Types of Accounting Accounting is a vast and dynamic profession and is constantly adapting itself to the specific and varying needs of its users. Over the past few decades, accountancy has branched out into different types of accounting to cater for the diversity of needs of its users. Main types of accounting are as follows:

1. Financial 2. Management 3. Governmental 4. Tax 5. Forensic 6. Project 7. Social

Financial Accounting, or financial reporting, is the process of producing information for external use usually in the form of financial statements. Financial Statements reflect an entity's past performance and current position based on a set of standards and guidelines known as GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles). GAAP refers to the standard framework of guideline for financial accounting used in any given jurisdiction. This generally includes accounting standards (e.g. International Financial Reporting Standards), accounting conventions, and rules and regulations that accountants must follow in the preparation of the financial statements. Management Accounting produces information primarily for internal use by the company's management. The information produced is generally more detailed than that produced for external use to enable effective organization control and the fulfillment of the strategic aims and objectives of the entity. Information may be in the form budgets and forecasts, enabling an enterprise to plan effectively for its future or may include an assessment based on its past performance and results. The form and content of any report produced in the process is purely upon management's discretion. Cost accounting is a branch of management accounting and involves the application of various techniques to monitor and control costs. Its application is more suited to manufacturing concerns. Governmental Accounting, also known as public accounting or federal accounting, refers to the type of accounting information system used in the public sector. This is a slight deviation from the financial accounting system used in the private sector. The need to have a separate accounting system for the public sector arises because of the different aims and objectives of the state owned and privately owned institutions. Governmental accounting ensures the financial position and performance of the public sector institutions are set in budgetary context since financial constraints are often a major concern of many governments. Separate rules are followed in many jurisdictions to account for the transactions and events of public entities. Tax Accounting refers to accounting for the tax related matters. It is governed by the tax rules prescribed by the tax laws of a jurisdiction. Often these rules are different from the rules that govern the preparation of financial statements for public use (i.e. GAAP). Tax accountants therefore adjust the financial statements prepared under financial accounting principles to account for the differences with rules prescribed by the tax laws. Information is then used by tax professionals to estimate tax l iability of a company and for tax planning purposes. Forensic Accounting is the use of accounting, auditing and investigative techniques in cases of litigation or disputes. Forensic accountants act as expert witnesses in courts of law in civil and criminal disputes that require an assessment of the financial effects of a loss or the detection of a financial fraud. Common litigations where forensic accountants are hired include insurance claims, personal injury

claims, suspected fraud and claims of professional negligence in a financial matter (e.g. business valuation). Project Accounting refers to the use of accounting system to track the financial progress of a project through frequent financial reports. Project accounting is a vital component of project management. It is a specialized branch of management accounting with a prime focus on ensuring the financial success of company projects such as the launch of a new product. Project accounting can be a source of competitive advantage for project-oriented businesses such as construction firms. Social Accounting, also known as Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting and Sustainability Accounting, refers to the process of reporting implications of an organization's activities on its ecological and social environment. Social Accounting is primarily reported in the form of Environmental Reports accompanying the annual reports of companies. Social Accounting is still in the early stages of development and is considered to be a response to the growing environmental consciousness amongst the public at large.

Definition - What are Financial Statements? Financial Statements represent a formal record of the financial activities of an entity. These are written reports that quantify the financial

strength, performance and liquidity of a company. Financial Statements reflect the financial effects of business transactions and events on the entity.

Four Types of Financial Statements

The four main types of financial statements are:

1. Statement of Financial Position Statement of Financial Position, also known as the Balance Sheet, presents the financial position of an entity at a given date. It is

comprised of the following three elements:

Assets: Something a business owns or controls (e.g. cash, inventory, plant and machinery, etc)

Liabilities: Something a business owes to someone (e.g. creditors, bank loans, etc)

Equity: What the business owes to its owners. This represents the amount of capital that remains in the business after its assets are used to pay off its outstanding liabilities. Equity therefore represents the difference between the assets and liabil ities.

View detailed explanation and Example of Statement of Financial Position

2. Income Statement Income Statement, also known as the Profit and Loss Statement, reports the company's financial performance in terms of net

profit or loss over a specified period. Income Statement is composed of the following two elements:

Income: What the business has earned over a period (e.g. sales revenue, dividend income, etc)

Expense: The cost incurred by the business over a period (e.g. salaries and wages, depreciation, rental charges, etc) Net profit or loss is arrived by deducting expenses from income.

View detailed explanation and Example of Income Statement

3. Cash Flow Statement

Cash Flow Statement, presents the movement in cash and bank balances over a period. The movement in cash flows is classified into the following segments:

Operating Activities: Represents the cash flow from primary activities of a business.

Investing Activities: Represents cash flow from the purchase and sale of assets other than inventories (e.g. purchase of a factory plant)

Financing Activities: Represents cash flow generated or spent on raising and repaying share capital and debt together with th e payments of interest and dividends.

View detailed explanation and Example of Cash Flow Statement

4. Statement of Changes in Equity

Statement of Changes in Equity, also known as the Statement of Retained Earnings, details the movement in owners' equity over a period. The movement in owners' equity is derived from the following components:

Net Profit or loss during the period as reported in the income statement

Share capital issued or repaid during the period

Dividend payments

Gains or losses recognized directly in equity (e.g. revaluation surpluses)

Effects of a change in accounting policy or correction of accounting error

Income Statement | Profit & Loss Account Definition

Income Statement, also known as Profit & Loss Account, is a report of income, expenses and the resulting profit or loss earned during an accounting period.

