Training Cycle

1© 2008 by Paul L. Schumann. All rights reserved.

OutlineTraining & DevelopmentTraining Cycle

Step 1: Needs Analysis (Needs Assessment)Step 2: Design & Develop Training ProgramStep 3: Deliver the TrainingStep 4: Training Evaluation

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Training & DevelopmentWhat is training? What is development?Training: enhances the capabilities of an

employee to perform his or her current jobFocuses on the current job

Examples for a bank teller: Training program to correctly identify counterfeit

currency Training program in the bank’s new computer

system used by tellers to process customer’s transactions

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Training & DevelopmentDevelopment: enhances the capabilities of an

employee to be ready to perform possible future jobsFocuses on future jobs

Developmental education programs Examples for a bank teller:

Bank sends the teller to a day-long workshop on “Emerging Issues in Finance & Banking”

Bank pays for the employee to get his or her MBA degree

Developmental job experiences Examples: job rotation or job enlargement

Developmental interpersonal relationships Example: mentoring

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Training Cycle

Source: Fisher, Schoenfeldt, & Shaw (2006), Figure 9.1, p. 377

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Step 1: Needs Analysis/AssessmentGoal of needs analysis: Identify training

needsSummary of Needs Analysis:

3 Levels of Needs Analysis: Organizational analysis Job and task analysis Individual analysis

Training Objectives

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Needs Analysis3 Levels of Needs Analysis:

Organizational analysis: What are the training needs of the organization? What training will support the organization’s strategy?

Example: Internal growth strategy (growth from new products or new markets) would be supported by training in: Creative thinking New product development Understanding & evaluating potential new markets Technical competence in jobs

Example: What are the training needs for other strategies? Low-cost leadership, focused (niche) concentration,

external growth (mergers & acquisitions), downsizing & divesting

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Needs Analysis

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Organizational AnalysisExamines where training is needed in the

organization and under what conditions the training will be conducted. It identifies the knowledge, skills, and abilities that employees will need for the future, as the organization and their jobs evolves or changes.

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Future skill needs: How is your organization changing? Examples of situations that will affect planning for training needs on the organizational level, include:

Compliance with affirmative action plans. Affirmative action guidelines require HR and management to be aware of equal employment opportunity (EEO) regulations and understand compliance goals.

Installation of new equipment. New equipment creates the urgent need to train employees so the new equipment can be running productively and safely.

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Changes in standards and procedures. Whenever performance standards or procedure changes, the need for new skills will occur.

Working in a team environment. New interpersonal skills and decision making will be needed with this type of cultural change.

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Changes in the labor pool. Organizations have to plan for adjustment as the labor pool changes.As more women, minorities, immigrants and

older workers join the workforce, employers must plan how to accommodate employees’ diverse needs and still get the job accomplished.

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Needs Analysis3 Levels of Needs Analysis (more):

Organizational analysis (more) Use benchmarks of organizational health & success to

identify training needs General examples:

Headcount Productivity Costs Quality

Specific examples for an airline: On-time rates Lost baggage rates Employee injury rates

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Job and task analysis: What are the training needs of each job in the organization? Examine the job descriptions:

What tasks & duties are performed by each job? For each task:

Do new hires already know how to perform the task or will they have to be trained? (Helps to identify training needs)

What are the consequences of performing the task incorrectly? (Helps to set training priorities)

Can the task be learned on the job, or should it be taught off the job? (Helps to identify training methods)

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Task analysis begins with job requirements and compares employee knowledge and skills to determine training needs.

Examining job descriptions and specifications provide necessary information on expected performance and the skills employees need to accomplish their work.

Any gaps between performance and job requirements indicate a need for task training.

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A good task analysis identifies:Tasks that have to be performed.Conditions under which tasks are to be

performed.7How often and when tasks are performed.Quantity and quality of performance required.Skills and knowledge required to perform

tasks.Where and how these skills are best acquired.

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Individual analysis: What are the training needs of each individual employee in the organization? Examine each employee’s performance appraisal Do certain employees, or groups of employees, have

job performance that might be improved by training that is cost-effective?

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Individual Analysis targets individual employees and how they perform in their jobs. Using information or data from an employee’s performance review in determining training program needs is the most common method. If an employee’s review reveals deficiencies,

training can be designed to help the employee meet the performance standard.

