Generation and fate of

reaction intermediates

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF:Prof.Dr. K.MADHAVI M.Pharm.,Ph.DDept.of Pharmaceutical chemistry

PRESENTED BY:S.SAISWATHIVARMA

M PHARMACY (2015MPH40005)

Dept.of pharmaceutical chemistry

SPMVV - TIRUPATHI

CONTENTSIntroduction of reactions intermediateGenerations and fate of reactions and their

stability ofCarbocations CarboanionsCarbenesFree RadicalsNitrenesNitrenium ions

References

A reaction intermediate or an intermediate molecular entity (atom, ion, molecule..) with a lifetime appreciably longer than a molecular vibration that is formed (directly or in directly) from the reactants and reacts further to give (either directly or indirectly) the products of a chemical reaction.Main carbon reactive intermediates:

Carbocations and their stabilized equivalents such as oxonium ions.

Carbanions and their stabilized equivalents such as enolates.

Carbenes Free radicalsNitrenes and Nitrenium ions.

REACTION INTERMEDIATES

CARBOCATIONSA carbocation is an ion with a positively-charged carbon atom.

Carbenium ion (trivalent positive species) CH3, C2H5

Carbonium ion (pentavalent positive species,non classical carbocation)

Carbocation

CARBOCATION STRUCTURES: PLANAR SP2

HYBRID

O

R

R

H+ C

+OH

R

R+

CH2 CH2 + H+ CH3 CH2

+

ORR + CH3 F BF3 O

+CH3

R

R+ BF4

_

R R O

CH3

++

By the addition of a cation to a neutral molecule.

R X R X+so lvo lys is + -

X O-

O

CH3

N+

O-

O

O

O-

CH3 S

O

O-

F

F

FO

O-

acetate

p - nitro benzene

tosylate

trifluoroacetate

V. By the heterolytic fission of a C-heteroatom bond.

Vi. By the heterolysis fission of a C- heteroatom bond to form onium salt

R X R AgX++A g +

X Cl, Br and I

R OH + H+ R O

+

H

H R + H2O+

R O R1+ H+ R O

+

H

R1 R ++OHR1

R NH2 + H+ R N

+

HH

H

R + NH3+

R SH + H+ R S

+

H

H R + SH2+

Onium salt Carbocation

R N2+

R+

N2+

•By the heterolysis of alkyl diazonium salt

R R R R R R

R R

+ +-e

-e

+

.

..

+

•By the removal of an electron from a neutral molecule or a free radical

REACTIONS OF CARBOCATIONR+ cation act as an electrophile to react with nucleophiles. For

Eg;R+ + Nu- R Nu

Some carbocations act as Bronsted acid to lose a proton . For Eg;

H

C+

H

R

R

R R

R R

RH

++

1º or 2º-carbocation often undergo Wagner –Meerwein rearrangement by an anionotropic 1,2- shift of a hydride or an alkyl anion. For Eg;

R C+

H

HH

R- H -

R C+

R

CH3

R C+

R

R

R

H-R -

R

C+

R

R

R

Internal alkylation of a C=C bond sometimes may take place with a carbocation.

Fragmentation of carbon chain of carbocation is also known.

Carbocations can be reduced to a free radical or carboanions by cathodic reduction.

R R R+_ .+2e +e

RCH2

+ R CH2+ + CH2 CH2

C+

CH3

CH3

CH3CH3 C+

CH3

CH3

CH3CH3

STABILITYIn solution, the carbocation may be free (this is more likely in polar solvents, in which it is solvated) or it may exist as an ion pair. Ion pairs are more likely in nonpolar solvents.A. Simple alkyl carbocationsStability: tertiary > secondary > primary

The most stable of all alkyl cations is the tert-butyl cation.Methane, ethane, and propane, treated with superacid, also

yield tert-butyl cation as the main product.The Field Effect: The electron-donating effect of alkyl groups

increases the electron density at the charge-bearing carbon, reducing the net charge on the carbon, and in effect spreading the charge over the α carbons.

CH3+

CH3 CH2+

CH+

CH3CH3 C+

CH3CH3

CH3

< <<

+I effect

Hyperconjugation: Tertiary carbocations are more stable (and form more readily) than secondary carbocations; primary carbocations are highly unstable because, while ionized higher order carbons are stabilized by hyperconjugation, unsubstituted (primary) carbons are not.

CH3+ CH2

+

H

H

H CH+

H

H

H

H

H

H C+

H

H

HH

H

H

H H

HNONE Three for 3C-H

bondsSix for 6C-H bonds Nine for 9C-H bonds

+R groups stabilize the carbocations. For eg;

Some carbocations are stabilized due to aromatization. For eg;

CH3 O CH2+

CH3 O+

CH2

CH2+

CH+

CH2

CH+

CH2

CH+

CH2 CH2+

R

CH2+

R CH+

CH2

CH2+

CH2+

CH2

+

+

Cyclopropenyl cation is stable due to aromatization

STABLE ALLYLIC-TYPE CATIONSAllyl cation and benzyl cation are more stable than most

othercarbocations. Molecules which can form allyl or benzyl carbocations are

especially reactive. Stable allylic cations have been obtained by the reaction between alkylhalides,alcohols, or alkenes (by hydride extraction) and SbF5 in SO2 or SO2ClF.