Topic contents:

1. Definition 2. Example

3. Basis of preparation 4. Components

5. Purpose & Use 6. Template

Example

Following is an il lustrative example of an Income Statement prepared in accordance with the format prescribed by IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements.

Income Statement for the Year Ended 31st December 2013

Notes

2013 2012

USD USD

Revenue 16 120,000 100,000

Cost of Sales 17 (65,000) (55,000)

Gross Profit

55,000 45,000

Other Income 18 17,000 12,000

Distribution Cost 19 (10,000) (8,000)

Administrative Expenses 20 (18,000) (16,000)

Other Expenses 21 (3,000) (2,000)

Finance Charges 22 (1,000) (1,000)

(15,000) (15,000)

Profit before tax

40,000 30,000

Income tax 23 (12,000) (9,000)

Net Profit

28,000 21,000

Basis of preparation

Income statement is prepared on the accruals basis of accounting.

This means that income (including revenue) is recognized when it isearned rather than when receipts are realized (although in many instances income may be earned and received in the same accounting period).

Conversely, expenses are recognized in the income statement when they are incurredeven if they are paid for in the previous or subsequent accounting periods.

Income statement does not report transactions with the owners of an entity. Hence, dividends paid to ordinary shareholders are not presented as an expense in the income statement and proceeds from the issuance of

shares is not recognized as an income. Transactions between the entity and its owners are accounted for separately in the statement of changes in equity.

Components

Income statement comprises of the following main elements:

Revenue

Revenue includes income earned from the principal activities of an entity. So for example, in case of a manufacturer of elect ronic appliances, revenue will comprise of the sales from electronic appliance business. Conversely, if the same manufacturer earns interest on its bank

account, it shall not be classified as revenue but as other income.

Cost of Sales

Cost of sales represents the cost of goods sold or services rendered during an accounting period.

Hence, for a retailer, cost of sales will be the sum of inventory at the start of the period and purchases during the pe riod minus any closing inventory.

In case of a manufacturer however, cost of sales will also include production costs incurred in the manufacture of goods duri ng a period such as the cost of direct labor, direct material consumption, depreciation of plant and machinery and factory overheads, etc.

You may refer to the article on cost of sales for an explanation of its calculation.

Other Income

Other income consists of income earned from activities that are not related to the entity's main business. For example, other income of an entity that manufactures electronic appliances may include:

Gain on disposal of fixed assets

Interest income on bank deposits

Exchange gain on translation of a foreign currency bank account

Distribution Cost

Distribution cost includes expenses incurred in delivering goods from the business premises to customers.

Administrative Expenses

Administrative expenses generally comprise of costs relating to the management and support functions within an organization t hat are not directly involved in the production and supply of goods and services offered by the entity.

Examples of administrative expenses include:

Salary cost of executive management

Legal and professional charges

Depreciation of head office building

Rent expense of offices used for administration and management purposes

Cost of functions / departments not directly involved in production such as finance department, HR department and administrat ion

department

Other Expenses

This is essentially a residual category in which any expenses that are not suitably classifiable elsewhere are included.

Finance Charges

Finance charges usually comprise of interest expense on loans and debentures.

The effect of present value adjustments of discounted provisions are also included in finance charges (e.g. unwinding of discount on provision for decommissioning cost).

Income tax

Income tax expense recognized during a period is generally comprised of the following three elements:

Current period's estimated tax charge

Prior period tax adjustments

Deferred tax expense

Prior Period Comparatives

Prior period financial information is presented along side current period's financial results to facil itate comparison of performance over a

period. It is therefore important that prior period comparative figures presented in the income statement relate to a similar period.

For example, if an organization is preparing income statement for the six months ending 31 December 2013, comparative figures of prior period should relate to the six months ending 31 December 2012.

Purpose & Use

Income Statement provides the basis for measuring performance of an entity over the course of an accounting period. Performance can be assessed from the income statement in terms of the following:

Change in sales revenue over the period and in comparison to industry growth

Change in gross profit margin, operating profit margin and net profit margin over the period

Increase or decrease in net profit, operating profit and gross profit over the period

Comparison of the entity's profitability with other organizations operating in similar industries or sectors

Income statement also forms the basis of important financial evaluation of an entity when it is analyzed in conjunction with information contained in other financial statements such as:

Change in earnings per share over the period

Analysis of working capital in comparison to similar income statement elements (e.g. the ratio of receivables reported in the balance

sheet to the credit sales reported in the income statement, i.e. debtor turnover ratio)

Analysis of interest cover and dividend cover ratios

Income Statement | Profit & Loss Account Definition

Income Statement, also known as Profit & Loss Account, is a report of income, expenses and the resulting profit or loss earned during an accounting period.

Topic contents: 1. Definition

2. Example 3. Basis of preparation

4. Components 5. Purpose & Use

6. Template

Example

Following is an il lustrative example of an Income Statement prepared in accordance with the format prescribed by IAS 1 Presentation of

Financial Statements.

