The USSR (Communist) in 8 points:

1. Was a one party dictatorship. They had elections, but all of the candidates were Communist (what wa the point exactly?!!!)

2. Saw the rights of individuals as much less important than the good of society and therefore tightly controlled individuals’ lives.

3. Had censorship.4. Believed that other countries should be

run in the Communist way.5. Firmly believed that the role of the

Communist state was to encourage a worldwide Communist revolution.

6. Were bitterly opposed to Capitalism.7. Believved that everyone was EQUAL.8. Had an extensive Secret Police service

(KGB)

The USA (Capitalist) in 8 points:

1. Was a democracy, its government was chosen in free democratic elections.

2. It was capitalist. Business and property were privately owned.

3. For Americans being free of government control was more important than everyone being equal.

4. 4. Believed that other countries should be run in the American way.

5. Were bitterly opposed to Communism and were scared by the Communist desire for a revolution.

6. Saw their policy as ‘doing the right thing’ rather than serving the interest of the USA.

7. Believed that you got out what you put in, ie that everyone was an individual and not equal.

8. Believed in the freedom of speech.

Communism vs Capitalism

Causes of the Cold War

The Potsdam Conference July – August 1945:

- Truman, Stalin and Atlee.- A very different conference.- Stalin’s armies now occupied most of Eastern

Europe, Communist governments had been set up there.

- Roosevelt had died and the anti-Communist Truman was now President of America.

- 16th July had seen the USA test the atomic bomb. Truman informed Stalin (generally about it.

- Disagreement over whether to cripple Germany or not.

- Disagreement over the level of reparations (if any)

- Disagreement over what ‘sphere of influence meant’

2The Yalta Conference: Feb 1945:

- Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill

- Overall a positive conference.

- Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan once Germany surrendered.

- Agreement to hunt down war criminals responsible for the Holocaust.

- Free elections for countries liberated from Germany.

- Create the UN.- Eastern Europe to be

‘sphere of influence’

Stalin tightens his control:

Having got Communist governments in Eastern Europe, Stalin now wanted to tighten his control in each country. As a result he set up:

- The Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in 1947 to co-ordinate the work of the Communist parties of Eastern Europe. Leaders were often brought to Moscow to be ‘briefed’ (checked for loyalty!

- Yugoslavia’s Tito escaped this close control and was expelled from Cominform in 1948!

Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech

- By 1946 Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania all had Communist governments.

- Churchill described the border between the Soviet Controlled countries and the west as an ‘Iron Curtain’. The Name stuck.

Start of the Cold War

Germany surrenders 7th May

1945

34

1

Greece:

When the Germans retreated from Greece in 1944 there were two rival groups seeking control: the

monarchists and the Communists. Britain sent troops to support the monarchists. The USSR complained to the UN who did nothing. The Communists then tried

to take control by force. Britain couldn’t afford to keep going so bowed out on 24th Feb 1947. Truman (USA) stepped in), they paid the British to stay in. By

1950 the monarchists were in control of Greece (just!).

The Truman Doctrine:

1. USA will send money, equipment and advice to any country under threat from Communism.

2. Eastern Europe was written off – this was now considered Communist.

3. Some believed that Containment should include the use of US troops.

The Marshall Plan:

1.Truman believed that Communism thrived in poverty and hardship.

2.He sent General Marshall to Europe to assess the situation – he found a ruined economy.

3. $11.5 billion was owed by Europe to the USA in war debts. In 1947 Britain saw all electricity turned off for a period each day to deal with coal shortages!

4.$11 billion was ploughed into Europe by America. Countries of Eastern Europe were banned from applying by Stalin.

5.Congress wasn’t convinced at first…

Czechoslovakia:

- Some Americans hadn’t supported the Marshall plan – they didn’t want to waste all of that money.

- Their attitude changed however when in March 1948 the Soviets purged anti Communist leaders in Czechoslovakia. Masaryk, who was pro American was found dead below his open window. The Soviets said that he had jumped….hmmmm Congress immediately granted the money!

Building up to the blockade:

East Germany:

1. Unfortunately, life in East Germany was not so good.

2. Berlin was in East Germany, but it was also divided equally since it was such a prestigious city.

3. Stalin decided to respond to this Western success by blockading Berlin in the hope that he could drive the West out, thus securing his own propaganda triumph.

The allies had divided Germany into 4 parts at Potsdam, but in 1946 the USA, France and Britain had united their zones to create West Germany. In 1948 they reformed the currency and there were signs of a West Germany recovery.

