U.S. History to 1877 – Week 5 ProjectAfrican American Freemen

and their Contributions to the American Identity

Economy& Politics

African American Freemen - American Identity

When the end of slavery came, the distinction between former free coloreds and former slaves persisted in some societies. Because of advantages in education and experience, free people of color often provided much of the leadership for the newly freed persons, as in Haiti where Toussaint Louverture, the national leader, and several of his top generals were former free men of color.

“Similarly, in the United States, many of the African Americans elected as state and local officials during Reconstruction in the South had been free in the South before the Civil War.”(Heritage of Freedom: Free People of Color in the Americas, 1492–1900) Many educated blacks whose families had long been free in the North went to the South to work and help the freedmen. Some were elected to office.

Free People of Color

American Colonization Society, a mostly white pro-emigration organization founded in 1816 to repatriate free black people to Africa. Initially opposed to colonization efforts, Freedom's Journal denounced slavery and advocated for black people's political rights, the right to vote, and spoke out against lynchings.

Freedom's Journal provided its readers with regional, national, and international news and with news that could serve to both entertain and educate. It sought to improve conditions for the over 300,000 newly freed black men and women living in the North. The newspaper broadened readers' knowledge of the world by featuring articles on such countries as Haiti and Sierra Leone. As a paper of record, Freedom's Journal published birth, death and wedding announcements. To encourage black achievement it featured biographies of renowned black figures such as Paul Cuffee, a black Bostonian who owned a trading ship staffed by free black people, Touissant L'Ouverture and poet Phyllis Wheatley. The paper also printed school, job and housing listings.

At various times the newspaper employed between 14 to 44 agents to collect and renew subscriptions, which cost $3 per year. One of its agents, David Walker from Boston, eventually became the writer of "David Walker's Appeal," which called for slaves to rebel against their masters. Freedom's Journal was soon circulated in 11 states, the District of Columbia, Haiti, Europe, and Canada. A typical advertisement cost between 25 to 75 cents.

Russwurm became sole editor of Freedom's Journal following the resignation of Cornish in September 1827, and began to promote the colonization movement. The majority of the newspaper's readers did not support the paper's radical shift in support of colonization, and in March 1829, Freedom's Journal ceased publication. Soon after, Russwurm emigrated to the American Colonization Society of Liberia, and became governor of the Maryland Colony. Cornish returned and attempted to revive the newspaper in May 1829 under the new name "The Rights of All," but the paper folded after less than a year. Freedom's Journal's two-year existence, however, helped spawn other papers. By the start of the Civil War over 40 black-owned and operated papers had been established throughout the United States.

http://www.pbs.org/blackpress/news_bios/newbios/nwsppr/freedom/freedom.html

The Pennsylvania Abolition SocietyOrganized in 1775 as

The Pennsylvania Societyfor

Promoting the Abolition of Slavery,and for the Relief of Free Negroes

Unlawfully Held in Bondage,and for

Improving the Condition of the African Racehttp://www.paabolition.org/

Jay founded the "New-York Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves, and Protecting Such of Them as Have Been, or May be Liberated" (New York Manumission Society), and became its first president in 1785.

“The organization originally comprised Jay and a few dozen closefriends, many of whom were slave-owners at the time. The first meeting was held on January 25, 1785, at the home of John Simmons –

who had space for the nineteen men in attendance since he kept an inn. Robert Troup and Melancton Smith were appointed to draw up rules; Jay was elected President. There were 31 members, including Alexander Hamilton, at the second meeting held on February 4,.” (Chernow 214) Several of the members were Quakers.The Society formed a ways-and-means committee to deal with the difficulty that more than half of the members, including Troup and Jay, owned slaves (mostly a few domestic servants per household). The committee reported a plan for gradual emancipation: members would free slaves then younger than 28 when they reached the age of 35, slaves between 28 and 38 in seven years' time, and slaves over 45 immediately. This was voted down; and the committee dissolved.”(Chernow 215) “This society was instrumental in having a state law passed in 1785 prohibiting the sale of slaves imported into the state, and making it easy for slaveholders to manumit slaves either by a registered certificate or by will. In 1788 the purchase of slaves for removal to another state was forbidden; they were allowed trial by jury "in all capital cases;" and the earlier laws about slaves were simplified and restated. The emancipation of slaves by the Quakers was legalized in 1798. At that date, there were still about 33,000 slaves statewide.” (Nelson 237)