Income Statement for the Year Ended 31st December 2013

Notes

2013 2012

USD USD

Revenue 16 120,000 100,000

Cost of Sales 17 (65,000) (55,000)

Gross Profit

55,000 45,000

Other Income 18 17,000 12,000

Distribution Cost 19 (10,000) (8,000)

Administrative Expenses 20 (18,000) (16,000)

Other Expenses 21 (3,000) (2,000)

Finance Charges 22 (1,000) (1,000)

(15,000) (15,000)

Profit before tax

40,000 30,000

Income tax 23 (12,000) (9,000)

Net Profit

28,000 21,000

Basis of preparation

Income statement is prepared on the accruals basis of accounting.

This means that income (including revenue) is recognized when it isearned rather than when receipts are realized (although in many

instances income may be earned and received in the same accounting period). Conversely, expenses are recognized in the income statement when they are incurredeven if they are paid for in the previous or subsequent

accounting periods.

Income statement does not report transactions with the owners of an entity.

Hence, dividends paid to ordinary shareholders are not presented as an expense in the income statement and proceeds from the issuance of shares is not recognized as an income. Transactions between the entity and its owners are accounted for separately in the statement of

changes in equity.

Components

Income statement comprises of the following main elements:

Revenue

Revenue includes income earned from the principal activities of an entity. So for example, in case of a manufacturer of electronic appliances, revenue will comprise of the sales from electronic appliance business. Conversely, if the same manufacturer earns interest on its bank

account, it shall not be classified as revenue but as other income.

Cost of Sales

Cost of sales represents the cost of goods sold or services rendered during an accounting period.

Hence, for a retailer, cost of sales will be the sum of inventory at the start of the period and purchases during the period minus any closing inventory.

In case of a manufacturer however, cost of sales wil l also include production costs incurred in the manufacture of goods during a period such as the cost of direct labor, direct material consumption, depreciation of plant and machinery and factory overheads, etc.

You may refer to the article on cost of sales for an explanation of its calculation.

Other Income

Other income consists of income earned from activities that are not related to the entity's main business. For example, other income of an

entity that manufactures electronic appliances may include:

Gain on disposal of fixed assets

Interest income on bank deposits

Exchange gain on translation of a foreign currency bank account

Distribution Cost

Distribution cost includes expenses incurred in delivering goods from the business premises to customers.

Administrative Expenses

Administrative expenses generally comprise of costs relating to the management and support functions within an organization t hat are not directly involved in the production and supply of goods and services offered by the entity.

Examples of administrative expenses include:

Salary cost of executive management

Legal and professional charges

Depreciation of head office building

Rent expense of offices used for administration and management purposes

Cost of functions / departments not directly involved in production such as finance department, HR department and administration

department

Other Expenses

This is essentially a residual category in which any expenses that are not suitably classifiable elsewhere are included.

Finance Charges

Finance charges usually comprise of interest expense on loans and debentures. The effect of present value adjustments of discounted provisions are also included in finance charges (e.g. unwinding of discount on

provision for decommissioning cost).

Income tax

Income tax expense recognized during a period is generally comprised of the following three elements:

Current period's estimated tax charge

Prior period tax adjustments

Deferred tax expense

Prior Period Comparatives

Prior period financial information is presented along side current period's financial results to facil itate comparison of performance over a

period. It is therefore important that prior period comparative figures presented in the income statement relate to a similar period.

For example, if an organization is preparing income statement for the six months ending 31 December 2013, comparative figures of prior period should relate to the six months ending 31 December 2012.

Purpose & Use

Income Statement provides the basis for measuring performance of an entity over the course of an accounting period.

Performance can be assessed from the income statement in terms of the following:

Change in sales revenue over the period and in comparison to industry growth

Change in gross profit margin, operating profit margin and net profit margin over the period

Increase or decrease in net profit, operating profit and gross profit over the period

Comparison of the entity's profitability with other organizations operating in similar industries or sectors Income statement also forms the basis of important financial evaluation of an entity when it is analyzed in conjunction with information

contained in other financial statements such as:

Change in earnings per share over the period

Analysis of working capital in comparison to similar income statement elements (e.g. the ratio of receivables reported in the balance

sheet to the credit sales reported in the income statement, i.e. debtor turnover ratio)

Analysis of interest cover and dividend cover ratios

Relationship between Financial Statements Explanation

Financial Statements reflect the effects of business transactions and events on the entity. The different types of financial statements are not isolated from one another but are closely related to one another as is i l lustrated in the following diagram.

Balance Sheet

Balance Sheet, or Statement of Financial Position, is directly related to the income statement, cash flow statement and statement of changes in equity.

Assets, l iabil ities and equity balances reported in the Balance Sheet at the period end consist of:

Balances at the start of the period;

The increase (or decrease) in net assets as a result of the net profit (or loss) reported in the income statement;

The increase (or decrease) in net assets as a result of the net gains (or losses) recognized outside the income statement and directly

in the statement of changes in equity (e.g. revaluation surplus);

The increase in net assets and equity arising from the issue of share capital as reported in the statement of changes in equi ty;

The decrease in net assets and equity arising from the payment of dividends as presented in the statement of changes in equity;

The change in composition of balances arising from inter balance sheet transactions not included above (e.g. purchase of fixe d

assets, receipt of bank loan, etc).