The American Response:

1. The USA knew that if they tried to use tanks to ram the blockades of the rail or roads then it would be used as an act of war by the USSR.

2. However, they were not prepared to give up. They saw Berlin as a test case, if they gave in to Stalin here then who knows what they would ask for.

3. Truman wanted to show Stalin that he was serious.

4. As a result the allies decided to air lift supplies into Berlin. This was extremely dangerous (Stalin could choose to shoot them down) and extremely expensive (it cost a lot more to fly a plane and you could get far less on it!)

5. June 1948 saw the start of the blockade, and during the height of the crisis 1 plane was landing every 30 seconds in Berlin.

6. There were shortages, but in May 1949 Stalin decided to lift the blockade. The USA had ‘won’ and communications were reopened.

The Berlin Blockade

Remember:

- By 1948 most of Eastern Europe had fallen under the influence of the USSR.- In 1949 China had become Communist under the leadership of Mao Zedong.- In 1949 Stalin announced that the USSR had developed its own atomic bomb.- 1950 had seen Communist North Korea invade the USA’s ally South Korea. The US had

pushed them back to their original boarders, but could do no more.- Communism appeared to be unstoppable…- Truman believed in ‘containment’ which involved creating a network of allies (NATO,

SEATO and CENTO) and arms, America spent billions on their military including 12 B52 bombers which were kept armed with nuclear weapons and in the hair 24 hours a day.

It was the Soviets who developed the first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) on 15th May 1957 which allowed them to launch a missile into space and bring it down on a specific location in the US. This gave them the advantage in missile technology.

The US weren’t far behind in terms of missile technology, developing their own ICBMs by 1959. These Atlas and Minuteman missiles were just as quick and accurate and the USA soon had far more of them than the USSR. The US then developed Polaris missiles (fired from submarines) which were virtually undetectable.

The USA also had medium range amissiles based in

Both American and Soviet citizens feared a nuclear attack and were brought up aware of the dangers. American students practiced ‘duck and cover’ drills (see left) for example.

The Background to Cuba

Cuba and Batista:

Cuba is just 160 km from Florida and was considered in the

‘backyard’ of the USA. As such, the Americans supported the

unpopular and corrupt Cuban leader General Batista. They

supported him because he was opposed to Communism.

Fidel Castro:

He led the opposition to Batista and, after a 3 year guerrilla campaign Castro overthrew

Batista. He was a clever leader who won over the majority of Cubans.

USA Response:

Originally the USA decided to support Castro, but relations quickly

worsened. Thousands of Cuban exiles fled to the USA and put pressure on the government and Castro started nationalising America businesses.

President Eisenhower authorised the CIA to look into ways of overthrowing

Castro in 1960.

The Bay of Pigs:

The 1960 election led to a surprise result and a new young leader taking

power in January 1961 – JFK. He picked up Eisenhower’s plans and

signed them off. April 1961 saw CIA backed Cuban exiles land in Cuba, they were met by 20,000 Cuban

troops. All were killed or captured within days.

The Results:

1. The half-hearted invasion suggested to the USSR that the USA was unwilling to get directly involved in Cuba.

2. It pushed Castro to look for support elsewhere, he found the Soviets willing to buy Cuban sugar.3. It made Kennedy look weak.

Creating the Crisis

Soviet Support of Cuba:

- In May 1962 the Soviet Union publically acknowledged that it was supplying Cuba with arms.

- By July 1962 Cuba had the best equipped army in Latin America.

- By September they had thousands of Soviet missiles, radar vans, jet fighters and 5,000 technicians.

- America was worried.

- September 11th

saw Kennedy warn the USSR that the USA would prevent by ‘whatever means necessary’ Cuba’s becoming a nuclear base for the USSR.

Sunday 14 th October 1962:

U” spy plane takes detailed photos that show the USSR was creating nuclear missile bases in Cuba. Reports were quickly confirmed that 20 Soviet ships

were on their way to Cuba.

16th October 1962:

President Kennedy is informed of the missile build up. Ex Comm is formed.

20th October 1962:

Kennedy decides on a blockade of Cuba

22nd October 1962:

Kennedy announces the blockade and calls on the USSR to remove its missiles.

23rd October 1962:

Kennedy receives a letter from Khrushchev saying that the Soviet ships will not observe the blockade. Khrushchev does not admit the presence of

missiles on Cuba.

24th October 1962:

Blockade begins (800km zone). Suddenly the 20 closest Soviet ships stop or turn around.

