Seait methods of r esearch

Intro to research

Research Problem

Related Literature

Methodology

Presentation Analysis and Interpretaion

Summary Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation

LESSON 1

Research is a key to progress, without research there will be no

progress in all human endeavor. –Calderon (1993)

Research could offer solution to our numerous, biological,

social, educational, cultural and behavioral problems. Our

health, economy, security depends largely on research.

4

Research is basic and it is paramount important in any

development at all times.- Bermudo et.al. (2010)-

Research is a course, fundamental requirements for a degree

Why study research?

Research is a process of gathering data or information to

solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific

manner (Manuel and Medel,1976 )

Research is a systematic process of collecting and

analyzing information or data in order to increase our

understanding of the phenomenon about which we are

concerned or interested in (Leedy &Ormrod, 2001)

5

Research is a systematic, testable and objective

nature of research permits careful examination of

the process and results (Allyn and Bacon, 2008)

What is Research?

What is Research?

Research is a scientific investigation of phenomenon which

includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of

facts that links on man’s speculation or assumption with reality

(Calmorin, 2010)

Research is a careful, systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of certain phenomenon which

involves accurate gathering and recording and critical

analyses and interpretation of all facts about the

phenomenon for theoretical or practical end (Ardales,nd )

6

RESEARCH is derived from the old French word cerchier

meaning to “ seek or search”, SEARCH meaning to investigate.

The prefix RE means again and signifies of the search. Literally

this mean to “ investigate again” (Garcia et.al.,2011)

To serve man and provide a good life

Discover more facts about unknown

phenomena

Find answer to the problems by existing

methods and information

Improve existing techniques and

develop new instruments or

products

Discover unrecognized

substance

Discover pathways of action

Order related, valid generalization into

systematized science

Provide basis for decision making

To satisfy researcher’s curiosity

To find answers to queries

Acquire better and deeper

understanding

To expand and verify existing knowledge

Improves efficiency, efficacy and quality

Improves exportations of

goods

Respond to economic recovery

& austerity

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

EMPERICALDirect experience or

observation

LOGICALValid procedure and

principles

CYCLICALStarts with problem & ends

with problem

ANALYTICALUtilizes proven analytical

procedures

CRITICALExhibits careful and precise

judgment

METHODICALUses systematic method

and procedures

REPLICABILITYRepeated to arrive at valid

and conclusive results

Charactersitics of Good Research

It provides hard facts which will bases for further research

It obtains knowledge for practical purposes

Develops and evaluates methods that tests concepts and theories

It develops and evaluates our concepts, practices and theories

It gathers information on subjects or phenomenon we lack or limited knowledge about it

Research corrects perceptions as well as expand them

9Functions of Research

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

Qualities 5 4 3 2 1

1. Research Oriented- researcher

continuously searches for knowledge with open

mindedness, novelty and solve existing problems

systematically

2. Efficient-produces results without wasting

time and resources

3. Scientific- exhibits principles and scientific

methods of science

4. Experiential- takes actual action, data,

information experimentally on field

5. Active- takes immediate action rather than

contemplation or speculation

SCALE:

5 EXCELLENT 3 SATISFACTORY 1 NEEDS IMPROVEMENT

4 VERY SATISFACTORY 2 FAIR

10


Qualities 5 4 3 2 1

6. Resourceful - meets situation, capable of

devising ways and means to solve specific problem

or arriving at a desired result

7.Creative - creates quality novel facts,

information or problems

8. Honest- establishes legal forms and

requirements free from fraud or deception

9. Economical-marks careful , efficient and

prudent use of resources

10. Religious - manifests faithful devotion to

acknowledge ultimate reality or deity

SCALE:

5 EXCELLENT 3 SATISFACTORY 1 NEEDS IMPROVEMENT

4 VERY SATISFACTORY 2 FAIR

11


INTERPRETATION:

1.00-1.80-NEEDS IMPROVEMENT

1.81.2.60-FAIR

2.61-3.40-SATISFACTORY

3.41-4.20-VERY SATISFACTORY;

4.21-5.0 EXCELLENT

12

Selective Observation Made up observationHindrances of Effective

Research

13

1. Traditions- accepted norms, beliefs,

practices and superstitions are true and

are part of the daily lives of men.

2. Authority- Accepting without question, an

opinion of someone who is considered in

authority on the subject.

3. Inaccurate observation- describing

wrongly what is actually observe

HINDRANCES OF EFFECTIVE RESEARCH14

4. Overgeneralization- establishing pattern out of few instances

5. Selective Observation – Persisting to believe an observed pattern from overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent pattern

6. Made-up information – making up information to explain away confusion.

HINDRANCES OF EFFECTIVE

RESEARCH15

7.Illogical Reasoning – attributing

something without logical bases.

8. Ego-involvement in understanding–

giving explanation when one finds

himself in an unfavorable situation.

9.Mystification– attributing to

supernatural power, phenomena

that cannot be understood.

16HINDRANCES OF EFFECTIVE RESEARCH

Idea Generating Phase

Problem-Definition Phase

Procedure Design Phase

Data Collection Phase

Data Analysis Phase

Interpretation Phase

Communication Phase

Research Problem

Statement of the Problem

Hypothesis

Scope and Delimitation

Significance of the Study

19

Where does idea come from?