Accruals and Prepayments

Receivables and Payables

Income Statement

Income Statement, or Profit and Loss Statement, is directly l inked to balance sheet, cash flow statement and statement of changes in equity.

The increase or decrease in net assets of an entity arising from the profit or loss reported in the income statement is incorporated in the balances reported in the balance sheet at the period end.

The profit and loss recognized in income statement is included in the cash flow statement under the segment of cash flows from operation after adjustment of non-cash transactions. Net profit or loss during the year is also presented in the statement of changes in equity.

Statement of Changes in Equity

Statement of Changes in Equity is directly related to balance sheet and income statement. Statement of changes in equity shows the movement in equity reserves as reported in the entity's balance sheet at the start of the period and

the end of the period. The statement therefore includes the change in equity reserves arising from share capital issues and redemptions, the payments of dividends, net profit or loss reported in the income sta tement along with any gains or losses recognized directly in equity (e.g.

revaluation surplus).

Cash Flow Statement

Statement of Cash Flows is primarily l inked to balance sheet as it explains the effects of change in cash and cash equivalents balance at the

beginning and end of the reporting period in terms of the cash flow impact of changes in the components of balance sheet including assets, l iabilities and equity reserves.

Cash flow statement therefore reflects the increase or decrease in cash flow arising from:

Change in share capital reserves arising from share capital issues and redemption;

Change in retained earnings as a result of net profit or loss recognized in the income statement (after adjusting non-cash items) and

dividend payments;

Change in long term loans due to receipt or repayment of loans;

Working capital changes as reflected in the increase or decrease in net current assets recognized in the balance sheet;

Change in non current assets due to receipts and payments upon the acquisitions and disposals of assets (i.e. investing activ ities)

Relationship between Financial Statements Explanation

Financial Statements reflect the effects of business transactions and events on the entity. The different types of financial statements are not

isolated from one another but are closely related to one another as is i l lustrated in the following diagram.

Balance Sheet

Balance Sheet, or Statement of Financial Position, is directly related to the income statement, cash flow statement and statement of chang es in equity.

Assets, l iabil ities and equity balances reported in the Balance Sheet at the period end consist of:

Balances at the start of the period;

The increase (or decrease) in net assets as a result of the net profit (or loss) reported in the income statement;

The increase (or decrease) in net assets as a result of the net gains (or losses) recognized outside the income statement and directly

in the statement of changes in equity (e.g. revaluation surplus);

The increase in net assets and equity arising from the issue of share capital as reported in the statement of changes in equity;

The decrease in net assets and equity arising from the payment of dividends as presented in the statement of changes in equity;

The change in composition of balances arising from inter balance sheet transactions not included above (e.g. purchase of fixed

assets, receipt of bank loan, etc).

Accruals and Prepayments

Receivables and Payables

Income Statement

Income Statement, or Profit and Loss Statement, is directly l inked to balance sheet, cash flow statement and statement of changes in equity.

The increase or decrease in net assets of an entity arising from the profit or loss reported in the income statement is incorporated in the balances reported in the balance sheet at the period end.

The profit and loss recognized in income statement is included in the cash flow statement under the segment of cash flows fro m operation after adjustment of non-cash transactions. Net profit or loss during the year is also presented in the statement of changes in equity.

Statement of Changes in Equity

Statement of Changes in Equity is directly related to balance sheet and income statement. Statement of changes in equity shows the movement in equity reserves as reported in the entity's balance sheet at the start o f the period and

the end of the period. The statement therefore includes the change in equity reserves arising from share capital issues and redemptions, the payments of dividends, net profit or loss reported in the income statement along with any gains or losses recognized directly in equity (e.g.

revaluation surplus).

Cash Flow Statement

Statement of Cash Flows is primarily l inked to balance sheet as it explains the effects of change in cash and cash equivalents balance at the

beginning and end of the reporting period in terms of the cash flow impact of changes in the components of balance sheet including assets, l iabilities and equity reserves.

Cash flow statement therefore reflects the increase or decrease in cash flow arising from:

Change in share capital reserves arising from share capital issues and redemption;

Change in retained earnings as a result of net profit or loss recognized in the income statement (after adjusting non -cash items) and

dividend payments;

Change in long term loans due to receipt or repayment of loans;

Working capital changes as reflected in the increase or decrease in net current assets recognized in the balance sheet;

Change in non current assets due to receipts and payments upon the acquisitions and disposals of assets (i.e. investing activities)

Relevance: Information should be relevant to the decision making needs of the user. Information is relevant if it helps users of the fin ancial statements in predicting future trends of the business (Predictive Value) or confirming or correcting any past predictions they have made (Confirmatory

Value). Same piece of information which assists users in confirming their past predictions may also be helpful in forming fut ure forecasts.

Example:

A company discloses an increase in Earnings Per Share (EPS) from $5 to $6 since the last reporting period. The information is relevant to investors as it may assist them in confirming their past predictions regarding the profitability of the company and will also help them in

forecasting future trend in the earnings of the company. Relevance is affected by the materiality of information contained in the financial statements because only material information influences the

economic decisions of its users.

Example:

A default by a customer who owes $1000 to a company having net assets of worth $10 million is not relevant to the decision making needs of

users of the financial statements. However, if the amount of default is, say, $2 million, the information becomes relevant to the users as it may affect thei r view regarding the

financial performance and position of the company.

