CHAPTER 1What is Geography?

GEOGRAPHY

Comes from Greek word, Geographia Earth description

What do geographers study? Describe earth’s physical features Describe human features Describe interactions of people, places, and

environments

WORLD IN SPATIAL TERMS• Location

– Specific place on the earth• Absolute location

– Exact spot where a place is found on the globe• Relative location

– Most people locate a place in relation to other places• i.e. New Orleans is located NEAR the mouth of the Mississippi River

– This can be used to help one orient oneself in space and develop an awareness of the world around you

• Hemispheres– Equator

• Line circling the earth midway between the North and South poles• Divides Earth into north and south hemispheres

– Prime Meridian (aka the Meridian of Greenwich)• Runs through Greenwich, England• Divides Earth into East and West

• Longitude and Latitude lines cross one another to form the grid system (look at map)

PLACES AND REGIONS• Place

– A particular space with physical and human meaning• Every place has unique characteristics that are determined by the surrounding

and the people who live there• Region

– Area united by specific factors– Physical or human factors

– Soil type, vegetation, river systems, climate– Language, culture, customs

– Are used to interpret earth’s complexity• Formal/Uniform Region

– Defined by a common characteristic• Corn Belt (Iowa-Illinois, corn is a major crop)

• Functional Region– A Central place and the surrounding area linked to it

– i.e. Metropolitan areas like Los Angeles and Tokyo– Ports, such as Laredo

• Perceptual Region– Defined by popular feelings and images rather than by objective data

– i.e. Heartland of America/The West/The North East– Implies that this is the central area in which values are believed to

predominate

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS Physical Systems

Natural phenomenon can shape the earth’s surface Physical features interact with plant and animal life to create, support,

or change ecosystems Ecosystems are communities of plants and animals that depend one each

other and their surroundings for survival Human Systems

People shape the world There is constant MOVEMENT of people, goods, and ideas People compete or cooperate to change or control various aspects of the

earth to meet their needs Food crops, man-made lakes, dams, etc.

Human-environment interaction Study of the interrelationship between people and their physical

environment People use and change their environment Physical environment affects human activities

Mountains and deserts pose barriers to humans Do humans change the environment, or does the environment cause

humans to change?

BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY Geographers divide their subject area into different

branches to make their work easier Physical Geography

Focuses on physical features Climate, land, water, plants, and animal life in terms of their

relationships to one another and humans Human Geography (aka Cultural Geography)

Focuses on human activities and their relationship to the cultural and physical environments Political, economic, cultural factors

Population density, urban development, economic production, ethnicity

Sub-branches include Meteorology

Study of weather and weather forecasting Historical geography

Study of places and human activities over time

RESEARCH METHODS Direct Observation

Aerial photographs and satellite images i.e. Using images to see how air pollution affects forests

Mapping Many geographic findings can be shown on maps better than they can be

explained in text Cartography

Study of maps and map-making Interviewing

Geographers must go beyond observation Geographers might want to find out

How people’s beliefs and attitudes have led to changes in the physical environment A sample of the community of interest is selected to represent the entire

population Statistics

Statistical methods are used to test data This helps geographers analyze findings to find patterns and relationships

between different variables i.e. Muslim immigration to France

Technology Satellites and computers are important in gathering data about the earth’s

environment This has made cartography easier

GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER SUBJECTS History and Government

History is used to help geographers understand the differences between the past and present i.e. Difference between colonial Boston, MA, and current day

Boston, MA Government is used to help one understand how people in

different places are governed and how political boundaries have formed and changed

Culture Sociology and anthropology is used to examine people’s way

in different parts of the world Economics

Locations of resources affect the ways people make, transport, and use goods

Locations are chosen for various economic activities Farming, mining, manufacturing

CHAPTER 2The Earth

SOLAR SYSTEM Sun is the center of the solar system Sun’s mass creates gravity Solar System also consists of planets (8)

Inner planets Mercury Venus Earth

5th largest Mars

Outer planets Jupiter

Largest planet Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto (recently demoted to a dwarf planet)

All planets but Mercury and Venus have moons, smaller spheres, or satellites

Terrestrial planets have solid, rocky crusts Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

Gas giant planets are much more gaseous and less dense than terrestrial planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

ASTEROIDS, COMETS, AND METEOROIDS There are other objects in the solar system

Asteroids Small, irregularly shaped, planet like objects

Found mainly between the asteroid belt region which lies between Mars and Jupiter

