WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH THE TERM

EDUCATION IS USED?

WHO SHOULD DETERMINE WHAT EDUCATION SHOULD BE?

Three dimensions in the “concept of education”

Education

General Enlightenme

nt

Sociological

Institutional

2

Sociological view of educationIdea that “education” does not only

take place in a formal institution, neither does it only mean “formal teaching or learning”.

Focuses on socialising norms and practices.

Irrespective of whether the norms are true, valid, good or worthwhile

Assumes that one will later take up expected social responsibilities.

3

The Institutional view of educationThe development of the person as a

result of institutional influences.

Believes that education only takes place in formal institutions.

That all who have gone through the same institutions are similarly “educated”

4

The general enlightenment view of education

Education beyond socialisation and formal schooling.

Education as a form of human achievementDevelopment of the mind.

Characterised by knowledge and understanding

5

Implications of understanding education as human enlightenment

That education is intrinsically valuableThe intrinsic – extrinsic distinctionConceiving education as a means to something

is different from considering education as desirable and worthwhile in itself.

Intrinsic value draws us to something as good for its own sake and not for some other ends.In this case the primary purpose of education is

the development of the mind, and the capacity to think.

6

Education involves knowledge and understanding for its own sakeThe simplest denominator of knowing may

refer to (simple) acquaintance of different objects, for instance that there are 5 people living in the second floor of my flat.

Understanding shows a deeper awareness of the connections between the different elements under consideration.

7

In general who can be considered as an educated person?One who has mastered a wide range of types

of knowledge.

More than superficial acquaintance.

Depth and breadth compliment each other in the “educated” person.Q: Is it possible to have an educated person

who has never gone to a formal school?The depth and breadth enable a person to have

a unified coherent view of life.

8

Three dimensions in the “concept of education”

Education

General Enlightenme

nt

Sociological

Institutional

9

Three dimensions in the “concept of education”

Forms of Education

General Enlighten

ment

Sociological

Institutional

10

Control of Education

Individual/liberal

Family State

Should the State control education?

(Plato’s understanding on Education)

11

Plato: On Knowledge and Ignorance

Myth of the Cave

Read excerpt of the conversation between

Plato and Glucon, pp 372-373.

Chained in a cave and facing one

direction

Only visible objects are themselves and

own shadows

Belief that no reality exists outside these.

12

“One might be released, and compelled

suddenly to stand up and turn his neck

round, and to walk towards the firelight;

all this would hurt him, and he would be

too much dazzled to see distinctly those

things whose shadows he had seen

before”

“Do you think he would be puzzled, and

believe what he saw before was more

true than what was shown to him now?”

13

“Then suppose he were

compelled to look towards

the real light, it would hurt

his eyes, and he would

escape by turning them away

to the things which he was

able to look at, and these he

would believe to be clearer

than what was being shown

to him”.

14

“Suppose, now ...that someone should

drag him thence by force, up the rough

ascent, the steep way up, and never stop

until he could drag him into the light of he

sun, would he not be distressed and

furious at being dragged; and when he

came into the light, the brilliance would fill

his eyes and he would not be able to see

even one of the things now called real?”

(Plato, 1970: 373)15

How can one understand Plato’s framework on who should control education?Understanding education is completely

dependent on one’s understanding of knowledge

16

What is the nature of knowledge?

“that the nature of knowledge is not as some say it is ... That there is not understanding in the soul, (or that) that they put it in as if they were putting sight into blind eyes”.

“this power is already in the soul of each and is the instrument by which each learns”

“this instrument must be turned round with the whole soul away from the world of becoming until it is able to endure the sight of being and the most brilliant light of being” (p.377)

17

Who can be a leader?

“ men uneducated and without experience of truth could never properly supervise a city, nor can those who are allowed to spend all their lives in education right to the end” Because one would have no direction. The second lives in the air.

18

What is the responsibility of rulers

“to compel the best natures to attain that learning which we said was the greatest, both to see the good, and ascend that ascent” (p.378).

Once people have acquired knowledge, Plato argues that they must “Be willing to ascend again to those

prisoners, and to share their troubles and their honours, whether they are worth having or not”

19

What factors influence a conception of education

Social and historical factors affect the way an education system is designed.

A conception of an ideal society is usually a precursor in designing an education system. E.g.

South Africa before and after 1994 African Traditional societies , e.g. The “Khoisan”

20

What Informs Plato’s idea on education?