Few African Americans in the South received any education at all until after the Civil War. Slaves had been prohibited from being educated, and there were generally no public school system for white children, either. The

planter elite paid for private education for its own children. Legislatures of Republican freedmen and whites established public schools for the first time during Reconstruction. Many public schools in the South were

segregated from this point forward; it was a condition that freedmen agreed to in order to get agreement to establish the system there.

African American Education

Wilberforce University

The founding of the first African American college was unique as a collaboration in 1856 by the Cincinnati, Ohio Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME). They planned a college to provide classical education and teacher training for black youth. Leaders of both races made up the first board members.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilberforce_University)“The college opened for classes in 1856, and by 1858 its trustees selected Rev. Richard S. Rust as the first President.” (Talbert 264-265, 273) “By 1860 the university had more than 200 students.” (Talbert 267) “Most were from the South rather than Ohio or northern states. They were the "natural" mixed-race sons and daughters of wealthy white planters and their African-American mistresses.” (Talbert 267) “The fathers paid for the education denied their children in the South.” (Campbell 259-260) They were among the fathers who did not abandon their mixed-race children but provided them with the social capital of education and sometimes property.

Mason-Dixon Line1779, named for Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, English astronomers who surveyed (1763-

7) the disputed boundary between the colonial holdings of the Penns (Pennsylvania) and the Calverts (Maryland). It became the technical boundary between "free" and "slave" states after

1804, when the last slaveholding state above it (New Jersey) passed its abolition act. As the line between "the North" and "the South" in U.S. culture, it is attested by 1834. (Online Etymology

Dictionary)

The crest of each state is carved on the side of the stone.

https://www.google.com/search?q=freedmen%27s+bureau+images&rlz=1C1VFKB_enUS639US639&espv=2&biw=1777&bih=887&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9nuiQiazJAhWIRSYKHTksC8IQsAQIHw&dpr=0.9#imgrc=AtrkUS1b5y8t_M%3Axt herehttps://www.google.com/search?q=freedmen%27s+bureau+images&rlz=1C1VFKB_enUS639US639&espv=2&biw=1777&bih=887&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9nuiQiazJAhWIRSYKHTksC8IQsAQIHw&dpr=0.9#imgrc=59D1gRova4xi8M%3Ahttps://www.google.com/search?q=freedmen%27s+bureau+images&rlz=1C1VFKB_enUS639US639&espv=2&biw=1777&bih=887&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9nuiQiazJAhWIRSYKHTksC8IQsAQIHw&dpr=0.9#imgrc=59D1gRova4xi8M%3Ahttp://www.pbs.org/blackpress/news_bios/newbios/nwsppr/freedom/freedom.htmlhttp://www.paabolition.org/ www.virginiamemory.comhttps://www.google.com/search?q=Negro+schools+after+civil+war&biw=1777&bih=838&tbm=isch&imgil=ynM5IUSXEmKkpM%253A%253BZb9xUoJo_8poTM%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252Fwww.nathanielturnerwww.genealogybug.nethttp://www.genealogybug.net/ohio_alhn/institutions/wilberforce.htmTalbert, Horace (2000). "The Sons of Allen: Together with a Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, Ohio 1906". Documenting the South. University of North Carolina. pp. 264–265, 273. Retrieved November 27, 2015"mason-dixon-line". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. 27 Nov. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mason-dixon-line>.http://www.blackpast.org/1858-john-s-rock-i-will-sink-or-swim-my-racehttps://www.google.com/search?q=jim+crow+images&biw=1777&bih=838&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwjyr86pwbHJAhXCgj4KHcbQBPQQsAQIHA&dpr=0.9#imgrc=L5X4G_Nual5PvM%3Awww.pinterest.comhttps://www.google.com/search?q=jim+crow+images&biw=1777&bih=838&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwjyr86pwbHJAhXCgj4KHcbQBPQQsAQIHA&dpr=0.9#imgrc=L-zMkv-31vzLNM%3A