Detection of carbocation: Formation of carbocation can be detected by NMR spectroscopy as the cation formation shifts the proton signals appreciably downfield due to deshielding of protons. For example;

F

CH3

CH3

CH3S b F 5 C

+

CH3

CH3

CH3 SbF6-

CARBANIONA carbanion is an anion in which carbon has an unshared

pair of electrons and bears a negative charge usually with three substituents for a total of eight valence electrons.

Formally a carbanion is the conjugate base of a carbon acid.

Stable carbanions do however exist although in most cases they are reactive.

Olmstead(1984):

THE GENERATION AND FATE OF REACTIONS CARBANIONS

A group attached to a carbon leaves without its electron pair.A negative ion adds to a carbon-carbon double or triple bond.

Strongly reduced metals like Na or Li or Mg can convert alkyl halide to alkyl sodium or alkyl lithium or Grignard reagent.

Reactions of carboanions Carboanions often act as a nucleophiles to react with

electrophones species.

R Cl

R Cl

++

Li Li R Li Li Cl+Mg

2+ MgClR

+ +R CH3 Cl R CH3 Cl--

R CH2-

O

+ Br Br R

O

Br + Br-

In rare cases ,the carboanions may undergo cationotropic 1,2-shift to give rearranged products, for eg;

The carboanions may be oxidized to free radicals. For eg;

N+

CH2-

Ph

Ph

Ph-P h +

PhN

Ph

Ph

CH2

CH2- + O O CH2

CH2

+ O2. -

STABILITY AND STRUCTUREThe stability of the carbanion is directly related to the strength

of the conjugate acid.

The weaker is the acid, the greater is the base strength and the

lower is the stability of the carbanion.

Stabilization by sulfur or phosphorus.

Field effect: Ylides are more stable than the corresponding simple

carbanions.

Carbanions are stabilized by a field effect if there is any

heteroatom (O, N or S) connected to the carbanionic carbon,

provided that the hetero atom bears a positive charge in at least

one important canonical form.

O

C-

R

RCH3

O- R

RCH3

RELATIVELY STABLE CARBANIONS WITH CERTAIN STRUCTURAL FEATURES

Factors determining the stability and reactivity of a carbanion:

The inductive effect: Electronegative atoms adjacent to the charge will stabilize the charge;

Hybridization of the charge-bearing atom. The greater the sp3character of the charge-bearing atom, the more stable the anion;

The extent of conjugation of the anion. Resonance effects can stabilize the anion. This is especially true when the anion is stabilized as a result of aromaticity

Detection Carboanions are type of CH3

- , where the negative charge is not

delocalized, due to conjugation can be distinguished from their 1H NMR spectra.

Formation of carbanions can be detected by the UV and Visible

spectra of the different from the starting compounds.

Trapping of carboanions with an electrophile may also show

their formation of reaction.

CARBENESA carbene is a highly reactive species containing a carbon atom

with six valence electrons and having the general formula RR′C:, practically all having lifetimes considerably under 1 sec.

Structure and bonding

the total spin=0Bond angle=102ºFor single Methylene

the total spin=1Paramagnetic ,may be observed by electron spin resonance spectroscopy

Triplet carbenes are generally stable in the gaseous state, while

singlet carbenes occur more often in aqueous media.

The C-atom in singlet carbene is sp2 - hybridized in which the

spin –paired electrons occupy an sp2 orbital.

Shape of carbenes is planar.

GENERATION AND FATE OF REACTIONS OF CARBENESDisintegration of diazoalkanes and their analogs, via

photolytic,thermal, or transition metal (Rh, Cu)-catalyzed routes.

Base-induced elimination

Carbenes are intermediates in the Wolff rearrangement.

Carbenes being the electrons-deficient species may take part in

electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. For eg; in Riemer

–Tiemann reaction.

Detection Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy(EPRS) can be

used to detect the formation of the triplet carbenes.

Rotational fine structure of the UV and Visible spectra can

detect the formation of the singlet (bent form) or triplet (linear

form) carbenes.

π- Insertion reaction also can detect and distinguish the

formation of singlet and triplet.

FREE RADICAL A free radical may be defined as a species that contains one or

more unpaired electrons.

Radicals play an important role in combustion, atmospheric

chemistry, polymerization, plasma chemistry, biochemistry, and

many other chemical processes, including human physiology.

The first organic free radical identified was triphenylmethyl

radical, by Moses Gomberg (the founder of radical chemistry) in

1900.

A carbon -based free radical is a trivalent C-species having single p-electron in the valence shell.