A conception of education is dependent on a conception of society.

A well- ordered society should be the objective of every society.

Plato’s ideal society was made up of a proper division of labour between: The rulers/ the Philosopher King The guardians / soldiers The peasants/labourers

“Each person is to perform most competently and most efficiently the functions of the divisions to which he belongs”

21

Plato’s Social system

His imagined society has often been referred to as “a single noble lie” Quotation (Plato, 1994, p.118) That in creating us God chose to endow us

with different elements of which we have no choice. Wisdom Courage Endurance

The noble lie as a replica of Greek mythology where the political community consisted of different parts/classes

22

The implication of the noble lie

People in different groups to believe that this is the way God wants it to be, therefore little room for change.

This conception is only possible within ideals of transcendence.

That such a society will be orderly and organized.

Assumes that all should submit to the rule of the guardians.

23

Hence education was understood as having the primary function cultivate unity within society.

This is in line with the idea that God gave us two corresponding areas of expertise Culture (gentle) Physical (aggressive) exercise.

The guardians have both, therefore their education should cultural studies for the mind and physical exercise for the body

24

What values should be inculcated in Plato’s Educational community

Cultural training/ training of the mind: Bravery and courage Endurance of hardship and death . Not prone to grief and laughter. Rate honesty highly Encourage self-discipline and obedience

25

Physical training Cultural training produces self-

discipline. This in turn produces physical goodness Physical education has two faces:

brutality and softness but a harmony between them is admirable.

26

What is the relevance of Plato’s conception to modern education?

The principles of division of labour for economic development

Education plays an important role in designing appropriate training programmes for various services in society, e.g. in serving the economy.

Education plays a crucial role in the reconstruction of the state, the social and political arenas of life.

27

Central in Plato’s ideas on Education

Plato was more concerned with constructing an image of society in which all parts worked in harmony

The harmonious relationship between the part was understood as Justice and Virtue.

Justice is the concurrent realisation of individual good and social good Refer to the soul in me. Hence an individual’s life is good only when it

serves its social purpose.28

What then is the Aim of Education in Plato’s format?

To cultivate unity is society by teaching all educable children what the sole good life is for them.

To inculcate in people a desire to pursue the good life above all inferior ones

29

Why state control of Education?

State authority is necessary for establishing the harmony between individual virtue and social justice.

By the nature of the state (one ruled by a philosopher King), Plato assume: The state cannot choose a form of Education

that is rationally and morally inferior. State loses its authority if it does not act

on the basis of a greater wisdom and the good of its citizens.

30

What are the problems in Plato’s conception?

Can the state legitimately claim to have a correct conception of the good for everyone?

What is the nature of this objective good for everyone?

What should happen in the event that families or groups of families refuse to give up power to let the state control education?

To what extent can state control of education remove sectarianism?

31

FAMILY CONTROL OF EDUCATION (John Locke)

Our state of nature is a condition

upon which we set our social systems.

Education is one of the systems we

naturally put in place.

The question on who controls what is

dependent on power is understood

with that state of nature.32

What is our natural state?

State of perfect freedom

Where people act and dispose off their own

possessions and persons as they think fit.

Action within the bounds of the law of

nature.

Hence people in this state do not have to

ask permission to act or depend on the will

of others to arrange matters on their behalf.33

Characteristics of the state of nature

Equality:

All power and jurisdiction is reciprocal

No one has more power and jurisdiction

than another.

Human beings are creatures

belonging to the same species and

rank and born indiscriminately with

all the same natural advantages and

faculties.

34

In the state of Nature:

They have no relationship of

subordination or subjection unless God

(the lord and master of them all) had

clearly set one person above another and

conferred on him an undoubted right to

dominion and sovereignty (Two Treatises

On Government: A Translation Into Modern

English, ISR/Google Books, 2009, page 70).35

Why is a state of nature a state of perfect freedom?

Individual is capable to provide own

support and preservation.

We can all govern our actions

according to the dictates of the Law

of Reason which God had implanted

in him. 36

Why is a state of nature a state of equality?

Power and jurisdiction is reciprocal

No relationship of subordination or

subjection

We are all bound by a law of nature

We are under no obligation to obey one

another but are each themselves judge

of what the Law of nature requires.37

The religious Influences in Locke’s thinking

We are capable of governing ourselves

because God implanted in us Reason.