American Identity References

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

• The first free blacks (Freeman) were documented in 1662 in Northampton County, Virginia

• By the year 1860, the nation wide percentage of free blacks was around 10% (1)

• Paths to Freedom• Manumission – Release from Slavery by

a Master or Owner• Born to Free Parents• Buying their own Freedom

• A Freeman’s opportunity's and Rights varied greatly from North to South

• Some Freeman participated in the slave trade in various ways

• Owned Plantations and slaves• Worked for Plantations as organizers or

security

• Freeman played important roles in the economy of slave societies

• Worked as artisans or small retail merchants

OVERVIEW

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

FREEMAN OPPORTUNITIES• Free Blacks were drawn to larger cities where there was more

opportunity for work

• A Majority of Black Freeman were impoverished due to lack of education

• Some free Blacks entered or established successful businesses that catered to the African American community (2)

Free Blacks in the larger cities often found themselves working in service industries that did not require formal education, such as Tailors, Hairdressers and Cooks. (3)

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

FREEMAN OPPORTUNITIES (cont.)

• Where allowed by law, some African American Freeman managed to purchase land holdings for agricultural use, in some cases, becoming Plantation and Slave Owners themselves.

• Some Black land owners purchased their own family members in order to protect them, but many held slaves for the sole purpose of financial gain.

Cotton and Sugar Cane were popular cash crops for Southern Agricultural Land Ownershttp://www.landofthebrave.info/sugar-plantations.htm

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

SUCCESSFUL ENTERPRISEJack Smith- Born in Dauphin County

Pennsylvania in 1795. In 1804, he was to a Lumber Merchant

- Eventually bought his own freedom and enough lumber to open his own business for $150

- Together with his business partner William Whipper, they built one of the must successful lumber and real estate companies in Pennsylvania at the time, valued at over $100,000 per year. (4)

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

SUCCESSFUL ENTERPRISEThomas L. Jennings- Born free in New York City, 1791- First Black man to receive a Patent- While working as a Tailor, he

invented a process called Dry-Scouring, a process that would lead to todays modern Dry Cleaning.

- The Patent generated controversy as all work done by African Americans at the time were considered the property of their owners

- Thomas used his income to free the rest of his family and support many abolitionist causes. (5)

Source: Black Consumers Cooperative

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

SUCCESSFUL ENTERPRISE

Frederick Douglass- Born in 1818 in Talbot County,

Maryland- Became “Self Employed” at 20 years

old when he negotiated business terms with his Master as a ship caulker

- Eventually Fled to New Bedford, MA- Eventually became a well respected

Lecturer, Writer, Publisher and Banker

- His independent wealth and influence aided the abolitionist movement greatly. (6)

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

SUCCESSFUL ENTERPRISE

Thomas Day- Born in 1801 to free black parents in

Dinwiddie County, Virginia- Day’s workshop employed both

black and white apprentices, even as he was the sole owner and considered to be of a lessor class than his white apprentices.

- “Due to Day's status as a free black, and his unique achievements given the social and racial restrictions of the era in which he lived, he is hailed as an important figure in the history of North Carolina's African-American history and culture.” (7)

Bureau (c. 1860-66) documented to Day, North Carolina Museum of History

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

SUCCESSFUL ENTERPRISE

James Forten- Born in 1766, born free in

Philadelphia Pennsylvania- Apprenticed under a family friend,

Robert Bridges, as a sail-maker. - Forten bought the business after

Bridges retirement and turned it into the most successful sail manufacturer in Philadelphia. Forten was another man who's business acumen and ability allowed him to employ both black and white Americans under his leadership.

