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The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution
Key ConceptsKey Concepts
I. The Aristotelian UniverseI. The Aristotelian Universe
Derived from Ptolemy, Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and PlatoAristotle, and Plato
Classical Writings Classical Writings ““ChristianizedChristianized””
Components of Medieval Components of Medieval CosmologyCosmology
Medieval PhysicsMedieval Physics Belief in Belief in ““MatterMatter”” and and ““FormForm””
Earth = Living, Protected Earth = Living, Protected SphereSphere
II. Scientific II. Scientific ““RevolutionariesRevolutionaries””
A. Copernicus (1473-1543)A. Copernicus (1473-1543)
Aim to glorify GodAim to glorify God Sun-centered universeSun-centered universe Challenged circular orbitsChallenged circular orbits Universe of staggering Universe of staggering
sizesize Earth no different than Earth no different than
any other planetany other planet On the Revolutions of the On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly SpheresHeavenly Spheres (1543) (1543)
B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Most sophisticated Most sophisticated observatory of his dayobservatory of his day
Arrogant noblemanArrogant nobleman Remained an Remained an
AristotelianAristotelian Discovered comet Discovered comet
shooting right through shooting right through crystalline spherescrystalline spheres
C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Student of BraheStudent of Brahe Planetary motion Planetary motion
conforms to conforms to mathematical formulamathematical formula
Elliptical orbitsElliptical orbits Planets do not move Planets do not move
at uniform speeds in at uniform speeds in their orbitstheir orbits
D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Early practitioner of the Early practitioner of the experimental methodexperimental method
Mathematical formula for Mathematical formula for acceleration of falling acceleration of falling objectsobjects
Law of inertiaLaw of inertia His discoveries using the His discoveries using the
telescopetelescope Challenges categories of Challenges categories of ““formform”” and and ““mattermatter””
End of his lifeEnd of his life
E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Newton far from the Newton far from the perfect rationalistperfect rationalist
A great synthesizerA great synthesizer Blends inductive and Blends inductive and
deductive methodsdeductive methods Argues for a universe Argues for a universe
governed by natural lawsgoverned by natural laws Principia; Mathematical Principia; Mathematical
Principles of Natural Principles of Natural PhilosophyPhilosophy (1687) (1687)
F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Father of the Father of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution
The Inductive MethodThe Inductive Method Emphasis on Emphasis on
practical, useful practical, useful knowledgeknowledge
New attitude toward New attitude toward naturenature
G. Rene Descartes (1596-G. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)1650)
Significance of DoubtSignificance of Doubt The Deductive The Deductive
MethodMethod Spatial relationships Spatial relationships
can be expressed in can be expressed in mathematical mathematical formulasformulas
Father of Father of ““analytical analytical geometrygeometry””
III. Causes of the Scientific III. Causes of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution
Medieval Intellectual Life Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Universitiesand Medieval Universities
The Italian RenaissanceThe Italian Renaissance Renewed emphasis on Renewed emphasis on
mathematicsmathematics Renaissance system of Renaissance system of
patronagepatronage Navigational problems of Navigational problems of
long sea voyageslong sea voyages Better scientific Better scientific
instrumentsinstruments
IV. Consequences of the Scientific IV. Consequences of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution
Rise of the Rise of the ““Scientific Scientific CommunityCommunity””--Royal Society of London --Royal Society of London (1662)(1662)--Academy of Royal --Academy of Royal Sciences (1666)Sciences (1666)
The modern scientific The modern scientific methodmethod
A universe ordered A universe ordered according to natural lawsaccording to natural laws
IV. Consequences of the Scientific IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution (cont)Revolution (cont)
Laws discovered by Laws discovered by human reasonhuman reason
““De-SpiritualizedDe-Spiritualized”” and de- and de-mystified the Universemystified the Universe
Mechanical View of the Mechanical View of the UniverseUniverse
Deistic View of GodDeistic View of God--God as the cosmic --God as the cosmic capitalistcapitalist
The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment
““Siecle de LumiereSiecle de Lumiere””““The Century of LightThe Century of Light””
I. What was it?I. What was it? Progressive, Rationalistic, Progressive, Rationalistic,
Humanistic worldviewHumanistic worldview Emerged out of the Emerged out of the
Scientific Revolution and Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French culminated in the French RevolutionRevolution
Spokesmen = Rising Spokesmen = Rising Middle ClassMiddle Class
Paris = Center of Paris = Center of EnlightenmentEnlightenment
Optimism about Optimism about mankindmankind’’s abilitiess abilities
II. Key IdeasII. Key Ideas
Distrust of Tradition Distrust of Tradition and Revealed and Revealed ReligionReligion
Scientific method Scientific method could be applied to could be applied to society as wellsociety as well
Society can get better Society can get better as risks are takenas risks are taken
Man is naturally goodMan is naturally good Good life is on earthGood life is on earth
III. An Attack on the Old III. An Attack on the Old RegimeRegime
A. The World of the Old RegimeA. The World of the Old Regime
Built on traditionBuilt on tradition World of hierarchy, World of hierarchy,
privilege and privilege and inequalityinequality
Allied with the ChurchAllied with the Church Challenged by the Challenged by the
reform impulse of reform impulse of supporters of the supporters of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment
B. Conflict with the Capitalistic B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle ClassMiddle Class
Support for the Middle Support for the Middle Class social order against Class social order against the traditional social orderthe traditional social order
Size and increasing Size and increasing power of the Middle Classpower of the Middle Class
New notion of wealthNew notion of wealth Tension and discord Tension and discord
created by the Middle created by the Middle ClassClass
C. Popularization of ScienceC. Popularization of Science