26th October 1962:

President Kennedy receives a long personal letter from Khrushchev claiming that the missiles are defensive, but offering to remove the missiles if the

USA promised not to invade Cuba.

27th October 1962:

Khrushchev sends a second letter changing his demands – he now wants the US missiles in Turkey withdrawn. A U2 pilot is also shot down – Kennedy is

advised to attack Cuba.

28th October 1962:

Kennedy replies to Khrushchev’s first letter, ignoring the second. However, he agrees to secretly remove the US missiles in Cuba at a later date.

Khrushchev accepts.

The Events of the Crisis

Success for America (Kennedy):

1. Kennedy had stood up to Khrushchev successfully. He now looked ‘tough’ on Communism, since he had got the missiles removed without giving anything publically in return.

2. Kennedy was able to stand up to his own hard liners (in his government) and to prove to them that you could deal with Communism without resorting to military force.

3. Kennedy and Khrushchev had avoided a nuclear war through diplomacy, and the credit for this should go to both of them. A hotline (telephone line) was now established between Washington and Moscow in order to avoid this from happening again.

4. Khrushchev was forced from power shortly afterwards (1964) and it seems likely that this was as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Success for the USSR (Khrushchev):

1. Khrushchev got Kennedy to promise not to invade Cuba, which meant that Cuba would remain Communist for the foreseeable future.

2. Khrushchev could publically claim to be the peacemaker since he made the first move towards a compromise.

3. Khrushchev got the USA to remove their missiles from Turkey. Unfortunately Khrushchev had promised to keep this secret and could not use it for propaganda purposes.

The Result for Cuba:

1. Castro was upset that Khrushchev had cut a deal with America, but had little choice but to accept it.

2. Cuba stayed Communist and highly armed, but lost its nuclear deterrent.3. Castro kept control of America companies and still controls them today

(or Cuba does on his behalf!)

Remember that you’ll need at least a couple of points

for each side to get 9/10 in a 10 mark question.

Results of the Crisis

Why did America get involved?

1. The Domino Theory and Containment – The Domino theory stated that when one country fell to Communism a country next door would swiftly fall too. Containment stated that America

should ‘contain’ Communism by supporting any country threatened by a Communist takeover. (Think about the Truman Doctrine).

2. Originally supporting the French – America started off by providing the French with $500 million in order to help prevent a Communist takeover by the Viet Minh who were supported

by China.3. Dien Bein Phu 1954 – After this French defeat, Vietnam was divided into North and South

Vietnam. Elections were meant to be held within 2 years to reunite the country (the North became Communist). However, America were not willing to allow the South to become

Communist (which it almost certainly would have), so they supported Ngo Dinh Diem in 1955 when he set up a Republic of South Vietnam. During the 1950’s the USA gave Diem $1.6 billion.

What happened next?

- These actions increased opposition to the South Vietnam government amongst the ordinary people. In turn, this increased support for the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (more

commonly known as the Viet Cong, set up in 1960)- The Viet Cong also started a guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese government. By 1962

President Kennedy was sending military personnel ‘advisors’ to support the South Vietnamese government against the Viet Cong.

- American involvement continued to increase from there:- 1962 = 11,500 troops- 1964 = 23,000 troops

The Gulf of Tonkin: August 1964

North Vietnamese patrol boats opened fire on US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin (or did they?!!). The US Congress passed

the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave Johnson the power to ‘take all necessary measures to prevent further

aggression and achieve peace and security’. March 1965 saw 3,500 US marines (combat troops, not advisors) arrived in

Vietnam

Causes of the Vietnam War

Key Dates:

1964 – Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

1965 (Feb) – Operation Rolling Thunder begins

1965 (March) – First US Combat troops arrive

1968 (January) – Tet Offensive.

1968 (Oct) – Operation Rolling Thunder ends

1969 – American policy of Vietnamisation begins.

1973 – Ceasefire signed in Paris

1975 – Saigon falls to Communists, US evacuate last officials by helicopter.

American Tactics:

Bombing (Operation Rolling Thunder)

The idea behind this was to bomb the Viet Cong into submission. They thought that if they bombed the suspected tunnels (Ho Chi Minh trail) that the Viet Cong would no longer be able to carry their supplies into South Vietnam. Even after the air

raids the Viet Cong could launch the Tet Offensive. 14,000 US and South Vietnamese planes were shot down. It was estimated that it took $400,000 to kill one Viet Cong fighter (including 75 bombs and 400

artillery shells)

Chemical Weapons

The US found it difficult to see where the Viet Cong were working since much of Vietnam was

jungle. As a result they developed Agent Orange to destroy the jungle where the Viet Cong hid. They sprayed thousands of square km of jungle which

destroyed the foliage. It also burnt through cloths and skin however and killed many soldiers and

civilians.