- He eventually became one of the wealthiest individuals or any race in Philadelphia. (8)

EconomyAfrican American Freedman

SUMMARY• African American Freedman contributed to the American

Economy in a large variety of ways, from the continuation of Plantation Style Farming, to teaching and inventing.

• The men and women who built their own independent wealth in industry played very important roles in the establishment of the formal Abolitionist movement, and used their means to become highly influential activists.

• Early Freedman inventors helped pave the way to new laws allowing African Americans to take credit for their work as their own, and to be paid accordingly.

• African American Freedman established many businesses, provided services, and built communities where other African Americans could begin to learn to thrive and be successful.

EconomyAfrican American Freeman

CITATIONS1. BOUNDLESS TEXT – FREE BLACKS IN THE SOUTH2. Berlin, Ira. Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum

South (The New Press, 1974 and 2007)3. http://www.ushistory.org/us/27d.asp - Free(?) African Americans4. http://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-1085. http://www.blackpast.org/aah/jennings-thomas-l-1791-18566. Jessie Carney Smith; Encyclopedia of African American Business,

Volume 1, Page 2407. Barfield, Rodney D.; Thomas Day: African American Furniture Maker;

2005;8. Ruth Gilbert, Bio: "James Forten", Pennsylvania Center for the Book,

Pennsylvania State University, accessed 18 April 2014

Dred Scott (pictured here) sued Eliza Sandford because Sandford would not let Scott buy his freedom even though he and his family where actually left as part of an inheritance.

The outcome“In Dred Scott v. Sandford (argued 1856 -- decided 1857), the Supreme Court ruled that Americans of African descent, whether free or slave, were not American citizens and could not sue in federal court. The Court also ruled that Congress lacked power to ban slavery in the U.S. territories. Finally, the Court declared that the rights of slave owners were constitutionally protected by the Fifth Amendment because slaves were categorized as property. (pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt)The Supreme Court verdict in the Scott case had significant political influence on people. Both the abolitionists and the Republican party denounced the ruling, which was overturned in 1865.

African American Freemen - Politics

John S. Rock “1825-1866 John Swett Rock was a pioneer African American leader and orator in the years leading up to and during the Civil War. One of America’s first black physicians and lawyers and a dedicated advocate of civil rights and self improvement, he made history as the first African American to be admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court.” (blackhistorynow.com, John S. Rock)

John Rock was born in the free state of New Jersey and his parents favored children going to school as opposed to working. He became a dentist, doctor and eventually a lawyer.John Rock became a more passionate advocate after hearing of the decision in the Dred Scott case.“Rock, a passionate abolitionist and civil rights leader, held a strong belief in the dignity and rights of all Americans. Like other abolitionists in the movement, such as George T. Downing and Robert Purvis, John Rock became a renowned public speaker and campaigned for equal rights.” (wikipedia.org, John Rock)

African American Freemen - Politics

“James Forten was born free in 1766 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, one of two children of Thomas and Margaret Forten (or Fortune). Thomas Forten was the grandson of a slave who had "freed himself." After his father died young, James Forten started working at age seven to help out his mother and sister, first as a chimney sweep and then as a grocery-store clerk. He also attended the African School, run by Quaker abolitionist Anthony Benezet, which was founded to educate for free black children. His mother insisted that he continue in school. By age nine, Forten left school to work full-time. His early years of work became a measure for progress in his life and career.” (wikipedia.org, James Forten)

James Forten was uneducated but still managed to develop a successful sail loft business. He later used his money and influence to fight for civil rights and freedom for others. “Having become well established, in his 40s Forten devoted both time and money to working for the national abolition of slavery and gaining civil rights for blacks. They were severely discriminated against in Pennsylvania and the North, and generally could not vote or serve on juries. He felt a sense of obligation to work on these issues of his community. "...in 1801, he was among the signers of a petition to the U.S. Congress calling for the abolition of the slave trade and the modification of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793” (wikipedia.org, James Forten)