The popularity of science The popularity of science in the 17in the 17 thth and 18 and 18 thth centuriescenturies
Conversations on the Conversations on the Plurality of the WorldsPlurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de (1686)—Bernard de FontenelleFontenelle
The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution promised the promised the comprehensibility of the comprehensibility of the workings of the universeworkings of the universe
D. A New World of UncertaintiesD. A New World of Uncertainties
The Idea of ProgressThe Idea of Progress The anti-religious The anti-religious
implications of the implications of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment
The relativity of truth and The relativity of truth and moralitymorality
John LockeJohn Locke’’s New s New PsychologyPsychology----Essay Concerning Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding (1690)(1690)-- -- ““Tabula RasaTabula Rasa””
IV. The PhilosophesIV. The Philosophes
1818thth century French century French intellectualsintellectuals
Interest in addressing a Interest in addressing a broad audiencebroad audience
Committed to reformCommitted to reform Celebrated the scientific Celebrated the scientific
revolutionrevolution The The ““Mystique of NewtonMystique of Newton”” Science applied to Science applied to
societysociety
V. The Problem of CensorshipV. The Problem of Censorship
The attempt of the Old The attempt of the Old Regime to control new Regime to control new thinkingthinking
Publishers and writers Publishers and writers hounded by censorshounded by censors
Over 1000 booksellers Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early the Bastille in the early 17001700’’ss
Battling censorshipBattling censorship
VI. The Role of the SalonVI. The Role of the Salon
Protection and Protection and encouragement encouragement offered by French offered by French aristocratic women in aristocratic women in their private drawing their private drawing roomsrooms
Feminine influence on Feminine influence on the Enlightenmentthe Enlightenment
Madame GeoffrinMadame Geoffrin
VII. DiderotVII. Diderot’’s s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia Ultimate strength of the Ultimate strength of the
philosophes lay in their philosophes lay in their numbers, dedication and numbers, dedication and organizationorganization
Written between 1751-Written between 1751-17721772
Attempted to illustrate all Attempted to illustrate all human knowledgehuman knowledge
Problems with publicationProblems with publication Emphasis on practical Emphasis on practical
sciencescience
VII. DiderotVII. Diderot’’s s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia (cont) (cont)
Desire to change the Desire to change the ““general way of thinkinggeneral way of thinking””
Greater knowledge leads Greater knowledge leads to human progressto human progress
Emphasized moderation Emphasized moderation and toleranceand tolerance
Human nature can be Human nature can be moldedmolded
Inalienable rights and the Inalienable rights and the social contractsocial contract
Knowledge improves Knowledge improves goodnessgoodness
VIII. Famous Enlightenment VIII. Famous Enlightenment ThinkersThinkers
A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)1755)
The Spirit of the Laws The Spirit of the Laws (1748)(1748)
Despotism could be Despotism could be avoided if political power avoided if political power were divided and shared were divided and shared by a diversity of classesby a diversity of classes
Power must check powerPower must check power Admires British Admires British
governmentgovernment French parlements must French parlements must
be defenders of libertybe defenders of liberty Influence in the USInfluence in the US
B. Voltaire (1694-1778)B. Voltaire (1694-1778)
Enthusiasm for Enthusiasm for English institutionsEnglish institutions
Reformer not a Reformer not a revolutionaryrevolutionary
Admirer of Louis XIVAdmirer of Louis XIV Relationship with Relationship with
Frederick the GreatFrederick the Great ““Ecrasez lEcrasez l’’infameinfame””
C. Baron Paul dC. Baron Paul d’’Holbach (1723-Holbach (1723-1789)1789)
Deterministic view of Deterministic view of human beingshuman beings
Free will, God and Free will, God and immortality of the soul are immortality of the soul are foolish mythsfoolish myths
His views dealt the unity His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a of the Enlightenment a severe blowsevere blow
Other thinkers repelled by Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheismthis inflexible atheism
D. David Hume (1711-1776)D. David Hume (1711-1776) Human mind is nothing Human mind is nothing
but a bundle of but a bundle of impressionsimpressions
Reason cannot decipher Reason cannot decipher anything about the origins anything about the origins of the universe or the of the universe or the existence of Godexistence of God
HumeHume’’s rationalistic s rationalistic inquiry results in inquiry results in undermining the undermining the Enlightenment confidence Enlightenment confidence in reason itselfin reason itself
E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)1778)
His lifeHis life Turns his withering Turns his withering
critique of the Old critique of the Old Regime increasingly on Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment itselfthe Enlightenment itself
Rather than liberation, Rather than liberation, rationalism and rationalism and civilization destroys the civilization destroys the individualindividual
Man by nature was Man by nature was solitary, good and freesolitary, good and free
E. Rousseau (cont)E. Rousseau (cont)
Civilization represents Civilization represents decay, not progressdecay, not progress
EmileEmile—protect children —protect children from too many booksfrom too many books
The Social ContractThe Social Contract (1762) and the (1762) and the ““General General WillWill””
Civilized man is an Civilized man is an alienated manalienated man
Transitional intellectual Transitional intellectual figurefigure
F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
One of few philosophes One of few philosophes to live to see the French to live to see the French RevolutionRevolution
Enlightenment was a Enlightenment was a personal process—personal process—release from immaturityrelease from immaturity
More optimistic than More optimistic than RousseauRousseau
““Dare to KnowDare to Know””——Enlightenment was an act Enlightenment was an act of personal courageof personal courage
IX. Enlightened DespotismIX. Enlightened Despotism
The manner of political The manner of political reformreform
Frederick the Great of Frederick the Great of PrussiaPrussia
Catherine the Great of Catherine the Great of RussiaRussia
Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria True reform or a cynical, True reform or a cynical,
manipulative manipulative consolidation of power?consolidation of power?