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Needs AnalysisTraining Objectives: Use the 3 levels of needs analysis

to establish the training objectives for the training programTraining objectives answer the question:

What will employees be able to do as a consequence of the training?

Make the training objectives specific, concrete, & measurable Example for a bank teller training program in detecting

counterfeit currency: Identify counterfeit currency correctly 100% of the time

Example for a bartender training program on underage consumption: Check customer’s age, refuse service, and report attempts

at underage consumption correctly 100% of the time

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Training Cycle


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Step 2: Design & Develop Training Program3 Stages of Learning: Design the training

program to move employees up to Stage 3Stage 1: Declarative knowledge (cognitive

phase) Learn facts & concepts High demands on memory & attention Performance is slow & halting (hesitant; lack of

confidence) Errors are common

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In the first stage of learning performances are inconsistent and success is not guaranteed. Performing the skill requires all of the athletes attention and so they rely on the coach for cues. This is a process of trial and error with a success rate of 2 or 3 out of 10 attempts. Correct performances must be reinforced through external feedback.

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Step 2: Design & Develop Training Program

Stage 2: Knowledge compilation (associative phase) Facts & behaviors get “chunked” into a routine Performance begins to improve Reduced concentration is required

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Performances are becoming more consistent as motor programmes are being formed. While the simpler parts of the skill now look fluent and are well learned, the more complex elements requires most of the spare attention.

The athlete is starting to get a sense of internal 'kinaesthetic' feedback when they perform the skill well. They are starting to detect and correct their own errors and success rate has risen to 5-7 out of 10.

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Design & Develop Training Program

Stage 3: Procedural knowledge (autonomous phase) Performance becomes automatic Performance is fluid & correct Little conscious concentration is required

But if we want to design our training program to move the trainees up to Stage 3, how do we do that? The answer involves putting together the following

concepts

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In the final stage of learning, performances have become consistent, fluid and aesthetically pleasing. The motor programmes involved are well learned and stored in the long-term memory. There is now spare attention which can be focused on opponents and tactics. To retain the new skill at this level, it must be constantly practiced to reinforce the motor programmes. Success is now 9 out of 10.

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Design & Develop Training ProgramPreconditions for learning: Design the

training program to satisfy 2 key preconditions:Trainee readiness: What do the trainees

already know? We want to start the training program at the right

level We need to find out what they already know

Example: Does our newly hired bank teller know how to count money?

Design the training program to build on what the trainees already know

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Design & Develop Training ProgramPreconditions for learning (more):

Trainee motivation: Are the trainees motivated to learn? Involve employees in the needs analysis Show trainees how the training will enhance their job

performance & their careers Use goal setting:

Establish specific, concrete, & measurable training goals Make the goals difficult but achievable Set intermediate & end goals

Build strong self-efficacy expectations: beliefs about success Persuasion: “You can do it!” Modeling: show trainees successful previous trainees Enactive mastery: lead trainees to early success in training

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Design & Develop Training ProgramPractice: “practice makes perfect”

One critical key to moving to Stage 3 of learning is providing the trainees with the right kinds of practice Take into consideration the task complexity:

Simple task: practice the entire task Complex task:

Break the complex task into simple pieces Practice each of the simple pieces As performance improves, combine the simple pieces

and practice the entire complex task Distributed practice sessions work better than a massed

practice session: spread the practice sessions out over multiple days with sleep between the practice sessions

Overlearning is good: keep practicing well beyond the point of correct performance of the task

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Design & Develop Training ProgramKnowledge of results: feedback is important

Provide lots of feedback & encouragement, especially early in training Helps build self-efficacy expectations Guide the trainee to correct performance

As performance improves, raise the performance level required for positive feedback Encourage the trainee to strive for better performance

Show trainees how to evaluate their own performance Allows trainees to determine for themselves how they’re

doingGradually shift from trainer-provided feedback to the

trainee’s own self-generated feedback Prepares the trainee to correctly use the training on the job

without the close supervision of the trainers in the training program

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Design & Develop Training ProgramOvercome interferences: identify& resolve things

that might interfere with learningDistractions in the training environment

Lighting problems Noise problems Temperature problems, etc.

