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WHAT NEUROSCIENCE TELLS US ABOUT HOW TO TEACH FOREIGN LANGUAGESThere is a boom of new information related to bilingualism and the brain that is contributing to a paradigm shift in some aspects of teaching in formal school settings. In one sense, this new information tells us what not to do: that is, there is now a great deal of evidence out about myths or untruths related to the brain and language that influence teacher practice. On the other hand, there is good information that supports best teaching practice.

What Not To Do

Teachers are warned to stay away from myths about multilingualism that retard language learning. For example, telling boys they have less aptitude for language is damaging, as is telling some kids they are too old to properly learn a foreign language. There is now vast evidence to show that there is no gender dominance for language, nor is there a critical period for learning a foreign language. With the exception of accent, adults can and do learn foreign languages better and faster than children if and when they spend the same a mount of time in the process. We now know that it is also a myth to think that some languages are easier to learn than others. Humans are born

universal receivers of all language sounds and can learn any language from birth. However, languages become harder when we develop a metalinguistic awareness of our first language and compare languages. Languages also become difficult when we attempt literacy as compared with simple listening comprehension and speaking. It is also false to think that true bilinguals never mix their languages. Children brought up bilingual from birth will mix their languages until around the age of three when they begin to label them (“mommy says it like this, daddy says it like that…” or “my teachers says it like this, and my mommy says it like that….”), and then actually name the languages. Older bilinguals will borrow between their languages until they have a complete vocabulary in each.Some teachers think some children are unable to manage languages due to brain limitations, which is false. Thinking that by learning more than one language a child can suffer brain overload is a myth. The brain is highly plastic and can learn several languages at the same time, though studies of more than five at a time are rare. Patricia Kuhl (2010), Janet Werker (Byers-Heinlein, Burns & Werker, 2010; Werker, Yeung & Yoshida, 2012), Laura Ann Petito (2009; Petitto, Berens, Kovelman, Dubins, Jasinska & Shalinksy,

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2012), and studies at the University of Basel in Switzerland have produced studies that show that children brought up bilingual or multilingual from birth have a slightly larger Broca’s Area, but otherwise their language processing is the same as monolinguals. On the other hand, people who learn languages at a slightly later age actually use far more of their brain than monolinguals, recruiting areas that would otherwise not be used by monolinguals. This means that the brain can’t be “overloaded” by learning several languages at once. Having said this, some children may appear overwhelmed psychologically by the pressures, circumstances and demands of learning a new language. The brain can handle the languages, but teachers need to manage the psychological aspects well in order to be successful by helping kids find their own motivations for wanting to learn. Dozens of other myths still prevail in multilingual classrooms and should be avoided if teaching is to be improved.

What To Do

There are key studies in neuroscience that have thrown light on to best practices in bilingual classroom settings. Additionally, studies by John Hattie (2009, 2012, 2013) summarize the greatest influences on student learning outcomes, which can be united with brain studies and point to the best ways to guarantee learning. What follows are ten examples of best classroom practices noted in Making Classrooms Better: 50 Best Classroom Practices from Mind, Brain, and Education Science (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2013) as they relate to multilingual classes.First, most great language teachers know the importance of student self-efficacy, which means helping students believe in their own ability to learn. Many foreign language learners feel ashamed of their low language abilities in relation to their native language and in relation to their peers. A teacher who says, “ I know this might be hard, but I am sure you are going to be able to get it,” helps instill confidence on the part of the learner. Hattie’s research shows that a learner’s belief in his ability to learn is the single greatest influential factor influencing outcomes (2012).Second, great teachers also know how important it is to have credibility in the eyes of the student. If the student does not believe that the teacher can teach, the student does not attempt to learn. That is, if the teacher appears to have low self-confidence in his own abilities, or if he gives students reason to doubt his expertise, students don’t even try. Teachers must show they have confidence in their students’ abilities. They must then be contagious in their enthusiasm for their subject matter (Campbell-Meiklejohn, Bach, Roepstoff, Dolan & Frith, 2010). “Social contagion” is based on the complex mirror neuron system in the brain in which people respond to the emotional states of others (Pineda, 2008). Third, teachers also know that students with the right attitude towards intervention are better learners, but that they as teachers can help in forming this good attitude. To improve the likelihood of openness to intervention, teachers need to create a classroom environment that celebrates error: “Not quite, but almost…!” is a much better way to react to a wrong answer than, “Wrong!”Fourth, expert teachers also understand the role of constructivism and building upon a learner’s past knowledge to teach new concepts. This means that a teacher cannot instruct generic lessons that are the same