Courtesy of youtube

WHERE GOOD IDEAS COME FROM by Steven Johnson.mp4

WHERE GOOD IDEAS COME FROM by Steven Johnson.mp4

Research Problem is any significant, perplexing situation, real or artificial solution that requires reflective thinking

Helps determine the direction of subsequent inquiry

A problem that someone would like to research

Source: Bermudo, et.al., (2010). Research Writing Made Simple. A Modular Approach for Graduate Students

Ho

w t

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nd

Id

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R

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Reading a lot if literature in your field of concentration and be critical to what you read

Attend professional lectures

Being a keen observer of situation and happening around you

Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lesson taken in content courses

Conducting mini-researches and note taking on the obtained findings

Compiling researches

Visiting various libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics

Subscribing to journals

Building up a library of materials in your field


STATEMENT OF THE

PROBLEM

Describes the general statement of the whole

problem followed by specific questions or

subproblems into general problem

Formulated at the beginning of the study

STA

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F T

HE P

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M


EXTERNAL

CRITERIA

1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary

duplication. Concerned with newness

2. Importance in the field

3. Availability of data

4. Choice of method

5. Funding support or sponsorship

6. Facilities and equipment

7. Ethical Considerations

INTERNAL

CRITERIA

1. Interest/ Experience of the researcher

2. Training

3. Cost

4. Time

SOURCE OF

PROBLEMS

1. Actual problems encountered

2. Technological changer and curricular

development

3. Graduate’s academic experience

4. Consultations

5. Specialization

6. Analysis of an area of knowledge

7. Consideration of exisitng practices and needs

8. Repetition or extension of investigation


WHY? ( Aim or purpose of the problem

for investigation)

WHAT? (the

subject matter or topic to be investigated)

WHERE? (the place of locale where

the research is to be

conducted)

WHEN? (The period or

time of the study during

which the data are to be gathered)

WHO? OR from whom?Population or universe from

whom the data are to be collected)

Research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or

study is to be conducted or that a problem is ready for

investigation, inquiry or study . (See et.a., 2000)


WHY? ( Aim or purpose of the problem

for investigation)

WHAT? (the

subject matter or topic to be investigated)

WHERE? (the place of locale where

the research is to be

conducted)

WHEN? (The period or

time of the study during

which the data are to be gathered)

WHO? OR from whom?Population or universe from

whom the data are to be collected)

WHY Aim/Purpose To determine the status of ...

WHAT Subject Matter The Teaching of Mathematics

WHERE Place or Locale National High Schools in General Santos City

WHEN Period or Time School Year 2009-2010

WHO Population/Universe The respondents are implied ito be teachers or pupils or both

TITLE:The Teaching of Mathematics in National High Schools in General Santos City

During SY 2009-2010

The Teaching of Mathematics in National High School in General Santos City

GU

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Top

ic1. The topic must be chosen by the researcher

It must be within the interest and specialization of the researcher

It must be within the competence of the researcher tackle

Within the ability of the researcher to finance

Data must be manageable

Are an available and accessible

Meet standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability

Answers specific questions

Hypothesis formulated are testable can be accepted or rejected

Equipments and instruments are available and can give valid and reliable results

Completed w/in reasonable time

Significant, important and relevant to present time and situation, timely and of current interest

Results are practical and implementable

Original, critical and promotes reflective thinking

Delimited to suit the resources of the researcher

Contribute to national development goals & human knowledge

Not undermine moral and spiritual values

Not advocate violence but peaceful means

Return of investment ( monetary, advancement of position, promotion, improve specialization, competence and skills in professional work.

GU

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1. General Statement of the

problem and sub-problems

should be formulated first.

2. State specific problems in interrogative

form.

3. Each specific questions must

be clear and unequivocal

4.Each question must be

researchable

5Questions must be based on

known facts and phenomena

6Questions can be interpreted

apart from other questions

7Answers must contribute to

complete development of

the study

8Specific questions should

be enough to cover the

development of the entire study

9There should be a general

statement of the problem and

broken into sub-problems

SA

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Research Title

•LOCAL FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT : ITS EFFECT ON THE DELIVERY OF BASIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES AND SATISFACTION OF BENEFICIARIES IN GENERAL SANTOS CITY


•This study describes the financial management of the City of General Santos and its effect on the delivery of basic health and social services and satisfaction of beneficiaries in General Santos City as perceived by both implementors and beneficiaries. Specifically , the answered the following questions:

Specific Problems

•1. What are the perceptions of implementors on the handling of financial resources for the delivery of basic health and social services to General Santos City constituent?

•2. How is the delivery of the basic health and social services perceived by the implementors and beneficiaries?

•3. What is the level of satisfaction of the beneficiaries in the availment of basic health and social service?

•4. How has the city’s financial management affected the delivery of basic health and social services?

•5. How has the delivery of basic health and social services affected the satisfaction of the beneficiaries?

•6. What are the problems encountered in the delivery and availment of the basic health and social services?

•7. How have the problems encountered in the delivery and availment of basic health and social services affected:

• a. the delivery of the basic services by the implementors?

• b. the satisfaction of the beneficiaries?