Bad habits that the trainees bring with them into training Identify the bad habits of the trainees early in training Correct the bad habits early in training so that the

trainees practice the correct way, and not the wrong way

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Design & Develop Training ProgramTransfer of training: structure the training

program to enhance the transfer of training from the training program back to the jobMake the training setting similar to the work

setting Use the same equipment & processes in training

that are used on the jobTeach both tasks & principles

Both how to do the task and why it is done that wayOverlearning is good: provide lots of practiceUse a variety of job-relevant examples

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Design & Develop Training ProgramTransfer of training (more):

Show the trainees the relevancy of the training to their jobs

Build positive self-efficacy expectationsAsk trainees to develop their own action plan

with goals for how they will use the training on their jobs

Relapse prevention: ask trainees to anticipate what might cause them to relapse to their bad habits, and to develop their own plans to avoid the relapse

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Design & Develop Training ProgramTransfer of training (more):

Provide pre-planned opportunities for trainees to use their new skills on their jobs

Supervisors and co-workers should support the new behaviors back on the job

Train a team together as a teamGive homework assignments that require

trainees to apply what they are learning in training to their jobs

Provide reminders (job aids) for trainees to take back with them to their jobs

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Design & Develop Training ProgramTraining Methods: decide which training method

to useOn-the-job training (OJT): training is at the actual

work site using the actual work equipment Advantages:

Enhances the transfer of training: the training setting and the work setting are the same

May reduce costs: avoid the cost of a separate training facility

Enhances trainee motivation: job-relevancy of training is more obvious to the trainees

Disadvantages: May be disruptive to normal operations May have more distractions that interfere with learning May have safety concerns

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Design & Develop Training ProgramTraining Methods (more):

Off-the-job training: training takes place off the job at a training facility designed for training Advantages:

Avoids disruptions to normal operations Minimizes distractions Avoids safety concerns

Disadvantages: Transfer of training may be more difficult due to

differences between the training setting and the work setting

Costs may be higher due to the cost of the training facility

Trainee motivation may be reduced because the job-relevancy of the training is not as obvious

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Design & Develop Training ProgramTraining Methods (more):

Off-the-job training (more): Off-the-job training techniques:

Lectures Discussions Cases Role-plays Simulations

Example: How should we set up a training program for newly hired bank tellers to teach them how to do their job? On-the-job or off-the-job?

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Training Cycle


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Step 3: Deliver the TrainingDeliver the training that was planned

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Training Cycle


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Step 4: Training Evaluation4 Levels of Evaluation

(Kirkpatrick, 1983)Level 1: Reaction:

measure the satisfaction of the trainees with the training program Satisfaction questionnaire

Level 2: Learning: measure how much the trainees have learned Written tests Performance tests Simulation tests

Source of figure: Fisher, Schoenfeldt, & Shaw (2006), Figure 9.4, p. 405

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Step 4: Training Evaluation4 Levels of Evaluation

(more)Level 3: Behavior:

measure the trainees’ job performance back on their jobs Performance appraisals

Level 4: Results: measure the impact on the organization Profits Costs Productivity Quality Injury rates, etc.

Source of figure: Fisher, Schoenfeldt, & Shaw (2006), Figure 9.4, p. 405

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Level Questions being Asked

Measures

ResultsIs the

organization or unit

better because of the training?

AccidentsQuality

ProductivityTurnoverMoraleCostsProfits

Behavior Are trainees behaving differently

on the job after training? Are they using the skills and knowledge they learned in

training?

Performance appraisal by superior, peer, client,

subordinate

Learning To what extent do trainees have greater knowledge or skill after the training program than they

did before?

Written TestsPerformance TestsGraded Simulations

Reaction Did the trainees like the program, the trainers , the facilities? Do they think the

course was useful? What improvements can they suggest?

Questionnaires

Training EvaluationEvaluation designs: when do you collect data

on reactions, learning, behavior, and results?One-shot posttest-only design: measure when

training is finished:TRAIN → MEASURE Makes sense for Level 1 (Reaction)

Ask the trainees to complete the satisfaction questionnaire at the end of the training program

But it’s a poor design for the other levels of evaluation There’s no comparison group

We wouldn’t know if learning, behavior, and results have changed for the better because of the training program

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Training EvaluationEvaluation designs (more):

One-group pretest-posttest design: measure both before and after training:MEASURE → TRAIN → MEASURE Compute the change in the measures:

Learning: Did the percentage correct on the test go up? Behavior: Did the employee’s job performance

improve? Results: Did the company improve (profits, costs, etc.)?