for all language learners, but rather they must devise methods that respond to the specific needs of each learner based on what the learner already knows and what he needs to know.Fifth, good language teachers appreciate the role of embedded, formative assessment practices in everyday activities. They incorporate learning activities that also provide evaluation data. For example, if the learning objective is to get students to use more oral language in class, they devise a speaking activity with an accompanying rubric so that they can offer formative feedback to learners about how to improve in specific areas. Sixth, great teachers also take the time to reflect on their practice and to continually improve by talking with other teachers about what seems to work best with which types of students. Teaching can be a lonesome profession, but teachers who take the time to share their successes and failures amongst themselves improve their practice faster than teachers who work alone (O’Donnell, Reeve, & Smith, 2012; Schön, 1987).Seventh, expert teachers choose the appropriate methodologies for each student based on the students’ individual needs. They manage a thorough “gap analysis” and determine where they want the student to be, where they are now, and choose activities that help the student fill in his own gap in knowledge. This means that the most successful language teachers have a variety of activities in their toolbox and know how to select the correct interventions for each learner — they do not rely on a one-size-fits-all solution to teaching.Eighth, great teachers are also clear in their communication with students, they leave nothing to chance and reconfirm that everyone shares the same expectations. This is especially important in foreign language classes or bilingual classrooms. Teacher clarity is vital for learning in any classroom, but of particular importance in classrooms where many students may have gaps in core knowledge, vocabulary, sentence patterns or general grammar. This means the teacher must not only choose his words carefully, but also find ways of expressing the same concept in a variety of formats, such as asking students to paraphrase his words.Ninth, the best teachers understand the importance of learning in groups. The brain is a social organ and most people would choose to learn in groups, not in isolated circumstances (Paulus, 2000). This has a great influence on the choice of activities in bilingual classrooms. This means where possible and when they respond to the class objectives, teachers should choose group work over individual seatwork. For example, allowing students to speak when the goal is greater oral language use; pairing students to act out dialogue if the goal is spontaneous use of appropriate language; group writing activities to build vocabulary, etc., are better than individual activities.Finally, great teachers know how to manage classrooms well by keeping all learners deeply engaged. A single learner can disrupt the classroom and divert other students from real learning objectives (Hattie, 2012; Marzano & Pickering, 2011). Great teachers know how to quell disturbances, and understand their learners’ true motivations for acting out or causing distractions (Nelson, Lynn & Glenn, 1999), and know how to channel their energy in the right direction.Many great teachers apply these general “dos” and “don’ts” of bilingual classrooms and foreign language instruction instinctually. Neuroscientific evidence, however, changes

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the urgency with which we must each review our own practice and reflect on personal areas of improvement to better serve our students.

REFERENCES:

Byers-Heinlein, K., Burns, T. C., & Werker, J.F. (2010). The roots of bilingualism in newborns. Psychological Science, 21(3), 343-348.Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London, UK: Routledge.Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York, NY: Routledge.Hattie, J., & Anderman, E.M. (2013). International guide to student achievement. New York, NY: Routledge.Johnson, S.C., Baxter, L., Wilder, L.S., Pipie, J.G., Heiserman, J.E. & Prigatano, G.P. (2002). Neural correlates of self-reflection. Brain, 125(8),1808-1814. doi: 10.1093/brain/awf181Kuhl, P. K. (2010). Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition. Neuron, 67(5), 713-727.Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2011). The highly engaged classroom. Bloomington, IL: Marzano Research Laboratory.Nelson, J., Lynn L. & Glenn, H.S. (1999). Positive discipline (2nd rev. edition). New York, NY: Prima Lifestyles.Paulus, P. (2000). Groups, teams, and creativity: The creative potential of idea-generation groups. Applied Psychology, 49(2), 237-262. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00013Petitto, L. A. (2009). New Discoveries from the Bilingual Brain and Mind Across the Lifespan: Implications for Education. International Journal of Mind, Brain and Education, 3(4), 185-197Petitto, L.A., Berens, M.S., Kovelman, I., Dubins, M.H., Jasinska, K. and Shalinksy, M. (2012). The “Perceptual Wedge Hypothesis” as the basis for bilingual babies phonetic processing advantage: New insights from fNIRS brain imaging. Brain and Language, 121 (2), 142-155. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2011.05.003 *Petitto = Senior Author

Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2000). Raising multilingual children: Foreign language acquisition in children. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN-10: 0897897501Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2003). The multilingual mind: Questions by, for and about people living with many languages. Westport, CT:Praeger Press. ISBN-10:0897899199 Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2008). Living languages: Multilingualism across the lifespan. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN-10: 9780275999124Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2010). Applying Mind, Brain, and Education Science in the classroom. New York: Columbia University Teachers College Press. ISBN-10: 0807750336Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2011 Winter). A brief history of the science of learning: Part 1 (3500B.C.E-1970 C.E.). New Horizons for Learning Quarterly Journal, IX(1). Johns Hopkins University.Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2011 Winter). A brief history of the science of learning: Part 2 (1970s-present). New Horizons for Learning Quarterly Journal, IX(1). Johns Hopkins University. Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2011). Mind, Brain, and Education Science. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN-10: 9780393706079Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2013). Making classrooms better: 50 best practice classroom practices based on Mind, Brain, and Education science. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.Werker, J.F., Yeung, H. H., & Yoshida, K. (2012). How do infants become experts at native speech perception? Current Directions in Psychological Science. 21(4), 221-226.Yoshida, K. A., Pons, F., Maye, J., & Werker, J. F. (2010). Distributional phonetic learning at 10 months of age. Infancy, 15(4), 420-433.Yost, D.S., Sentner, S.M. & Forlenza-Bailey, A. (2000). An examination of the construct of critical reflection: Implications for teacher education programming in the 21st century. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(1), 39-49.

The author

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, PhD, is Director of the Institute for Teaching and Learning at the University of San Francisco in Quito, and author of three books on multilingualism and three books on Mind, Brain, and Education science. She specializes in translating information from neuroscience and cognitive psychology into manageable, useable knowledge for teachers and works closely with school administrators and educators around the world to analyze their needs in order to maximize the potential of all students. Tracey studied her undergraduate degrees at Boston University (BA and BS, magna cum laude), her Master’s of Education at Harvard University and her doctorate at Capella University. She is an Associate Professor at Harvard University in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and teaches a course on Mind, Brain, Health and Education and is a full professor at the Universidad San Francisco de Quito in Ecuador where she teaches Neuropsychology and courses in Education.