Although Adam and Eve were in this state

of freedom and equality, we are

consequently born differently.

Descendants of Adam and Eve enter the

world through another route. i.e. Of

Natural Birth. 38

Implications of natural birth of the state of human beings

Imperfect state

Governed by civil law

We are born infants, weak and

helpless.

Born without knowledge and

understanding.

Hence we are born as EMPTY SLATES 39

Why parental control of education?

To supply the defects of this imperfect state,

Adam and Eve, and after them all parents

were, by law of nature under an obligation to

preserve, nourish and educate their Children.

There all educational authority should be in

the hands of parents and not the state nor

the individual person who is to be educated.

40

Restating Parental Power and parent/child

relationship argument

Children are not born in this state of

equality,

Because they are born helpless and fragile.

Nevertheless they are born to it (i.e. To

the state of equality or they can reach

equality.

The can only attain equality at maturity.41

Hence infants remain in an imperfect

state of childhood that is weak and

helpless, until the improvement of

growth and age has removed it.

42

Powers & Expectations on parents

To preserve, nourish and educate their children.

To take care of their off-spring during the

imperfect state of childhood.

Hence parental rule and jurisdiction is a temporary

one.

Consequently, they have power to command

and chastise their children and not to use their

power with too much rigour, but with

tenderness and affection 43

Obligations on the child

To honour their parents

Obeying and submitting to parental

power/authority.

The parent-child relationship is

properly characterised by power,

submission and obedience

44

Potential problems in Locke’s understanding of education

Locke’s educational format breeds

sectarianism – localized and isolated

forms of knowledge and education

become the norm.

These consequently have a better

chance of creating and promoting forms

of inequalities within a nation. 45

The Liberal control of education

46

On individualism and liberty

Bentham and MillBentham’s concern

◦How can the principle of utility clarify the purpose and objectives of law?

◦What is the justification for punishment?

Mill’s concern◦Matters of human liberty◦When is it appropriate for the government to interfere with the individual’s freedom? 47

Utilitarianism: the origins of Mill’s ideasMill was much concerned with how

society should be governed beyond the greatest happiness principle.

In part, the greatest happiness principle regulated how individuals and government could interact.

Bentham put his faith in democracy as the great cure for social ills◦This assumed a convergence between the wishes of the rulers and ruled.

48

Mill’s differenceWarned of the inherent

dangers of a democracy◦What is often paraded as the will of the people is often the will of the majority only.

◦It is possible for a majority to oppress the minority.

Democracy involves a tyranny of opinion◦This danger is as great as oppression itself. 49

What were Mill’s beliefs?

Even in a democracy it is critical to safeguard against the forces that would deny people their free and full development.

Hence Mill’s concern was on preserving liberty by setting limits to the actions of government.

50

“The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of

their number is self-protection”.

... The only purpose for which power can be rightly exercised over any member of a civilized

community, against his/her will, is to prevent harm to others”

51

Mill’s thoughts on the limits of government action in general

Government can have a legitimate role but no government should interfere with its subjects:

1. When the actions can be done better by private persons.

2. When it is desirable for the individual to do it for their own development and education, even if government could do a better job.

3. When there is a danger that government can accrue too much power.

52

On liberty, individualism and Human natureEach individual person is entitled to

pursue his/her happiness in his/her own way.

The realm of ideas entitles people to express their thoughts and beliefs freely.

Truth is quickly discovered when opportunity is given to refute falsehoods.

Knowing the truth is a precondition for developing the full possibilities of human nature.

53

Even if the individuals cannot perform a task as well as the government, they should be allowed to do the task anyway. ◦To broaden the individuals' knowledge and bring some new perspective to issues – as a means to their own mental education.

◦To strengthen their active faculties, exercising their judgement, and giving them a familiar knowledge of the subjects with which they are thus left to deal with (p. 109)

54

What is the ideal goal of a person?

Any condition of human affairs should be in such a way that it enables human beings to be the best they can possibly be.

Governments are not best placed to make people realise their best natures.

A person cannot be subjected to any power other than oneself except to prevent harm to oneself.

55

The two principles at the centre of Mill’s philosophy

The Principle of liberty

◦ a person should have the right to act as

they wish as long as the negative

consequences of such actions are only

felt by that person.

◦ there is no one so fit to conduct any

business, or to determine how or by

whom it shall be conducted, as those

who are personally interested in it.