WHY( Aim or

purpose of the

problem)

WHAT(IndependentVariable)

WHAT(Dependent

Variables)

WHEREPlace or

locale where

the research

is to be

conducted

WHENPeriod or time

of the study

during w/c the

data are to be

gathered

WHOPopulation or

universe from

whom the

data are to

be collected

Find the

perceived

effect on

delivery and

satisfaction

Financial

Management

System

Delivery of

Services

Satisfaction of

Beneficiaries

General

Santos City

Implementors

and

Beneficiaries

SA

MP

LE

RESEA

RC

H S

TUD

Y

Research Title

•ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE, CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY AND EFFECTTO TEACHER’S PERFORMANCE AMONG SECONDARY TEACHERS OF GENERAL SANTOS CITY DIVISION: BASES FOR TEACHERS’ COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM


•This study aimed to design a Teacher’s Competency Development Program for the secondary schools teachers in General Santos City Division. Specifically, this study attempted to answer the following questions;

Specific Problems

•What is the teachers’ degree of adaptation to organizational change in secondary schools of GSC Division as perceived by the teachers themselves and their administrators in the areas of

2.1.External Change;

2.1.1Demographics characteristics

2.1.2.Political Pressures

2.1.3.Social Pressures

2.2. Internal Change?

2.2.1.Emergence of Human Resource Problems

2.2.2.Managerial Behavior

2.2.3.Decision making

What are the organizational changes that affect the performance of secondary teachers in General Santos City Division?

Are there significant difference in the degree of teachers’ adaptation to organizational change as perceived by themselves and the administrators in secondary schools of GSC Division?

WHY( Aim or

purpose of the

problem)

WHAT(IndependentVariable)

WHAT(Dependent

Variables)

WHEREPlace or

locale where

the research

is to be

conducted

WHENPeriod or time of

the study during

w/c the data are

to be gathered

WHOPopulation or

universe from

whom the data

are to be

collected

Design a

teachers

competency

development

program

Org. Change

Culture

Technology

Teachers

Performance

Secondary

Teachers in

General

Santos City

Division

Secondary

Teachers and

Administrators

Is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated

guess about the answer to a specific questions

HY

PO

THESIS OPERATIONAL FORM

Stated in affirmative and that there is a difference between two

phenomena

NULL FORMstated in negative and that there is no

difference between two phenomena. In other words it expresses equality between

two phenomena

GU

IDE

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ES

in

fo

rmu

lati

ng

h

yp

oth

es

is

Experimental investigations,

hypothesis have to be

explicit, they have to be

express also in comparative

and correllational

studies

In descriptive and historical investigation, hypothesis is

seldom expressed if not entirely

absent

It is usually stated in

null hypothesis

It is formulated from the specific

questions upon which

they are based.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The rationale, timeliness and relevance of the study

Possible solutions to existing or improvement to unsatisfactory

conditions

Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited

Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge

Possible implication

SIG

NIF

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NC

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OF T

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GUIDELINES IN WRITING SCOPE & DELIMITATION

Brief statement of the general purpose of the

study

The subject matter and topics studied and discussed

The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the

entity to which the data belong

The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be

large to make generalizations significant.

The period of the study, this is the time, either months or

years, during which the data were gathered.

SC

OPE A

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Review of Related Literature

Review of Related Studies

Conceptual Framework

Definition of Terms

• A Literature review is helpful in two ways.

• It will not only help researchers clean the ideas of others interested in a particular research question,

• but it also lets them read about the results of the other studies.

Why Literature is of value?

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GENERAL REFERENCES -are the sources researchers often refer to first. Like articles, monographs, books and other documents that deals directly with the research question. Most general references are either indexes, which list the author, title and place of publication of articles

•Education Index-

•Current Index to Journals

•(ERIC)Resource in Education (RIE)

•Psychological Abstracts

PRIMARY SOURCES -

are publication in which

researchers report the

results of their studies. Authors communicate their findings

directly to readers, most of these are

journals

SECONDARY SOURCESrefer to publications in which authors describe the work of others like textbooks.

• Encyclopedia of Educational Research

• Handbook of Research on Teaching

• National Society for the Study of Education Yearbooks

• Review of Educational Research

• Review of Research in Education

• Subject Guide to Books in Print

STE

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STEP 1: Define The

research problem as precisely as

possible

STEP 2: Look at relevant

secondary sources

STEP 3: Select the peruse

one or two appropriate

general reference works

STEP 4: Formulate search terms (keywords

or phrases) pertinent to the

problem or question of

interest

STEP 5: Search the

general references for

relevant primary sources

STEP 6:

Obtain and read relevant primary sources and note and summarize

key points in the sources.

SEA

RC

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REFER

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If there are any articles related to topic under the descriptors then list the bibliographical data of pertinent articles on

bibliographic cards (5x8 inch index card) write the researchers topic, the author, title, page, publication date and publication source . A separate note card should be used for

each reference listed.

Research Topic:

Author:

Title of the Book:

Publication Date:

Publication Source:

Pages:

===========================================

===

(Write your data/ information searched)

Research Topic:

Author:

Thesis / DissertationTitle:

Publication Date:

Name of the University:

Pages:

==============================================

(Write your data/ information searched)

HO

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SO

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Reading the primary source. When all the desired journal articles are gathered together, the review can begin

It is good idea to begin with the most recent articles and work backward.

Read the abstract or summary first. This will tell whether the article is worth reading in its entirety.

Record the bibliographic data at the top of a note card

Take notes on the article or photocopy the abstract or summary. Almost all research articles follow approximately the same format. They usually include an abstract; an introductory section that presents the research problem or question and reviews other related studies; the objectives of the study or the hypotheses to be tested; a description of the research procedures including the subject studied, the research design.