Comets Made of icy dust particles and frozen gas Look like bright balls of fire with long, feathery tails

Meteoroids Pieces of space debris

Usually chunks of rock and iron Friction usually burns them up when they enter earth’s

atmosphere Meteoroids that collide with earth are meteorites

Can affect the landscape by leaving a crater

EARTH Hydrosphere

Composed of oceans, lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water Covers 70 % of earth

Lithosphere This is composed of land, including continents and

islands, ocean basins, and land beneath ocean 30 % of earth is covered by land

Atmosphere Layer of gas extending about 1,000 miles above the

surface 78% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen 1% other gases

Biosphere The part of earth that supports life

LANDFORMS Four major landforms

Mountains, hills, plateaus, plains These usually contain rivers, lakes, and streams

Most visible major landforms are continents Australia and Antarctica

Stand alone Europe and Asia

Parts of one huge landmass called Eurasia North America and South America

Connected by the Isthmus of Panama, a narrow neck of land

Africa Mount Everest

The highest point on earth, found in Asia Dead Sea shore

Lowest dry land point

EARTH’S STRUCTURE Surface of the earth has been in slow, constant

motion Wind and water can change surface of the earth Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions originate

deep within the earth Earth is composed of 3 layers

Core Inner Core

Iron and nickel under enormous pressure Outer Core

Band of iron and nickel surrounding inner core Mantle

Thick layer of hot, dense rock and various elements (oxygen, iron, etc.)

Crust Rocky shell that forms the earth’s surface

PLATE MOVEMENT

Scientists believe that all land masses were once combined Pangaea

This broke off into smaller continents, drifted away, and recombined in some places

Continental Drift Theory that continents were once joined and DRIFTed

apart This could have caused the many mountain ranges

Plate Tectonics Describes activities of continental drift and magma

flow which created many of the earth’s physical features

INTERNAL FORCES OF CHANGE Colliding and Spreading Plates

Subduction can create mountains Heavier sea plate dives beneath the lighter continental

plate The Andes in South America formed like this

Folds and Faults Squeezing the earth’s surface until it buckles can

create folds, which are bends, in layers of rock Sometimes they create faults, which are cracks

Earthquakes Formed by the sudden, violent movements of plates Ring of fire is one of the earth’s most earthquake-

prone zone which is found in the Pacific Ocean Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanoes are mountains formed by lava Usually formed along plate boundaries

EXTERNAL FORCES OF CHANGE Surface can be changed by various elements Weathering

Physical weathering Large masses of rock are physically broken into smaller pieces

Chemical weathering the chemical makeup of rocks can change, whereby the minerals of the rock

are changed or combined with new elements Water with carbon dioxide in air dissolves certain types of rock, such as

limestone Erosion

The wearing away of the earth’s surface by wind, glaciers, and water Wind Erosion

Involves the movement of dust, sand, and soil from one place to another Plants help protect against wind erosion

Glacial Erosion Glaciers pick up rocks and soil in their path, changing landscapes, destroying

forests, and cutting out valleys Water Erosion

Fast-moving water, such as rain, rivers, streams, and oceans cause erosion As water flows, water cuts into the land

This usually first forms a gully, then a v shaped valley Grand Canyon in Colorado

EARTH AND WATER

Total amount of water does not change, but it’s always moving

Water cycle Sun’s heat causes evaporation

The changing of liquid water into vapor, or gas Condensation

As the air cools, excess water vapor changes into liquid water

Precipitation After the vapor is changed into water, it is released as

rain, snow, or sleet, depending on the air temperature and wind conditions

SALT WATER VS FRESH WATER Fresh water makes up only a small percentage of

the earth’s water Salt water

Oceans Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic

Seas, Gulfs, Bays Smaller than oceans and are usually partially enclosed by

land Fresh Water

Makes up only about 3 % of earth’s water Lakes, streams, rivers

Most lakes contain freshwater, but those that used to be ancient seas will contain salt water (Utah’s Great Salt Lake)

Groundwater Freshwater that lies beneath the earth’s surface Wells and springs tap into groundwater Aquifers are underground porous rock layers that usually

contain water

CHAPTER 3Climates of the Earth

CLIMATES OF THE EARTH Weather

Condition of the atmosphere in one place during a limited time period

Looking outside to see if it’s raining or sunny Climate

Term used for weather patterns that an area typically experiences over a long period of time

People living in Seattle, WA usually carry an umbrella because the Seattle has a wet climate

Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23 ½ degrees The Axis is an imaginary line running from the North Pole to the

South Pole through the planet’s center This causes variations in sunlight

This tilt affect temperature Temperature is how hot or cold a place is Most common scales for measuring temperature are Fahrenheit

and Celsius Earth makes one complete rotation every 24 hours,

rotating from west to east

THE EARTH Earth also experiences a revolution

Revolutions take 365, whereby it orbits around the sun The seasons are reversed north and south of the equator

When it’s summer in the north, it’s winter in the south Earth experiences an equinox

The night is normally as long as the day during the equinox

March 21 Tropic of Cancer

North-most point to receive direct sun rays, usually around June 21

This also leads to the longest day of sunlight north Known as the Summer SOLstice (sol = sun)

Tropic of Capricorn South-most point to receive direct sun rays, usually

around December 22 This leads to the shortest day of sunlight in the north

Known as the Winter Solstice

THE EARTH Poles

For 6 months, one pole is tilted towards the sun and receives continuous sunlight, while the other receives little or no sunlight

Greenhouse Effect Only part of the sun’s radiation passes through the

earth’s atmosphere Greenhouse gasses warm the earth and makes it

possible for plants to grow Water vapor and carbon dioxide

However, carbon dioxide has risen rapidly due to the burning of fossil fuels, which has led to a rise in global temperatures known as global warming

Without the greenhouse effect, the earth would be too cold

LATITUDE AND CLIMATE Earth-sun relationship is important Low Latitude

Are between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn This includes the equator Portions of this area receive direct rays of the sun year-round

High Latitudes Consist the world’s polar areas For about 6 months each, these regions experience either

continuous, but indirect, sunlight, OR twilight Mid-Latitudes

Area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle as well as the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle

These experience dramatic climate differences Elevation and Climate

Latitude elevations affect climate Earth’s atmosphere thins as altitude increases

Thinner air retains less heat Places on mountaintops are cooler than lowlands

WIND AND OCEAN CURRENTS Wind Patterns

Prevailing winds Winds that blow in fairly constant patterns These directions are determined by latitude

Coriolis effect Effect that causes prevailing winds to blow diagonally rather than along strict north-south or east-west lines

Horse Latitudes At the equator, there is a nearly windless band called the DOLDRUMS 2 other similar bands can be found just north of the Tropic of Cancer and just south of the Tropic

of Capricorn Ocean Currents

Ocean currents affect climate in the coastal lands Cold oceans cool the lands they pass, while warm currents bring warmer temperatures Cold water comes from the polar areas, while warm water comes from the tropics

El Nino Periodic reversal of the pattern of ocean currents and water temperatures in the mid-Pacific

region Does not occur every year, however it has become more frequent This causes increased precipitation along the coasts of North and South America

LANDFORMS AND CLIMATE Physical features can also cause climate Large bodies of water are slower to heat and to cool than land Water temperatures are more uniform than land temperatures Coastal lands receive less changeable weather Mountain ranges influence precipitation and affect climate

Windward side Side of the mountain facing wind Receives precipitation

Leeward side Warmer and dryer side of the mountain Receives rain shadow

A light precipitation effect

CLIMATE REGIONS Natural vegetation

Plant life that grows in an area where the natural environment is unchanged by human activity

This is affected by climate regions Climate regions

Tropical Climates Found near low latitudes Usually hot and wet throughout the year Wildlife is abundant and there’s lush vegetation

Dry Climates Desert Climates

Desert and Steppe climate are subcategories Sparse plant and animal life Occurs in around 1/5th of the earth’s land area

Steppe Climates Usually borders desert Dry and treeless grasslands

CLIMATE REGIONS Mid-Latitude Climates

Marine West Coast Pacific coast of NA, much of Europe Cool summers and damp winters

Mediterranean Around the Mediterranean Sea, Southern California Mild, rainy winters and hot, sunny summers

Humid Subtropical South Eastern US and parts of South America Mild winters and nearly year-round rain

Humid Continental Northeastern China, southern Canada, western Russia Farther north one travels, the longer and more severe are the snowy winters and the shorter and

cooler are the summers

High Latitude Climates Normally freezing temperatures Summers are short and cool, winters are bitterly cold, with permafrost, or frozen

subsoil Highlands Climates

Determined by elevation The higher the elevation, the cooler the temperatures are

