINISH, ORGANIC IN FORM, AND INEXPENSIVE TO PRODUCE.

• THIS INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUE UTILIZES FABRIC WOVEN OF HIGH TENACITY NYLON YARN INTO A VARIETY OF FORMS INCLUDING MATS, PILE JACKETS AND BAGS. AT THE WORK SITE, THE CUSTOM-MADE FORMS ARE POSITIONED AND SEWN TOGETHER WITH HAND-HELD SEWING MACHINES. THEY ARE THEN PUMPED WITH FINE AGGREGATE CONCRETE AND ALLOWED TO CURE.

•  CONCRETE CLOSE TO THE SURFACE OF A CONVENTIONAL FORMWORK ALWAYS HAS A HIGHER WATER CEMENT RATIO THAN THE CORE CONCRETE. WOVEN GEOTEXTILES USED AS FORMING MEMBRANE IN FABRIC FORMWORK TECHNIQUE HAVE VERY SMALL PORES LETTING AIR BUBBLES AND EXCESS MIX WATER BLEED OUT, LEAVING A CEMENT-RICH PASTE AT THE SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE. THIS FILTERING ACTION REDUCES THE WATER CEMENT RATIO OF THE CONCRETE AT THE SURFACE ZONE AND PRODUCES IMMACULATE FINISHES UNKNOWN TO OTHER CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. THE LOW SURFACE WATER/CEMENT RATIO IN TURN, MAKES THE CONCRETE MORE WATERPROOF AND CAUSES LESS SHRINKAGE AND FEWER CRACKS IN THE LONG TERM.

FABRIC – EXAMPLES