56

Each one of us has the free will

and potential to develop similarly.

Therefore no guardians nor

parents are required.

57

The Harm principle

◦if a person's act is not self-

regarding and adversely affects

others, society should hold the

agent responsible for his/her

actions and take the necessary

step to punish them, be it in a

courtroom or a social setting –

legal or social circles. 58

The role of governmentGovernment should be centralized and

serve in an advisory capacity to localities.

Its political leaders would be accountable to the citizenry.

Ensure a maximal degree of electorates’ power and control over the representatives. ◦“the worst thing for a government to do is

to make its constituency diminutive (very small) and reliant”, for this passive and ineffectual behavior will breed no great accomplishments or goals for the state.

59

Government should have the power of prevention, just the right to warn and punish its citizens

In the realm of the marketplace, Mill also thinks that giving the government the right to forbid the sale of potentially dangerous items is giving the government too much power over individuals' lives.

60

On items such as poison, Mill asserts that a person could have ill or good motivations in its purchase and that it is not the government's place to assume that there are evil motives.

However, dangerous products should be labelled as such, giving the buyer the knowledge they need to make a rational decision, and buyers should be required their personal.

61

Why is Mill’s conception Individual control of Education?Power of individuals to REASON

Capability to see OPTIONS in life

Acting on our option/choice is equivalent to ACTING IN FREEDOM

62

Implications on EducationChoice and neutrality are central

in designing education.For the sake of equality and

neutrality, knowledge & its testing should be confined to facts and positive science.

Educational experts are best placed to deliver this kind of education.

Bias has no place in designing curriculum.

63

How can Mill’s suggestions be enforced?Common curriculum and

examinations from an early stage in life.

Punishing parents when children fail to meet the minimum numeracy and literacy levels.

Examinations confined to facts and positive science.

Being examined on controversial issues as voluntary.

64

Some unresolved issues in Mill’s proposalCan a full educational system be

neutral?Is it possible to create unbiased

forms of freedom in people? To what extent?

If neutral teaching is possible, can it inform one in developing rational choice (the objective end of individual control of education)?

Does individual choice necessarily entail a dichotomy with state and family ideals of education?

65

DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION

66

Some of Gutmann’s key thoughts on education

“Public schools are the only places

where the cultivation of democratic

culture can take place”.

“Schools are the best places to

develop democratic character in a

country.”

General conception of what education is and is

for

Pla

to’s

sta

te

con

trol

Family

control

68

Democratic Education

Individual

/liberal control

Gutmann’s central ideas on democratic education A conception of social goods is primarily a

moral principle that can inform one of what

is important in society.

Education is designed in such a way that it

leads in the creation of social primary goods

(such as good health, general human

wellbeing).

◦ Although some think that education is only

concerned with the creation of private goods

(e.g. Buying nice cars)

How can education lead in creating social primary

goods? Central principle in democratic education: The

principle of deliberation about socially useful

ends.

Education should encourage deliberation about

what is individually and socially important.

Hence ultimate end/goal or aim of education: To

create choice and neutrality among competing

conceptions of the good life.

Major assumptions in Gutmann’s understanding

of education Neither state nor family can provide adequate

foundations for educational authority on its own.

Proposes educational neutrality: where both state

and family have a role to play but have no control

over the system.

This implies:

◦ Recognition that a child’s good does not only include

individual freedom of choice .

◦ But also identification with and participation in the

social good (family & politics of society).

Central features in Gutmann’s democratic education

Non-repression

Non-discrimination

Non-repressionSecures the freedoms of individuals to

deliberate rationally on different but preferred

forms of life,

All people to be included in deliberations on

matters affecting them,

No one can stop anyone in engaging in healthy

and critical debates affecting life.

Pre-selection of issues for public discussion is

out of place.

Non-discriminationPeople should not be

discriminated on grounds that are not relevant.

All educable children should be educated adequately for them to participate as citizens in shaping the future structure of their society.

Gutmann proposes a shared form of educational authority between the state, parents and the individual or professionals.

Major problem:◦Although the position is foundational, it is not substantive enough for complex democratic cultures

What then should the aims of education in a democracy promote?

Education should aim to develop:

◦Mutuality

◦Tolerance and active concern for others

◦Open mindedness

◦Commitment and responsibility

◦In turn this creates supportive, sharing

and communicative communities