Search and Destroy

Bombing wasn’t working so the US commander General Westmoreland developed this policy.

These raids did kill Viet Cong soldiers but there were problems. For every one Viet Cong weapon

captured there were 6 bodies. Mai Lai is the worst example of these failings.

Key facts to remember:

- $110 billion was spent which over 10 years works out at $2000 per second.

- 5,000 helicopters were destroyed and 3,500 fixed wing aircraft.

- 2/3 of American bombs dropped were on South Vietnam, the country they were meant to be protecting!

- About 10,000 shells were fired every day.

Events and tactics

Vietcong tactics:

- Ho Chi Minh only had 170,000 Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army (NVA) soldiers in 1965, this was far less than the Americans and South Vietnamese.

- Open warfare would only result in an American victory due to superior US firepower eg. La Dreng Valley (2000 Viet Cong lost, 300 US)

- Guerrilla warfare was the order of the day eg. booby traps: bouncing Betty land mine, tripwires etc. These caused 11% of US causalities.

- Ambushes were a key part of the Guerrilla war and these accounted for 51% of US losses. These were fought to keep he Americans at close quarters and to stop them from using their superior air support. It was nicknamed ‘hanging onto American belts’.

- The Viet Cong maintained the support of the peasants by being polite to them and helping them at busy times. They also ruthlessly killed South Vietnamese government officials (estimates are as high as 27,000)

- They used the Ho Chi Minh trail to move troops and supplies around. Although the US relentlessly bombed this over 40,000 Viet Cong fighters worked to keep this crucial supply line open.

American Problems:

1. Low Morale and inexperience – many American troops weren’t entirely sure why they were in Vietnam and this became much more of a problem after the introduction of the draft (compulsory military service) was introduced in 1967. Many of those drafted were inexperienced and 60% of US soldiers killed in Vietnam were aged 17-21. The majority of those drafted were poor Americans (those rich enough could use university to delay the draft). Some units even turned against their officers and evidence suggests that as many as 3% of officers were ‘fragged’ (killed by their own men. 18% of US causalities were caused by factors other than combat (eg illness) and there were over 500,000 incidences of desertion.

2. Vietnam’s neighbours – these countries were sympathetic to the Vietcong. American forces were not at war with these countries and could not enter them. The fact that the Ho Chi Minh trail went through these countries meant that the US could never deal with it fully.

3. Hearts and Minds – The US knew the importance of winning the support of the Vietnamese people, but their tactics failed to allow them to do this. American tactics also caused civilian deaths, and these turned the people of South Vietnam against the Americans. Look at the next example…

Problems for the USA

My Lai MassacreDate: March 1968Task: Search and Destroy mission in South VietnamBackground: Intelligence told them that My Lai was a Viet Cong HQ and home to 200 guerrilla fighters.Events: Orders were to destroy all the houses and livestock. They had been told that the villagers would have left for a Saturday market. Most believed that they were to kill all they found there.300-400 civilians were killed, mostly women, children and old men. Only 3 weapons were recovered.Aftermath: It took 12 months for this to come out but when photographs of the event appeared in Life magazine and some US papers, Congress was asked to investigate.

Media and Public Protest

The Media and public protest

- To start with the media supported the war and the military. The military created the MACV (Military Assistance Command, Vietnam) to liaise with journalists.

- 1967-8 saw a change in attitude however.- Television began to take over from newspapers and the footage of the street execution of a Viet Cong

suspect (see photo below) by Colonel Nguyen Noc Loan horrified America.- Doubts about the war were increasing, it had been going on for a while now after all. One of the most

famous reporters Walter Cronkite declared (as a result of the Tet Offensive – see next box!)that he thought the war was unwinnable. At this point Johnson knew that he had lost the support of ‘middle America’.

- Johnson had promised a ‘Great Society’ at his election but the cost of the Vietnam War undermined this promise. 30% of black Americans were drafted compared to 19% of whites!

- Students took up the protest and the chant ‘Hey, Hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today’ became well known. Many started to ‘draft dodge’ and in November 1969 there were 700,000 anti war protesters demonstrating in Washington DC.

- The Kent State university protest saw the National Guard open fire and kill 4 students and injure 11. The press were horrified and up to 2 million students went on strike.