LEADING SEARCH ENGINES

Altavista (http://www.altavista.com) fast, powerful and comprehensive. It is extremely good in locating obscure facts

and offers the best field-search capabilities.

Excite ( http://www.excite.com) particularly strong on locating current news articles and information about travel

Google (http://www.google.com) Increasingly popular. A very detailed directory. Good place to go first when doing a search

on the internet

HotBot (http://www.hotbot.com) very easy to use when searching for multimedia files or to locate websited by

geography.

Lycos (http://www.lycos.com) offers very good websites reviews. Has a very good multimedia search feature.

Teoma (http://www.teoma.com) very good review and easy to use

LEA

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http://www.altavista.com/

http://www.excite.com/

http://www.google.com/

http://www.hotbot.com/

http://www.lycos.com/

http://www.teoma.com/

The Introduction

The body of the review

The summary of the review

Any conclusions

the researcher

feels

A bibliography

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Writing Review of Related Literature and Studies

The Introduction briefly describes the nature of the research problem and states the research questions. The researcher also explains in this section what led him or her to investigate the question and why it is an important question to investigate

The body of the review briefly reports what others have found or thought about the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed together, grouped under subheads. Major studies are described in more detail, while less important work can be reffered to several studies that reported similar results in a single sentence, somewhat like this : “Several other small scale studies reported similar results (Adams,1976; Brown,1980; Cartright,1981; Davis,1985)”

The summary of the review ties together the main threads revealed in the literature reviewed and presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date. Findings may be tabulated to give readers some idea of how many others researchers have reported identical or similar findings or have similar recommendations

Any conclusions the researcher feels are justified based on the state of knowledge revealed in the literature should be included. What

does the literature suggest are appropriate courses of action to take to try to solve the problem?

A bibliography with full bibliographic data for all sources mentioned in the review is essential. There are many ways to format reference lists

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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A tentative explanation of phenomenon

problems that serves as basis in

formulating research hypothesis.

Considered as central

theme, focus, and main

thrust of the study

INPUT

• Qualified Teachers

• Effective Methods

• Adequate Facilities

• Adequate Supervisory Assistance

PROCESS

• Science

• Instructional

• Program

OUTPUTs

• Superior Science Knowledge and skills of the students

VA

RIA

BLE

A variable is defined as something that varies or any observation/

characteristics which assume different values. Additionally, variables

may represent persons or objects that can be manipulated,

controlled, or merely measured in a research study. In contrast

to a variable, the value of a constant is fixed.

1. Qualitative Variables – This type of variable differ in kind rather than in degree or magnitude (ex.

marital status, gender, nationality)

a. Dichotomous variable – having only two categories

Real dichotomy – like sex : Female/Male

Artificial Dichotomy – like slow learners/ fast learners

a. Multinomial variable – This type of variable having three or more categories (Ex.

Educational status)

1. Quantitative variables – this type of variable differ in degree or magnitude rather than kind (Ex.

Income, age)

a. Discrete / discontinuous –has fixed values(whole numbers )

ex: # of children / siblings

for nominal and ordinal

a. Continuous – with decimal point or any value in the scale

- examples : weight, grade, age (16 ¾), size, distance

VA

RIA

BLE

According to Scale / Level of Measurement

Nominal

This provides categories for labeling or classifying objects or events

For mutually exclusive categories (observation assign in category but differ in kind only.

For example : sex , marital status , religion , tribe , sections

They can be measured only in terms of whether the individual items belong to certain

distinct categories, but we cannot quantify or even rank order the categories

Nominal data has no order, and the assignment of numbers to categories is purely

arbitrary. Because of lack of order or equal intervals, one cannot perform arithmetic (+, -,

/, *) or logical operations (>, <, =) on the nominal data

1. Ordinal

This provides a system for ranking observations, items or objects (< or >)

Examples: yr level, honors, sizes of blouses, sectioning- homogenous.

Ordinal data have order, but the intervals between scale points may be uneven.

Because of lack of equal distances, arithmetic operations are impossible, but logical

operations can be performed. A typical example of an ordinal variable is the socio-

economic status of families.

Ordinal scale data are very frequently used in social and behavioral research.

VA

RIA

BLE

Interval

This incorporates all properties of nominal or ordinal scale but

go beyond in that categories consist of equal intervals, which

mean that the distance of each individual is known.

Ex : pressure/ calendar/ scholastic grades/Celsius/time

1. Ratio

This is a special form of interval scale that has true zero point at

which the

characteristics is presumed to be absent.

Examples : age, weight/Kelvin/length/pitch/height

VA

RIA

BLE

According to their Function in Research

1. Independent Variable (IV)

It is the variable that is referred as the “assumed

cause or treatment” of a problem and the reason for

any change in the dependent variable.