Reliability Information is reliable if a user can depend upon it to be materially accurate and if it faithfully represents the information that it purports to

present. Significant misstatements or omissions in financial statements reduce the reliability of information contained in them.

Example:

A company is being sued for damages by a rival firm, settlement of which could threaten the financial stability of the company. Non-

disclosure of this information would render the financial statements unreliable for its users. Reliability of financial information is enhanced by the use of following accounting concepts and principles:

Prudence Preparation of financial statements requires the use of professional judgment in the adoption of accountancy policies and estimates. Prudence requires that accountants should exercise a degree of caution in the adoption of policies and significant estimates such that the

assets and income of the entity are not overstated whereas liability and expenses are not under stated. The rationale behind prudence is that a company should not recognize an asset at a value that is higher than the amount which is expected

to be recovered from its sale or use. Conversely, l iabilities of an entity should not be presented below the amount that is l ikely to be paid in its respect in the future.

There is an inherent risk that assets and income of an entity are more likely to be overstated than understated by the manage ment whereas liabilities and expenses are more likely to be understated. The risk arises from the fact that companies often benefit from b etter reported

profitability and lower gearing in the form of cheaper source of finance and higher share price. There is a risk that leverage offered in the choice of accounting policies and estimates may result in bias in the preparation of the financial statements aimed at improv ing profitabil ity

and financial position through the use of creative accounting techniques. Prudence concept helps to ensure that such bias is countered by requiring the exercise of caution in arriving at estimates and the adoption of accounting policies.

Example:

Inventory is recorded at the lower of cost or net realizable value (NRV) rather than the expected selling price. This ensures profit on the sale

of inventory is only realized when the actual sale takes place. However, prudence does not require management to deliberately overstate its l iabil ities and expenses or understate its assets and income.

The application of prudence should eliminate bias from financial statements but its application should not reduce the reliabi lity of the information

Completeness Reliability of information contained in the financial statements is achieved only if complete financial information is provided relevant to the

business and financial decision making needs of the users. Therefore, information must be complete in all material respects. Incomplete information reduces not only the relevance of the financial statements, it also decreases its reliability since users will be basing

their decisions on information which only presents a partial view of the affairs of the entity.

1. Definition

Single Economic Entity Concept suggests that companies associated with each other through the virtue of common control operate as a single economic unit and therefore the consolidated financial statements of a group of companies should reflect the essence o f such

arrangement.

2. Explanation Consolidated financial statements of a group of companies must be prepared as if the entire group constitutes a single entity in order to avoid

the misrepresentation of the scale of group's activities. It is therefore necessary to eliminate the effects of any inter-company transactions and balances during the consolidation of group accounts

such as the following:

Inter-company sales and purchases

Inter-company payables and receivables

Inter-company payments such as dividends, royalties & head office charges Inter-company transactions must be eliminated as if the transactions had not occurred in the first place. Examples of adjustments that may

be required to eliminate the effects of inter-company transactions include:

Elimination of unrealized profit or loss on the sale of assets member companies of a group

Elimination of excess or deficit depreciation expense in respect of a fixed asset purchased from a member company at a price that

was higher or lower than the net book value of the asset in the books of the seller.

3. Example XYZ PLC is a company specializing in the manufacturing of ferti lizers. At the start of the current accounting period, XYZ PLC acquired DEF PLC, a chemicals producer.

Following is a summary of the financial results of the two companies during the year:

XYZ DEF

$m $m

Sales 120 50

Cost of Sales (60) (20)

Gross Profit 60 30

Operating Expenses (20) (10)

Net Profit 40 20

XYZ PLC purchased chemicals worth $20m from DEF PLC which it used in the manufacture of fertilizers sold during the year.

Consolidation of XYZ Group's financial results will require an adjustment in respect of the inter-company sale and purchase in order to

conform to the single entity principle. Consolidated financial results of the two companies will be presented as follows:

XYZ Group

$m

Sales (120 + 50 - 20) 150

Cost of Sales (60 + 20 - 20) (60)

Gross Profit

90

Operating Expenses (20 + 10) (30)

Net Profit

60

Since XYZ Group, considered as a single entity, cannot sell and purchase to itself, the sales and purchases in the consolidated income

statement have been reduced by $20 m each in order to present the sales and purchases with external customers and suppliers. If we ignore the single entity concept, XYZ Group's financial results will present sales of $170 m and cost of sales amounting $80 m.

Although the net profit of the group will be unaffected by the inter-company transaction, the size of the Group's operations will be misrepresented due to the overstatement.

Money Measurement Concept in Accounting

Definition

Money Measurement Concept in accounting, also known as Measurability Concept, means that only transactions and events that are

capable of being measured in monetary terms are recognized in the financial statements.

Explanation

All transactions and events recorded in the financial statements must be reduced to a unit of monetary currency. Where it is not possible to

assign a reliable monetary value to a transaction or event, it shall not be recorded in the financial statements. However, any material transactions and events that are not recorded for fail ing to meet the measurability criteria might need be disclosed in

the supplementary notes of financial statements to assist the users in gaining a better understanding of the financial performance and position of the entity.