CLIMATIC CHANGES Climate changes over time During the last 1 to 2 million years, the earth has

gone through more than 4 ice ages Human interaction with environment affects

climate Burning fossil fuels releases gases and acid that can

fall in the form of rain or snow Smog

Visible chemical haze Endangers people’s lives

CHAPTER 4World Population

POPULATION GROWTH On 2003 there were 6.2 billion people on earth Population of earth more than doubled between 1800 and 1950 Population grows when birthrates pass death rates Population growth occurs at different rates in various parts of the world Improved health care and food abundance has brought down death rate Many industrialized countries also experience Zero population growth

When the birthrate and death rate are equal Many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latina America experience high birthrates Rapid population grown can present many challenges

Food production Lack of resources Most people are young and cannot contribute to the production of food and services

Negative Population Growth Death rate exceeds birthrate

Germany and Hungary This has economic consequences

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Population Distribution

The pattern of human settlement There is an uneven distribution

Most of the earth’s land is inhospitable High mountain peaks, frozen tundra, barren deserts

Most people live where the soil is fertile, water is available, and climate is not extreme

Asia contains more than 60% of world’s population Many people live in metropolitan/urban areas Geographers check Population Density to figure out how crowded an

area is This is determined by dividing the total population of the country by its total

land area The average number of people living on a square mile or kilometer Canada has low population density, while Bangladesh has one of the highest

POPULATION MOVEMENT Migration

Movement of people from place to place Many people moved from rural areas to suburb/city areas

Urbanization Growth of city populations brought by migration Caused by the desire of rural people to find jobs About half of the world’s people live in cities

Some people also immigrate to other countries Immigrants

Some people flee from their countries due to wars and other problems Refugees

CULTURE Culture

Way of life of a group of people who share similar beliefs and customs Language

Key element of culture Used to communicate and pass on cultural values One of the strongest unifying force of one’s culture Linguists

Study languages Religion

Enables people to find a sense of identity Influences aspects of daily life and moral values Major religions

Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam

CULTURE Social Groups

Family is normally the most important group Ethnic group

Made up of people who share a common language, history, place of origin, or combination of elements

Government Government maintains order within country Provides protection from outside dangers Supplies people with services

Economic Activities Some cultures rely on farming, industry, or service to make profits Different regions utilize natural resources differently

Culture Regions Includes many different countries that have certain common traits

North America and Canada, Latin America, Europe, Middle East and Northern Africa

CULTURAL CHANGE Cultural diffusion

The process of spreading new knowledge and skills from one culture to another

Agricultural revolution The shift from gathering food to producing food Earliest humans were nomads

No fixed homes and moved from place to place Many nomads settled in river valleys and on fertile plains as

the earth warmed (10,000 years ago) They then became farmers and settled in permanent villages

CULTURAL CHANGE Culture Hearths

Origins of the first civilizations Places include Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, China, Mexico All emerged from farming settlements with mild climate and fertile lands near rivers or

sources of water Specialization and Civilization

Surplus of food allowed the rise of cities and civilization More food meant people could develop other ways of living This led to the rise of technology

Metalworking and shipbuilding spurred long-distance trade Wealth from trade led to rise of cities

Cultural contact Contact with other civilizations promoted change of ideas and practices Immigration has fostered cultural diffusion

Industrial and Information Revolution New production methods changed economies due to the production of quicker and

cheaper goods Industrial revolution led to social changes Computers have increased the access to information

THE GOVERNMENT Levels of government

Unitary System All key powers to the central government

France, United Kingdom Federal System

Divides power between national government and state governments United States, Brazil, Australia

Types of government Autocracy

Oldest and one of the most common forms of government One person rule Nazi Germany Monarchy

King or queen exercises absolute power Saudi Arabia

Oligarchy Small group of people holds the power Governments of Communist countries like China Derives power from wealth, military power, social position, and religion

Democracy Leaders rule with consent of the citizens Comes from Greek Demos Kratia meaning “The people rule” Countries have representative democracies United States, France, United Kingdom (Constitutional Monarchy)

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS Traditional Economy

Habit and custom determine the rules for all economic activity Individuals are not free to make decisions based on what they would like to have Exists in very few parts of the world

Market Economy Individuals and private groups make decisions about what to produce Based on Free Enterprise

Idea that private individuals or groups have the right to own property or businesses to make profit with LIMITED government interference

Mixed market economy Government supports and regulates free enterprise through decisions that affect the market place

Command Economy Government owns or directs means of production Citizens have no voice in how taxes are spent Communism

Requires strict government control