It may also be referred as stimulus, control,

explanatory, predictor, or manipulated variable

A predictor variable/ controlled or manipulated by the

researcher

factors that are thought to be explanatory (x- axis)

Ex : IQ, Study Habits, Sex

VA

RIA

BLE

According to their Function in Research

Dependent Variable (DV)The variable that is referred as the “assumed” effect

of another variable which is being measured as an

outcome of the study It may also be referred as,

response, or explained variable criterion variable or

variable being measured (y-axis)

Ex : Academic Performance, OpinionIt is the “assumed effect or outcome, response” of

another variable

VA

RIA

BLE

Dependent Variable (Y)

Intentionally left alone

Measured

Vary at unknown rate

Response

Effect

Synonymous to:

outcome, response variable

Independent Variable (X)

Intentionally manipulated

Controlled

Vary at known rate

Stimulus

Cause or treatment

Synonymous to

control, predictor variable

VS

COMPARISON between Independent Variable and Dependent Variable

Intervening or Moderator Variable

This variable attempts to work and clarify the relationship

between the independent and dependent variables. As a result,

it may weaken or strengthen the effect the relationship of

independent on dependent variable. .For example; this might bea concept such as self – efficacy or social accountability.

--Why did the intervention have an effect?

Abstract

Reasoning AbilityAcademic Achievement in Math

“The Relationship Between Abstract Reasoning Ability and Academic

Achievements in Math Among High School Students”Independent Dependent

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Terms should be defined

operationally, that is how they are used in

the study.

The researcher may develop his own

definition from the characteristics of the

term defined.

Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books,

magazines and newspaper articles, dictionaries and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his sources. Definitions taken from published

materials are called conceptual or theoretical

definitions.

Definitions should be as brief, clear and

unequivocal as possible.

Acronyms should always be spelled

out fully especially if it is not commonly

known or if it is used for the first time.

DEFIN

ITIO

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OF T

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MS

Research Design

Respondents and Sampling Techniques

Research Instruments

Research Procedure

Statistical Treatment

WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ?

Task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the research project, popularly known as the “research design".

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.

52

Chapter 3 Research Method

Meaning of research design

1

• A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

2

• Blueprint of the study. It guides the collection, measurement and analysis of data

3• A plan or

structure of the investigation in order to obtain answers to research questions. It outline what the researcher would like to do until the final analysis of the data

53


Sampling Design

Which deals with

the methods of

selecting items to be observed

for the study.

Observational design

Which relates to

the condition

under which the

observation are to be

create

Statistical Design

Which concern the question of the of How

the information and data

gathered are to be

analyzed ?

Operational design

Which deals with

techniques by which

the procedures satisfied in sampling .

Parts of Research Design

54


A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the following features.

The mean of obtaining information.

The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any.

The objective of the problem to be studied.

The nature of the problem to be studied .

The availability of time and money for the research work.

Features of Good RS

55


Different research design

In case of

Exploratory

research study

in case of descriptive

and diagnostic

research

In case of hypothesis-

testing research

studies

exploratory research method are also termed as formulative research studied.

The main purpose is that of formulate the research problem .three methods are

1. The survey of concerning literature

2. The experience survey

3. The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating

in case of descriptive research study –one those studied which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular Individual , or a group.In diagnostic research study determine the frequency which some thing occur

hypothesis-testing research studies known as experimental studies are those researcher tests the hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.

56


Difference between

formulative= descriptive/diagnostic

Flexible design

Judgmental sampling

No pre-determined design

No fixed decision about the operational procedures

No flexibility

Random sampling

Pre-determined design for analysis

Advanced decisions

57


Type Purpose Time frame Degree of control

Examples

Experimental Test for cause/

effect relationships

current High Comparing two

types of treatments for anxiety.

Quasi-experi-mental

Test for cause/

effect

relationships

without full control

Current or past

Moderate to high

Gender differences

in visual/spatial abilities

Non-

experimental -

correlational

Examine

relationship

between two

variables

Current

(cross-

sectional)

or past

Low to

medium

Relationship

between studying

style and grade

point average.

Ex post facto Examine the

effect of past

event on

current

functioning.

Past &

current

Low to

medium

Relationship

between history of

child abuse &

depression.

Research Designs/Approaches

58Chapter 3 Research Method

Research Designs/ApproachesType Purpose Time frame Degree

of controlExamples

Non-

experiment

al

correlation

al

Examine

relationship bet 2

var. where 1 is

measured later.

Future -

predictive

Low to

moderate

Relationship bet

history of

depression &

development of

cancer.

Cohort-

sequential

Examine change

in a var. over

time in

overlapping

groups.

Future Low to

moderate

How mother-

child negativity

changed over

adolescence.

Survey Assess opinions or

characteristics

that exist at a

given time.

Current None or low Voting

preferences

before an

election.

Qualitative Discover

potential

relationships;

descriptive.

Past or

current

None or Low People’s

experiences of

quitting smoking.

59Chapter 3 Research Method

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTSOne of the most important components of a

research design is the research instruments

because they gather or collect data or information.

These research instruments or tools are ways of gathering data. Without them, data would be impossible to put in hand.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Questionnaire -The most common instrument or tool of

research for obtaining the data beyond the physical reach of the observer

CLOSED FORM OR CLOSED ENDED OR OPEN FORM/ OPEN ENDED

Guidelines in Using

the Questionnaire

1. Clarity of

language

2. Singleness of

purpose

3. Relevant to the

objective of

the study

4. Correct

grammar

Advantages Disadvantages

Facilitates data gathering

Is easy to test data for

reliability and validity

Is less time-consuming

than interview and

observation

Preserves the anonymity

and confidentiality of the

respondents’ reactions and

answers

Printing and mailing are costlyResponse rate maybe lowRespondents may provide only socially acceptable answersThere is less chance to clarify ambiguous answerRespondents must be literate and with no physical handicapsRate of retrieval can be low because retrieval itself is difficult


Interview -It is in a sense of an oral

questionnaire. Instead of writing the response, the interviewee gives the needed information orally and face-to-face. With a skillful interviewer, the interview is often superior to other data-gathering device.