Matching Principle & Concept

Matching Principle - topic contents

1. Definition

2. Explanation 3. Examples

4. Matching Vs Accruals Vs Cash Basis 5. MCQ

1. Definition Matching Principle requires that expenses incurred by an organization must be charged to the income statement in the accounting period in which the revenue, to which those expenses relate, is earned.

2. Explanation Prior to the application of the matching principle, expenses were charged to the income statement in the accounting period in which they

were paid irrespective of whether they relate to the revenue earned during that period. This resulted in non recognition of e xpenses incurred but not paid for during an accounting period (i.e. accrued expenses) and the charge to income statement of expenses paid in respect of

future periods (i.e. prepaid expenses). Application of matching principle results in the deferral of prepaid expenses in order to match them with the revenue earned in future periods. Similarly, accrued expenses are charged in the income statement in which they are incurred to

match them with the current period's revenue. A major development from the application of matching principle is the use of depreciation in the accounting for non-current assets.

Depreciation results in a systematic charge of the cost of a fixed asset to the income statement over several accounting periods spanning the asset's useful l ife during which it is expected to generate economic benefits for the entity. Depreciation ensures that the cost of fixed assets

is not charged to the profit & loss at once but is 'matched' against economic benefits (revenue or cost savings) earned from the asset's use over several accounting periods.

Matching principle therefore results in the presentation of a more balanced and consistent view of the financial performance of an organization than would result from the use of cash basis of accounting.

Definition

Timeliness principle in accounting refers to the need for accounting information to be presented to the users in time to fulfi ll their d ecision

making needs.

Importance

Timeliness of accounting information is highly desirable since information that is presented timely is generally more relevant to users while

conversely, delay in provision of information tends to render it less relevant to the decision making needs of the users. Tim eliness principle is therefore closely related to the relevance principle.

Timeliness is important to protect the users of accounting information from basing their decisions on outdated information. Imagine the problem that could arise if a company was to issue its financial statements to the public after 12 months of the accounting p eriod. The users

of the financial statements, such as potential investors, would probably find it hard to assess whether the present financial circumstances of the company have changed drastically from those reflected in the financial statements.

Materiality Information is material if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the

financial statements (IASB Framework).

Materiality therefore relates to the significance of transactions, balances and errors contained in the financial stat ements. Materiality defines

the threshold or cutoff point after which financial information becomes relevant to the decision making needs of the users. I nformation contained in the financial statements must therefore be complete in all material respects in order for them to present a true and fair view of

the affairs of the entity. Materiality is relative to the size and particular circumstances of individual companies.

Example - Size

A default by a customer who owes only $1000 to a company having net assets of worth $10 million is immaterial to the financial statements

of the company. However, if the amount of default was, say, $2 mill ion, the information would have been material to the financial statements omission of

which could cause users to make incorrect business decisions.

What is a Going Concern? Going concern is one the fundamental assumptions in accounting on the basis of which financial statements are prepared. Finan cial statements are prepared assuming that a business entity will continue to operate in the foreseeable future without the need or intention on

the part of management to l iquidate the entity or to significantly curtail its operational activities. Therefore, it is assum ed that the entity will realize its assets and settle its obligations in the normal course of the business.

It is the responsibil ity of the management of a company to determine whether the going concern assumption is appropriate in t he preparation of financial statements. If the going concern assumption is considered by the management to be invalid, the financial statements of the entity

would need to be prepared on break up basis. This means that assets will be recognized at amount which is expected to be real ized from its sale (net of sell ing costs) rather than from its continuing use in the ordinary course of the business. Assets are valued for their individual

worth rather than their value as a combined unit. Liabilities shall be recognized at amounts that are likely to be settled.

What are possible indications of going concern problems?

Deteriorating liquidity position of a company not backed by sufficient financing arrangements.

High financial risk arising from increased gearing level rendering the company vulnerable to delays in payment of interest an d loan

principle.

Significant trading losses bieng incurred for several years. Profitability of a company is essential for its survival in the long term.

Aggressive growth strategy not backed by sufficient finance which ultimately leads to over trading.

Increasing level of short term borrowing and overdraft not supported by increase in business.

Inability of the company to maintain liquidity ratios as defined in the loan covenants.

Serious litigations faced by a company which does not have the financial strength to pay the possible settlement.

Inability of a company to develop a new range of commercially successful products. Innovation is often said to be the key to the long-

term stability of any company.

Bankruptcy of a major customer of the company.

Accruals Concept

Financial statements are prepared under the Accruals Concept of accounting which requires that income and expense must be

recognized in the accounting periods to which they relate rather than on cash basis. An exception to this general rule is the cash

flow statement whose main purpose is to present the cash flow effects of transaction during an accounting period.

Under Accruals basis of accounting, income must be recorded in the accounting period in which it is earned. Therefore, accrued

income must be recognized in the accounting period in which it arises rather than in the subsequent period in which it will be received. Conversely, prepaid income must be not be shown as income in the accounting period in which it is received but inst ead

it must be presented as such in the subsequent accounting periods in which the services or obligations in respect of the prepaid income have been performed.

Expenses, on the other hand, must be recorded in the accounting period in which they are incurred. Therefore, accrued expense

must be recognized in the accounting period in which it occurs rather than in the following period in which it will be paid. Conversely, prepaid expense must be not be shown as expense in the accounting period in which it is paid but instead it mu st be

presented as such in the subsequent accounting periods in which the services in respect of the prepaid expense have been performed.