It has tetrahedral geometry where the C-atom is sp3 hybridized.

GENERATION AND FATE OF REACTIONS OF FREE RADICALSThermolysis or photolysis of organic peroxides and azo

compounds generates free radicals.

Alkyl peroxide Alkoxy radical

Azo Alkyl nitrile

Bimolecular redox reactions also generate free radicals. For eg;

Stabilization of free radicals:Resonance effect due to conjugation stabilizes the free radicals.

Cu(I) Cu(II)Ph OO Ph

O

O

+ + Ph O-

O

+ Ph. + CO2

For aromatic

CH2

CH

CH2 CH CH2

CH

CH2 CH2

Benzyl radical

Reactions of free radicalFree radical often take part in radical-propagating

reactions.Ph CH3 R+ Ph H CH2 R+

R CH2 + Cl Cl R

Cl+ Cl

Cl + CH3 R ClH + CH2 R

R CH2 + Cl Cl R

Cl + Cl

In some cases, the free radical itself may be fragmented and trigger the propagation of a chain reaction. For eg;

Suitably substituted free radical may isomerize.for eg;

CH3

CH2

CH2 CH2 CH3+ CH2

CH3

CH2 CH2

CH2 CH3

H

Br

Me CH2 MeC

Me

Br

Disproportion and radical coupling are the common reactions of the termination of free radicals. For eg;

CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2+ CH3 CH3 + CH2 CH2

CH3 CH3+ CH3 CH3

DISPROPORTIONATION

RADICAL COUPLING

DETECTION OF FREE RADICALSBy using electron spin resonance (ESR) Highly stabilized free radicals may be detected UV and visible

spectroscopy.NMR spectroscopy can detect free radicals (by studying the

overhauser effect ).The unpaired electron in a free radical is accommodated in a

single occupied molecular orbital(SOMO).If the SOMO is a high-energy orbital, the free radical shows a

tendency to loose an electron.If the SOMO is a low-energy orbital ,it shows a tendency to

accept an electron.R R + e. +

-R. + e R

NITRENESThese are neutral reaction intermediates where the central

nitrogen atom is electron-deficient and has a sextet of electrons.

Sp2 hybridized and planar in shape.

GENERATIONS OF NITRENESLike carbenes , these are also generated by protolytic ,thermal,

or base –catalysed α-elimination reactions. For eg;

R N N+

N-

O hvR N

O

+ N2

Acyl azides Acyl nitrene

R N N+

N- hv

R N + N2

Alkyl azides

Alkyl nitrene

By reduction of nitro compounds with trialkyl phosphites.

R

N

Br

H

O+ OH

-

CH3 N

O

+ H2 + Br-

N-bromo amides

Acyl nitrene

Ph N+

O-

O

+ (OEt)3P Ph N

O+ (OEt)2

O

P Ph N

(OEt)3P

+ (OEt)3

REACTIONS OF NITRENESSinglet nitrene undergoes a σ-insertion to give 20 - amines. For

eg;

NH N

H

a lp h a in se r t io nin to a

C - H b o n d

20-Amine

π- Insertion of nitrenes into a C=C bond gives aziridines.

Acyl nitrenes undergo skeletal rearrangement to give alkyl isocyanates.this rearrangements is involved in Crutius and Hoffmann rearrangements.

R R+NH

NH

R R

Singlet Nitrene

R N

O

O

N

R

Acyl nitrene Alkyl isocyanate

Detection of nitrenesTriplet nitrenes can be detected and distinguished from singlet

nitrenes, like carbenes ,by EPR.

Nitrenium ion A nitrenium ion (also called: aminylium ion) on nitrogen

 with both an electron lone pair and a positive charge and with

two substituents (R2N+).

Sp3 hybridized and non linear or bent structure.

Stability Type of ligand attached; example; if aromatic ring is attached

to the nitrogen they are called arylnitrenium ions and similarly halo and alkyl nitrenium ions if halo and alkyl groups are attached to the nitrogen.

Arylnitrenium ions are characterised by delocalization of the positive charge on nitrogen into the aromatic ring making the ring susceptible to nucleophilic attack.

Nitrogen is doubly bonded to one atom hence they are called vinylidene nitrenium ions.

Generation and Fate of ReactionsN-alkyl anthranilium on photolysis produced primary

nitrenium ion by protonation of the nitrogen followed by

heterolysis of N-O bond.

Photolysis of azides to form nitrene followed by protonation in presence of weakly acidic solution gave nitrenium ions.

Electrochemical oxidation of amines yields nitrenium ions. But principle disadvantage of this method is formation of polymers.

N-aminopyridinium ions when subjected to heat in a nonpolar medium formed nitrenium ions in a nonpolar media.

REFERENCESAdvanced Organic Chemistry By Bhal And Bhal.Textbook Of Organic Chemistry By O.P.Agrwal.Organic Chemistry By R.T.Morrison And R.N.Boyed

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