The purposes of interview are :

- to verify information gathered

from written sources

- to clarify points of information

- to update information and

- to collect data

TYPES

1. Structured or

standardize

2. Unstructured or

unstandardized

3. Telephone

Interview


Rating Scale -It involves

qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or traits of a person.

TYPES

1. Thurstone Tehnique

2.Likert Method

3.Semantic Differential


Checklist- The simplest of the devices, consists of a

prepared list of items. The presence or absence of the item may be indicated by inserting the appropriate word or number. Use in descriptive and historical researchers

Sociometry- Technique for describing the social relationships among individuals in a group. In a indirect way it attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations

Document or Content Analysis- Used as a main tool of research or a subsidiary tool Main tool in historical research but a subsidiary tool in descriptive research and less used in experimental research


Scorecard- A rating that may yield a total weighted score that can be used in evaluating communities, buildings, sites, schools, or textbooks. Similar in some respect to checklist and rating scale

Teacher or Research Made Tools- Very popular in research. Part of the overall instruments used in research studies. It combined with other standardized tests in the assessment of individuals’ operations and situations


Tape Recorded Data - Observe through the ear as well as through the eye. Also use video tape recorder or radio cassette recorder

Tape Recorded Data - An information form that attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. Also known as attitude scale

Observation - Perceiving data through the senses: sight, hearing, taste touch and smell. Most direct way

used in studying individual behavior

Participant and non-participant observation

Structured and unstructured observation

Controlled and uncontrolled observation


Psychological Test- An instrument designed to describe and measure a sample of certain aspects of human behavior. E.g. performance, achievement, personality and projective devices

Ready to Use Instrument of Standardize Test- Product of long years of study. Tend to be highly reliable and cover a wide range of student performance level.

Criteria for Measuring

1. VALIDITY- measure what is intends to measure

2. RELIABILITY- stability in maintaining consistent

measurement in a test administered twice

Matching methods to research paradigm

Method Quantitative QualitativeWritten

Instrument

Standardized Instrument

(validity and reliability

established)

Constructed survey or

interview guide (Use some

questions from other surveys;

construct new questions). May

determine validity and

reliability after administration

No predeveloped questions in survey

or interview guide

Predeveloped questions – may be

administered in no established order;

questions may be added depending

on circumstances.

Predeveloped questions – established

order

Observation Structured observation –

predetermined items are

counted in terms of frequency,

duration, occurrence,

permanent product, etc.

Open-ended observations – trying to

identify themes and patters

Content

analysis

Structured counting of a pre-

determined phenomena in

terms of frequency, etc.

Open-ended analysis; themes and

patterns are identified.

SAMPLING DESIGNSampling is a process of choosing a representative portion of

a population to represent the entire population.

Sample. It is a proportion, an element or a part of the

population which is scientifically and randomly drawn that

actually possesses the same characteristics as the population.

This implies that every person has an equal opportunity to be

selected for your sample

Sample size is the number of subjects in your study.

Margin of Error is the allowable error in percent due to the use

of the sample, instead of the population

Sampling Error is the error attributed to chance difference

between a random sample and the chosen population. It

does not result from measurement or computation errors but

contributory to inaccuracy of data.

SAMPLE VS POPULATION

As follows are some reasons why researchers use a sample

rather than the entire population in the conduct of their study.

Sometimes population is difficult to identify who makes up the

entire population.

Sample is cheaper, faster, more accurate and can yield to

more comprehensive information.

Getting the population is too costly in terms of human

resources and other expenses, and time consuming.

In population, there is a lot of error to control and monitor.

Sometimes lists are rarely up to date.

Keys to Good Sampling Defective Sampling

formulate the aims of the study

decide what analysis is required

to satisfy this aims

decide what data are required

to facilitate the analysis

collect the data required by the

study

Sampling that is too small or not

a representative will be biased,

invalid and unreliable.

The sampling becomes very

complicate if the population is

too large or has many sections

and subsection.

The sample (respondents) should

have common characteristics in

order to eradicate faulty

conclusions.

The sampling becomes biased

and unrepresentative if the

researcher does not possess the

necessary skills and technical

know-how of the sampling

procedure.

Types of Sampling Technique

Non-probability Sampling (Non-

scientific). This type of sampling

does not provide every member

of the population an equal

chance of being selected as part

of the sample.

Probability Sampling (Scientific

sampling). In this type of

sampling, the researcher follows

a procedure that assures that all

elements in the population are

given equal chance of being

selected as a sample unit

Purposive sampling is

Quota sampling

Convenience sampling,

Simple random sampling

Systematic random sampling

Stratfied random sampling

Cluster random sampling

Multi-stage sampling

Data Processing

Sample Table Results

DATA PROCESSING

Data which are correct, accurate,

consistent and complete

Data which are coded, organized and

easily stored.

Tables, graphs and other data presentation

which are easily generated.

Statistical analysis and outputs which can

be easily and quickly made.

is the process of categorizing, organizing and presenting

data in order to have efficient processing of statistical

analysis and accurate interpretation.