African American Freemen - Politics

Speeches by Henry Highland Garnet (pictured here)influenced politicians of the time by speaking out against slavery and got the attention of political leaders such as Abraham Lincoln “On February 12, 1865, while in Washington, Garnet made history when he was chosen by President Abraham Lincoln to give a sermon before the House of Representatives—making him the first black speaker to do so” (www.biography.com/people/henry-highland-garnet-39704)

“Henry Highland Garnet was an African-American abolitionist born circa December 23, 1815, in Kent County, Maryland. Born as a slave, Garnet and his family escaped to New York when he was about 9 years old. In the 1840s, he became an abolitionist. His "Call to Rebellion" speech in 1843 encouraged slaves to free themselves by rising up against owners.” (www.biography.com/people/henry-highland-garnet-39704)

African American Freemen - Politics

“Although these slave revolts were abortive failures and historical evidence remains scarce about the overall aims and intentions of slave rebel leaders, they effectively reinforced public debate over the American slave institution and intensified abolitionist and proslavery arguments in both the North and South.” (Boundless, Resistance to Slavery)

Slave and Freemen Rebellions were a significant threat in the southern states were larger plantations owners were more physically abusive and controlling over their slave labor. “Nat Turner (October 2, 1800 – November 11, 1831) was an African-American slave who led a slave rebellion of slaves and free blacks in Southampton County, Virginia on August 21, 1831 that resulted in 60 white deaths.” (Wikipedia, Nat Turner)

African American Freemen - Politics

“At the age of 21, Cuffee refused to pay taxes because free blacks did not have the right to vote. In 1780, he petitioned the council of Bristol County, Massachusetts to end such taxation without representation. The petition was denied, but his suit was one of the influences that led the Legislature in 1783 to grant voting rights to all free male citizens of the state” (wikipedia.org, Paul Cuffee)

Cuffee became an influence in the American Colonization Society (ACS) and believed that African Americans should be able to choose between emancipation and living in America or colonizing Africa.

Paul Cuffee was an African American freemen who became a mariner by working on whaling ships and cargo ships. Cuffee fought in the revolution and was captured by the British.After he was released, he built his first small vessel and shipped cargo from the coast of Massachusetts to the islands.

African American Freemen - Politics

Captain Paul Cuffee engraving in 1812 from a drawing by Dr. John Pele of Bristol, England“He became involved in the British effort to resettle freed slaves, many of whom had moved from the US to Nova Scotia after the American Revolution, to the fledgling colony of Sierra Leone. Cuffe helped establish The Friendly Society of Sierra Leone, which provided financial support for the colony.” (wikipedia.org, Paul Cuffee)

“The American Colonization Society (ACS) was formed in 1817 to send free African-Americans to Africa as an alternative to emancipation in the United States. In 1822, the society established on the west coast of Africa a colony that in 1847 became the independent nation of Liberia. By 1867, the society had sent more than 13,000 emigrants.”(Library of Congress)

African American Freemen - Politics

“Blacks were also outspoken in print, as Freedom's Journal, the first black-owned newspaper, surfaced in 1827. This paper, as well as other early pieces written by blacks, challenged racist conceptions about the intellectual inferiority of African Americans, and added further fuel to the attack on slavery.” (Boundless, Free Blacks in the South)

Freedom’s Journal was a newspaper founded by Peter Williams , Jr (pictured here).The journal was the first U.S. paper founded by an African American.

African American Freemen - Politics

“Many women in the 19th century were involved in reform movements, particularly abolitionism. In 1831, Maria Stewart (who was African-American) began to write essays and make speeches against slavery, promoting educational and economic self-sufficiency for African-Americans. Although her career was short, she had set the stage for the African-American women speakers who followed her, including Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, Sojourner Truth, and Harriet Tubman, among others.” (Boundless, Women and Minorities and Democracy)