Weakness: We’re not sure if the training is the only thing that might have caused the measures to improve There might be other things that happened at the same

time as the training that also affects employee behavior (job performance) and corporate results (profits, etc.)

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Training EvaluationEvaluation designs (more):

Pretest-posttest control-group design: compare the changes in a control group to the changes in the training groupControl: MEASURE → NO TRAIN → MEASURETraining: MEASURE → TRAIN → MEASURE Randomly divide employees into 2 groups:

Control group: does not get training Training group: does get training

Measure learning, behavior, & results in both groups before and after training is provided to the training group

Compute the changes in the measures for both groups Did the training group improve more than the control

group? Learning (test scores), behavior (job performance), &

results (profits, costs, etc.) This is the strongest evaluation design

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Training EvaluationExample: Sales training program to help our

salespeople increase salesTraining Group: randomly select some of the

salespeople to be in the training programControl Group: the other salespeople are in the

control group that doesn’t receive training (at least initially)

Level 1 Evaluation: Reaction One-shot posttest-only design: administer in the

training group at the end of the training a questionnaire that measures the satisfaction of the trainees with the training program

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Training EvaluationExample: Sales training (more)

Level 2 Evaluation: Learning Pretest-posttest control-group design:

Control: MEASURE → NO TRAIN → MEASURETraining: MEASURE → TRAIN → MEASURE Develop a test that measures the extent to which individuals

have achieved the learning objectives of the training program Before providing the training to the training group,

administer the test to both the control and the training groups

After training the training group, administer the test to both the control and the training groups

Compare the average change in the test scores in the control group to the average change in the test scores in the training group

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Level 3 Evaluation: Behavior Pretest-posttest control-group design:

Control: MEASURE → NO TRAIN → MEASURETraining: MEASURE → TRAIN → MEASURE Use the organization’s performance appraisal system to

measure the job performance of the salespeople Example: amount of sales, customer satisfaction ratings,

etc. Before providing the training to the training group,

measure the job performance of each salesperson in both the control and the training groups

After training the training group, measure the job performance of each salesperson in both the control and the training groups

Compare the average change in the job performances in the control group to the average change in the job performances in the training group

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Level 4 Evaluation: Results One-group pretest-posttest design:

MEASURE → TRAIN → MEASURE Measure organizational results before training the training

group Measure organizational results after training the training

group Compute the change in organizational results

Organizational results could include anything that the training might affect: profits, costs, productivity, injury rates, quality, employee morale, etc.

Pretest-posttest control-group design might be possible if the organization has multiple business units Select some of the business units to be the training group

that receives training initially

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Training Cycle


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Stephen Lieb

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Adults are internally motivated and self-directedAdult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on them (Fidishun, 2000).

Trainer’s role is to facilitate a students' movement toward more self-directed and responsible learning as well as to foster the student's internal motivation to learn.

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Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences

Adults like to be given opportunity to use their existing foundation of knowledge and experience gained from life experience, and apply it to their new learning experiences.

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Find out about your student - their interests and past experiences (personal, work and study related)

Assist them to draw on those experiences when problem-solving, reflecting and applying reasoning processes.

Facilitate reflective learning opportunities which Fidishun (2000) suggests can also assist the student to examine existing biases or habits based on life experiences and "move them toward a new understanding of information presented"

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Adults are goal orientedAdult students become ready to learn when

"they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems" (Knowles,1980 p 44, as cited in Fidishun, 2000).

Trainer’s role is to facilitate a student's readiness for problem-based learning and increase the student's awareness of the need for the knowledge or skill presented

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Adults are relevancy orientedAdult learners want to know the relevance of

what they are learning to what they want to achieve. One way to help students to see the value of their observations and practical experiences

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Adults are practicalThrough practical fieldwork experiences,

interacting with real clients and their real life situations, students move from classroom and textbook mode to hands-on problem solving where they can recognize first hand how what they are learning applies to life and the work context

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Adult learners like to be respectedRespect can be demonstrated by:

Taking interest

Acknowledging the wealth of experiences that the student brings to the placement;

Regarding them as a colleague who is equal in life experience

Encouraging expression of ideas, reasoning and feedback at every opportunity.

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Education

Training Cycle