STE

PS IN

DA

TA

PR

OC

ESSIN

G

RAW DATA

EDITING

CODING

PREPARATION OF DATA/ TABLE/ GRAPH

DATA ANALYSIS

REFERENCES: ( Rebustes, 2002 and Bermudo et.al,2010)

RA

W D

ATA

An information or data taking from sources can either be taken from different sources like

a. Questionnaires

b. Interview data

c. Documents

d. Observations

e. Focus Group Discussions

Source: Catane, Juliet( 2000). Conducting Research. A Practical Application

ED

ITIN

GThe researcher should first edit the retrieved questionnaires, interviews or observations conducted to detect errors or omissions and correct them when possible to assure that the minimum data are

(1) accurate

(2) consistent with other information

(3) uniformly entered

(4) complete and

(5) arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010

CO

DIN

GA process of groupings and assigning numeric codes to facilitate analysis of respondents responses to questions. The following are some tips in coding data.

Determine whether the responses to the questions asked are names or numbers. If the responses are names, then the researcher can use numeric codes.

Always place the code for each variable at the bottom part of the questionnaire or data matrix and mark it “legend”


Pre

pa

ratio

n o

f

Da

ta M

atr

ix

The researcher should prepare a data matrix or template to facilitate preparation of tables before analyzing the data. For computer-generated data, the researchers are advised to follow the steps in the preparation of the data matrix (Bermudo et.al, 2010).

Determine the variables used in the study

Count the number of variables as found in the questionnaire. The number of columns in the matrix or worksheet should be the same os the number of variables found in the questionnaire.

Pre-numbered the questionnaire retrieved. If your respondents are grouped then, number them chronologically from 1 to n. Do this for the rest of the group.

Enter the responses for each respondent in the matrix using the code you previously decide to use

The columns represents the variables or the study and the rows represent the respondents. Thus, all responses of the respondents are entered in one row.


Pre

pa

ratio

n

of

Tab

les

The researcher will now organized the data into logical, sequential and meaningful categories and classification in order to make them amenable to analysis and interpretation (Rebustes,2002).

TABLES provide a more precise description of the results and figures makes it easier to see trends or patterns in the

data. Whichever the researcher chooses, trends must be discussed in the text itself. The highest and least figures or findings of the study normally highlighted in the textual presentation. Data from these tables are integrated into the textual discussion. In framing the table, the researcher must be guided by specific questions as presented in statement of the problem. The table should clearly define the problem to be answered. It should bear captions and headings to ensure facility in understanding data aimed to answer questions posed (Bermudo et.al,2010)

GRAPHS. Data presented in graphs add clarity, more impact and color to the study. Graphs however, becomes useful if the research tries to compare one data from the other.


Da

ta A

na

lysi

s &

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

During the interpretation of data, both the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study are considered. It is in this part where the researcher looks for theories or earlier studies, findings of which substantiate or repudiate the findings of the present research being discussed.

When certain elements of the theoretical backgrounds do not conform the researcher justifies why this is so relating to theories, principles, related literature and studies or conditions attributed to the present study.

The following levels of interpretation of data may be observed (Bermudo et.al,2010).


Da

ta A

na

lysi

s &

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

Level 1 TRENDING

The interpretation of the findings of the investigation focuses mostly on qualitative description i.e. ranks, order, ratio and others which established implications as to skewedness, distribution and other features showing direction, heaviness, preferences or strength, among others, but independently

LEVEL 2

CLASSIFYINGFindings of the study are categorized given meanings, where implications of the study are drawn.

LEVEL 3

SERIATINGFindings of the study are categorized, given meaning and scaled as to magnitude, degree, enormity or importance, among others


Da

ta A

na

lysi

s &

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

LEVEL 4

CORRELATING Findings of the study are categorized given meaning, measures and compared with other factors to established variation or relationship

LEVEL 5

THEORIZING

Findings of the study resulted to a statistically defined steady associations of factors, path and relationships where logical constructs and generalization explains the phenomenon investigated resulting to a theory.



Variables Frequency Percent

Age

63-69

56-62

49-55

42-48

Total

Ordinal Variables:

like age, number of

years in service

and monthly salary.

Sex # of

Respondents

(n)

% (n/N x100)

Male 40 40

Female 60 60

Total 100 100

Frequency and

Percentage

Distribution. It consists

of summarized data &

the information

derived from such can

tell the relationship

between a part to its

whole.


Leadership Skills Weighte

d Means

Verbal

Interpret

ations

Rank

Human Skills 4.583 Very

High

2

Technical Skills 4.382 High 3

Administrative

Skills

4.623 Very

High

1

Institutional Skills 4.302 High 4

Interpretation: Through ranking, it is

shown that the middle

managers were best in

Administrative Skills

(Rank 1) followed by

Human Relation Skills

(Rank2), Technical

Skills (Rank 3) and last

in Institutional Skills

(Rank 4).

Indicators WM INTERPRETATION

1.Punctuality 3.583 VS

2.Tardiness 4.293 O

Weighted Mean 3.938 VS

Weighted Mean. This is

used when the

options to the items of

the questionnaire are

assigned points.


Inferential Statistics – deals with the description of the parameters

based on the characteristics of a representative sample. It consists

of procedures for making generalizations about characteristics of

the population, based on information contained in a sample taken

from the population. When the entire population is studies there is no

need to use inferential statistical method since the parameters of

interest in the population can be exactly computed.