Free Black Women also played a role in change. “Best remembered as the first recorded American-born woman to give a public speech in the United States in 1832, Maria Stewart should also be remembered as an incredible role model for her lifelong work as a black, female feminist-abolitionist at a time and in a society largely resistant to all of these ideas and identities.” (the fbomb.org/2015/01/lost-women-of-history-maria-stewart-the-first-black-feminist-abolitionist-in-america)

Sojourner Truth also spoke to less captive audiences: “Mob Convention—September 7, 1853: At the convention, young men greeted her with "a perfect storm,” hissing and groaning. In response, Truth said, "You may hiss as much as you please, but women will get their rights anyway. You can't stop us, neither". Sojourner, like other public speakers, often adapted her speeches to how the audience was responding to her. In her speech, Sojourner speaks out for women's rights. She incorporates religious references in her speech, particularly the story of Esther. She then goes on to say that, just as women in scripture, women today are fighting for their rights. Moreover, Sojourner scolds the crowd for all their hissing and rude behavior, reminding them that God says to "Honor thy father and thy mother."” (wikipedia.org, Sojourner Truth)

Notable Free Women included Sojourner Truth “She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843. Her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became widely known during the Civil War by the title "Ain't I a Woman?” (wikipedia.org, Sojourner Truth)

African American Freemen - Politics

REFERENCES to Politics SectionBanner photohttp://www.history.com/topics/black-history/freedmens-bureauDred Scott Slide 1PhotoSource: Boundless. “Race and Opportunity.” US History to 1877. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved: November 25,2015From: https://www.boundless.com/users/282574/textbooks/us-history-to-1877-fb4da977-c737-49f0-a6b4-6898e1c23111/gender-religion-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-1800s-556/race-and-opportunity-69/race-and-opportunity-370-9028/Source: PBS.orgRetrieved: November 25,2015Link: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/antebellum/landmark_dred.htmlJohn S. Rock Slide 2Source: Wikipidia.orgRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rock_(abolitionist)#AbolitionistSource: Black History Now. comRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: http://blackhistorynow.com/john-s-rock/James Forten Slide 3Source: Wikipidia.orgRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_FortenHenry Garnet Slide 4 Source: Biography.comRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: http://www.biography.com/people/henry-highland-garnet-39704

REFERENCES Contiued:Slave Revolt Slide 5Source: Boundless. “Resistance to Slavery.” US History to 1877. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved: November 27, 2015Link:https://www.boundless.com/users/282574/textbooks/us-history-to-1877-fb4da977-c737-49f0-a6b4-6898e1c23111/gender-religion-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-1800s-556/slave-culture-and-rebellion-35/resistance-to-slavery-202-10306/Source: Wikipidia.orgRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_TurnerPaul Cuffee Slide 6 Source: Wikipidia.orgRetrieved: November 27,2015Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_CuffeeACS Slide 7 Source: Library of CongressRetrieved: November 25,2015http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african/afam002.htmlSource: Wikipidia.orgRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_CuffeeBlack Writers Slide 8Source: Boundless. “Free Blacks in the South.” US History to 1877. Boundless, 06 Nov. 2015. Retrieved: November 25, 2015 Link: https://www.boundless.com/users/282574/textbooks/us-history-to-1877-fb4da977-c737-49f0-a6b4-6898e1c23111/gender-religion-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-1800s-556/slavery-in-the-u-s-78/free-blacks-in-the-south-418-3160/

REFERENCES Continued:Free Black Woman Slide 9 Source: Boundless. “Women and Minorities and Democracy.” US History to 1877. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved: 27 Nov. 2015 Link: https://www.boundless.com/users/282574/textbooks/us-history-to-1877-fb4da977-c737-49f0-a6b4-6898e1c23111/gender-religion-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-1800s-556/women-minorities-and-democracy-562/women-and-minorities-and-democracy-389-8574/Source: The F Bomb.orgRetrieved: November 27, 2015Link: https://thefbomb.org/2015/01/lost-women-of-history-maria-stewart-the-first-black-feminist-abolitionist-in-america/Sojourner Truth Slide 10Source: Wikipidia.orgRetrieved: November 27,2015Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sojourner_Truth