Accruals basis of accounting ensures that expenses are "matched" with the revenue earned in an accounting period. Accruals

concept is therefore very similar to the matching principle.

Business Entity Concept Financial accounting is based on the premise that the transactions and balances of a business entity are to be accounted for separately from

its owners. The business entity is therefore considered to be distinct from its owners for the purpose of accounting. Therefore, any personal expenses incurred by owners of a business will not appear in the income statement of the entity. Simi larly, if any

personal expenses of owners are paid out of assets of the entity, it would be considered to be drawings for the purpose of accounting much in the same way as cash drawings.

The business entity concept also explains why owners' equity appears on the liability side of a ba lance sheet (i.e. credit side). Share capital contributed by a sole trader to his business, for instance, represents a form of l iability (known as equity) of the 'business' that is owed to its

owner which is why it is presented on the credit side of the ba lance sheet.

1. Definition Realization concept in accounting, also known as revenue recognition principle, refers to the application of accruals

concept towards the recognition of revenue (income). Under this principle, revenue is recognized by the seller wh en it is earned irrespective of whether cash from the transaction has been received or not. - See more at:

Dual Aspect Concept | Duality Principle in Accounting 1. Definition Dual Aspect Concept, also known as Duality Principle, is a fundamental convention of accounting that necessitates the recognition of all aspects of an accounting transaction. Dual aspect concept is the underlying basis for double entry accounting system.

Contents:

1. Definition 2. Explanation

3. Example

2. Explanation In a single entry system, only one aspect of a transaction is recognized. For instance, if a sale is made to a customer, only sales revenue will be recorded. However, the other side of the transaction relating to the receipt of cash or the grant of credit to the custome r is not recognized.

Single entry accounting system has been superseded by double entry accounting. You may stil l find limited use of single entry accounting system by individuals and small organizations that keep an informal record of receipts and payments.

Double entry accounting system is based on the duality principle and was devised to account for all aspects of a transaction. Under the system, aspects of transactions are classified under two main types:

1. Debit 2. Credit

Debit is the portion of transaction that accounts for the increase in assets and expenses, and the decrease in l iabilities, equity and income. Credit is the portion of transaction that accounts for the increase in income, liabilities and equity, and the decrease in assets and expenses.

The classification of debit and credit effects is structured in such a way that for each debit there is a corresponding credi t and vice versa. Hence, every transaction will have 'dual' effects (i.e. debit effects and credit effects).

The application of duality principle therefore ensures that all aspects of a transaction are accounted for in the financial statements.

3. Example Mr. A, who owns and operates a bookstore, has identified the following transactions for the month of January that need to be accounted for in the monthly financial statements:

$

1. Payment of salary to staff 2,000

2. Sale of books for cash 5,000

3. Sales of books on credit 15,000

4. Receipts from credit customers 10,000

5. Purchase of books for cash 20,000

6. Utility expenses - unpaid 3,000

Under double entry system, the above transactions will be accounted for as follows:

Account Title Effect Debit Credit

$ $

1. Salary Expense Increase in expense 2,000

Cash at bank Decrease in assets

2,000

2. Cash in hand Increase in assets 5,000

Sales revenue Increase in income

5,000

3. Receivables Increase in assets 15,000

Sales revenue Decrease in income

15,000

4. Cash at bank Increase in asset 10,000

Receivables Decrease in asset

10,000

5. Purchases Increase in expense 20,000

Cash at bank Decrease in asset

20,000

6. Utility Expense Increase in expense 3,000

Accrued expenses Decrease in asset

3,000

Elements of the financial Statements Elements of the financial statements include Assets, Liabilities, Equity, Income & Expenses. The first three elements relate to the statement of financial position whereas the latter two relate to the income statement.

The first three elements relate to the statement of financial position while the latter two relate to income statements.

Assets

Definition

Asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the

entity (IASB Framework).

Explanation

In simple words, asset is something which a business owns or controls to benefit from its use in som e way. It may be something which

directly generates revenue for the entity (e.g. a machine, inventory) or it may be something which supports the primary opera tions of the organization (e.g. office building).

Classification

Assets may be classified into Current and Non-Current. The distinction is made on the basis of time period in which the economic benefits from the asset will flow to the entity.

Current Assets are ones that an entity expects to use within one-year time from the reporting date. Non Current Assets are those whose benefits are expected to last more than one year from the reporting date.

Types and Examples

Following are the most common types of Assets and their Classification along with the economic benefits derived from those assets.

Asset

Classification

Economic Benefit

Machine

Non-current

Used for the production of goods for sale to customer.

Office Building

Non-current

Provides space to employees for administering company affairs.

Vehicle

Non-current

Used in the transportation of company products and also for commuting.

Inventory

Current

Cash is generated from the sale of inventory.

Cash

Current

Cash!

Receivables

Current

Will eventually result in inflow of cash.

Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all the liabil ities (IASB Framework).

Explanation

Equity is what the owners of an entity have invested in an enterprise. It represents what the business owes to its owners. It is also a

reflection of the capital left in the business after assets of the entity are used to pay off any outstanding liabil ities. Equity therefore includes share capital contributed by the shareholders along with any profits or surpluses retained in the e ntity. This is what

the owners take home in the event of l iquidation of the entity. The Accounting Equation may further explain the meaning of equity:

Assets - Liabilities = Equity This i l lustrates that equity is the owner's interest in the Net Assets of an entity.