Parametric Tests (require normal distribution and utilize both interval

and ratio data)

Mean z-value p-value Decision remarks

Method A 70

-4.27 0.070 Reject Ho

Method B is

more

effectiveMethod B 74.0

z-test – used for testing significance for n>30 (greater than)



and ratio data)

GROUP Mean

Gain

Score

SD No of

Items

t-stat p-value remarks

Experiment

al

4.11 2.78 27 4.33 0.000025 Significa

nt

Control 0.92 3.51

t-test - used for testing significance for n<30 (less than)- used to test the significance of 2 independent samples

- used to compare 2 means (before and after treatment)

Source of

Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit

Remarks

Between

Groups 73.6875 3 24.5625

10.62162 0.001075 3.490295

significa

ntWithin Groups 27.75 12 2.3125

Total 101.4375 15

F-test or Analysis of Variance or ANOVA - This is used to test the means of 3 or more independent samples



and ratio data)

Indicator Model

Instructional Competence Y=4.057 - 0.013(CL) + 0.081(UIT) -0.093(IL)

Professional and Personal

Characteristics

Y=4.266 +0.018(CL) + 0.063(UIT) -0.091(IL)

Punctuality and

Attendance

Y=3.949 - 0.057(CL) - 0.162(UIT) +0.188(IL)

Organizational Technology on Teacher’s Performance


Non- Parametric Tests (don’t require normal distribution and utilize

both nominal and ordinal data)

Chi-square Test (

CHI-SQUARE TEST- is a test of difference between the

observed frequencies and expected frequencies

Kruskal-Wallis Test or H-Test -this is used to compare 3

or more independent groups… an alternative for

Anova in parametric test

Source of

Variation df H P-value H crit

Remarks

Teaching

oriented

2 19.17566

40.001075 9.21 significant

Teachers

Administration

Oriented

Research

Oriented

Total

Data Processing

Sample Table Results

Overview of the Contents. First introduce the chapter by providing an overview of contents.

Resume of the Study. Provide a brief resume of the study indicating the main problem and specific problems, the research methods used, the tools used in gathering the data, the respondents of the study, methods used and how the data were statistically treated. All these parts must be explained/ described briefly in just one paragraph.

Summary of Findings.This section includes the summary of findings which are based on the statement of the problems or objectives. If the study has five (5) specific problems, there must be also five major findings of the study. However, the researcher should not limit their findings to the number of specific questions. The subheadings under specific questions being answer will give clarity and coherence of the presentation. This will accommodate several related findings under one specific problem. However, a summary of all the findings to be problem be presented under one heading.

Conclusions. Write down the conclusions drawn from the findings of the study. This part gives the direct answers to the problems posed in the study. As mentioned previously, generally, if the study has five (5) specific questions, it must also have 5 conclusions. No further elaboration is required in writing the conclusions. Here are some guidelines in writing conclusions (Rebustes, 2002).

1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implication,

interpretation, general statements and/or generalizations based upon findings.

They should not contain any numerals because it will limit the forceful effect or

impact and the scope of the generalization. No conclusions should be made

that are not based upon findings

2. Conclusions should appropriately answer specific questions raised at the

beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement

of the problem.

3. It should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. No conclusions

should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings

4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet they

convey all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by

specific questions.

5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated

categorically. They should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and

correct. They should not give any hint that the researcher have some doubts

about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as probably,

perhaps, may be and the like should be avoided as much as possible.

6. Conclusions should refer only to the populations, area or subject of the study.

7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis.

They may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently

and they should convey the same information as the statement recapitulated.

Conclusions. Write down the conclusions drawn from the findings of the study. This part gives the direct answers to the problems posed in the study. As mentioned previously, generally, if the study has five (5) specific questions, it must also have 5 conclusions. No further elaboration is required in writing the conclusions. Here are some guidelines in writing conclusions (Rebustes, 2002).

Recommendations. Recommendations should follow the same logical flow as the findings and interpretations; presenting each around the major theme or results of testing in the same order (Creswell, 2004). Recommendations are suggestions for actions, how leaders can apply the results of the study, for whom, when, and where. Recommendations state who needs to pay attention to the research results, and how the results might be disseminated (Simon, 2006). Relate each recommendation back to the problem. Include a narrative of topics that need closer examination to generate a new round of questions. Be sure to make specific recommendations for leaders in the field and policy makers. Below are the characteristics of a good recommendations (Rebustes,2002)

1. Recommendations should aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in

the investigation.

2. No recommendations should be made for a problem or anything for that

matter that has not been discovered or discussed in the study.

Recommendations for things not discussed in the study are irrelevant.

3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good

practice or system or even recommendations for its improvement. This is to

ensure a continuous benefit being accorded to the universe involved.

4. Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible,

practical, doable or attainable. It is useless to recommend the impossible.

This, of course depends upon the situation.

5. Recommendations should be logical and valid.If the problem is the lack of

facilities, it is only logical to recommend the acquisition of the lacking

facilities

6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies or

offices who or which are in the position to implement them.

7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in

other places to verify, amplify or negate the findings of the study. This is

necessary so that if the findings are the same, generalizations of wider

application can be formulated.

Offer areas for further research. These are topics to be researched which are usually offshoots of the present investigation. The topics to be suggested should be those which have bearing to the study investigated, replication of the study to be conducted in other places and some possible gaps which the researcher failed to include but which were found important in the holistic solution of the problem.

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