Rearranging the above equation, we have Assets = Equity + Liabilities

Assets of an entity have to be financed in some way. Either by debt (Liability) or by share capital and retained profits (Equ ity). Hence, equity may be viewed as a type of l iability an entity has towards its owners in respect of the assets they financed.

Examples

Examples of Equity recognized in the financial statements include the following:

Ordinary Share Capital

Preference Share Capital (irredeemable)

Retained Earnings

Revaluation Surpluses

Explanation

Income is therefore an increase in the net assets of the entity during an accounting period except for such increases caused by the

contributions from owners. The first part of the definition is quite easy to understand as income m ust logically result in an increase in the net assets (equity) of the entity such as by the inflow of cash or other assets. However, net assets of an entity may increase si mply by further

capital investment by its owners even though such increase in net assets cannot be regarded as income. This is the significance of the latter part of the definition of income.

Types

There are two types of income:

Sale Revenue: Income earned in the ordinary course of business activities of the entity;

Gains: Income that does not arise from the core operations of the entity. For instance, sale revenue of a business whose main aim is to sell biscuits is income generated from selling biscuits. If the business sells

Expense Definition

Expenses are the decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrences of l iabilities that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity participants (IASB Framework).

Explanation

Expense is simply a decrease in the net assets of the entity over an accounting period except for such decreases caused by the distributions to the owners. The first aspect of the definition is quite easy to grasp as the incurring of an expense must reduce the net assets of the

company. For instance, payment of a company's utility bills reduces cash. However, net assets of an entity may also decrease as a result of payment of dividends to shareholders or drawings by owners of a business, both of which are distri butions of profits rather than expense.

This is the significance of the latter part of the definition of expense.

Types

Following is a list of common types of expenses recognized in the financial statements:

Salaries and wages

Utility expenses

Cost of goods sold

Administration expenses

Finance costs

Depreciation

Impairment losses

Bank Reconciliation Bank reconciliation statement is a report which compares the bank balance as per company's accounting records with the balance stated in the bank statement.

It is normal for a company's bank balance as per accounting records to differ from the balance as per bank statement due to t iming differences. Certain transactions are recorded by the entity that are updated in the bank's system after a certain time lag. Likewise, some

transactions are accounted for in the bank's financial system before the company incorporates them into its own accounting system. Such timing differences appear as reconciling items in the Bank Reconciliation Statement.

The purpose of preparing a Bank Reconciliation Statement is to detect any discrepancies between the accounting records of the entity and the bank besides those due to normal timing differences. Such discrepancies might exist due to an error on the part of the co mpany or the

bank.

What is a Trial Balance? 1. Purpose of Trial Balance 2. Example of Trial Balance

3. Limitations of Trial Balance Trial Balance is a list of closing balances of ledger accounts on a certain date and is the first step towards the preparatio n of financial

statements. It is usually prepared at the end of an accounting period to assist in the drafting of financial statements. Ledg er balances are segregated into debit balances and credit balances. Asset and expense accounts appear on the debit side o f the trial balance whereas

liabilities, capital and income accounts appear on the credit side. If all accounting entries are recorded correctly and all the ledger balances are accurately extracted, the total of all debit balances appearing in the trial balance must equal to the sum of all credit balances.

Purpose of a Trial Balance

Trial Balance acts as the first step in the preparation of financial statements. It is a working paper that accountants use a s a basis

while preparing financial statements.

Trial balance ensures that for every debit entry recorded, a corresponding credit entry has been recorded in the books in accorda nce

with the double entry concept of accounting. If the totals of the trial balance do not agree, the differences may be investig ated and

resolved before financial statements are prepared. Rectifying basic accounting errors can be a much lengthy task after the fi nancial

statements have been prepared because of the changes that would be required to correct the financial statements.

Trial balance ensures that the account balances are accurately extracted from accounting ledgers.

Trail balance assists in the identification and rectification of errors.

Example Following is an example of what a simple Trial Balance looks like:

ABC LTD

Trial Balance as at 31 December 2011

Account Title

Debit Credit

$ $

Share Capital

15,000

Furniture & Fixture 5,000

Building 10,000

Creditor

5,000

Debtors 3,000

Cash 2,000

Sales

10,000

Cost of sales 8,000

General and Administration Expense 2,000

Total 30,000 30,000

1. Title provided at the top shows the name of the entity and accounting period end for which the trial balance has been prepare d.

2. Account Title shows the name of the accounting ledgers from which the balances have been extracted.

3. Balances relating to assets and expenses are presented in the left column (debit side) whereas those relating to liabilities, income

and equity are shown on the right column (credit side).

4. The sum of all debit and credit balances are shown at the bottom o f their respective columns.

Limitations of a trial balance Trial Balance only confirms that the total of all debit balances match the total of all credit balances. Trial balance totals may agree in spite of

errors. An example would be an incorrect debit entry being offset by an equal credit entry. Likewise, a trial balance gives no proof that certain transactions have not been recorded at all because in such case, both debit and credit sides of a transaction would be omitte d causing the

trial balance totals to sti l l agree. Types of accounting errors and their effect on trial balance are more fully discussed in the section on Suspense Accounts.