1

Later Roman Britain

• Restoration of the Empire

• Attempting to cope with the economy• The rich get richer

• Usurpers – British Emperors

• Invaders• The rich flee?

2

Fourth Century Sunset

Ties of Britain and the Empire

•Political• Military and political leaders under central command• Movement of people

•Economic• Trade• Taxes • Money

•Religious• State religion• Hierarchal church

3

Other Ties(for some)

•Commonality of language

• “ “ religious beliefs and practices

• “ “ culture

4

Restoration of the Empire

• Postumus successors in the Gallic Empire were generally short-lived

• Tetricus was defeated by Aurelian with his own connivance

• Reformation of currency• Increased silver (still only 5%)

• Increased weight

5

Tetrarchy

Diocletian

Augustus

Maximianus

Augustus

Constantius

Caesar

Gaul and Britain

Galerius

Caesar

Balkans

6

Carausius – Usurper

•Humble origin

•Naval commander

•Charged with fighting Frankish and Saxon pirates

•Technique is to gain their booty

•Sentenced in absentia for embezzlement

•Allies with Picts and Scots to defeat British governor and then captures London.

7

Carausius-Rebuilding the empire

8

Romano Renova

Roman Renewal

RSR

Redeunt saturnia regna

Iam nova progenies caelo demittir alto.(I N P C D A)

Virgil, Ecologues IV

The golden age returns.

Now a new generation is sent down from heaven above.

Carausius

• Hoped to be named third Augustus with Diocletian and Maximian

• Constantius I defeats his Frankish allies.

• Assassinated by his minister, Allectus.

9

Taking Control of the Legions

10

I Minerva

Carausius – the third ruler with Diocletian and Maximian

Arrival in Britain

11

EXPECTATE VENI

Allectus-Usurper

• Supported by landowners

• Used Frankish and/or Frisian mercenaries

• Defeated by Constantius

12

Frome Hoard

• Found 2010

• 52,500 coins (160kg)

• Largest find of coins of Carausius

13

Tetrarchy

14

Diocletian Maximianus

GaleriusConstantius

Constantius-Rescue Of London

15

Inflation

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

-100 0 100 200 300 400

Date (CE)

Am

ou

nt

(d)

Wages

Wheat Cost/Yr.

16

Inflation

Diocletian

Diocletian Reforms

•Tetrarchy• Provision for succession; term limits

•Wage and price controls

•Reorganization of provinces• Separation of civil and military

•Compulsory service• Soldiers, bakers, decurions of town councils, and tenant

farmers

•State religion

17

Reorganization of provinces

Hierarchy

Province(50)

Governor

Diocese(12)

Vicar

Praetorian Prefect(4)

18

Reorganization of Britain

19

Governance of Late Roman Britain

Civitates

Brittania Prima

Civitates

Brittania Secunda

Civitates

Flavia Caesariensis

Civitates

Maxima Caesarensis

Civitates

Valentia?

Diocese-London

Prefect-Gaul-Trier

Emperor

Cirencester York Lincoln London ?

20

Military

• Generals-Dux

• Comitatenses-field forces• Auxilia-recruited from Germans

• Limitanei-Garrison troops

• German commanders occupy many high positions; learn Roman tactics

• Mercenaries?

21

Economic Reforms

• Maximum Price Edict • Set maximum prices for goods

• Set price for labor

• Impact• Black market

• In-kind payments

• Decline of money economy

22

Fourth Century Inflation

23

Inflation

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

280 290 300 310 320 330

Date (CE)

Am

ou

nt

(d)

Wages

Wheat Cost/Yr.

Constantine

• 305 Diocletian abdicates

• 306 Constantius dies at York fighting Picts and Scots

• 306 Constantine proclaimed by his troops

24

One Unhappy Family

25

Crispus

Constantine II

Constantius II

FaustaCo

nsta

ntin

e

Helena

Minervina

Constans

Christian Emperors

26

Constantine 327 Vetranio 350 Decentius 353

Constantine: Companion of Sol

27

SOLI

INVICTO

COMITI

Constantine: Mars the Savior

28

MARTI

CONSERVATORI

Distribution of Christian Artifacts

29

Religion and Constantine

• Constantius was less diligent in enforcing Diocletian’s edicts against Christians

• Toleration and restoration of Christianity under Constantine

• Strip some temples of wealth

• Julian revival of paganism

30

Church Organization

•Nicaea – primacy of Rome and Alexandria

•Metropolitan bishops – capital cities• Bishops in each city; some market towns, military areas

•Tituli –financed by bishop

•Parochiae, dioceses – financed by wealthy and offerings

31

Corbridge Lanx (Tray)32

Constans Galley CoinsWhich one is forged?

33

Barbarian or Great Conspiracy 367 CE

• Rising sea level in Saxony

• Simultaneous raids of Picts, Scots, Attacotti, Frankish and Saxon pirates

• Deaths of leaders Nectaridus, Fullofaudes

• Corruption of frontier troops

• Put down by Theodosius

34

Theodosian Restoration

• Official Christianity

• Rebuild forts along Hadrian’s wall with reduced garrisons

• Saxon shore forts

• Addition of circular or polygonal towers to forts and city walls

35

Notitia Dignatum

36

Northern Defenses

•Route along the line of the Wall• Includes line along west coast• Supporting forts south of Wall – Lanchester, Elslack,

Ribchester, Bainbridge

•Other• HQ – legio VI, York• Arbeia, supply fort; Ribchester, Malton• Signal towers on North Sea

37

Defenses

38

Invasions

39

•Picts

•Scotti

•Attacotti

•Saxons

Picts

40Meigle Aberlemno

O G H A M

41

Gorse Ivy Hawthorn Fir Vine

Saxon Shore

42

Comes litoris Saxonici

• Portchester –scouts• Lympne - units from Tournai?• Dover-Tungrians• Richborough – II Augusta• Reculver - infantry from

Weslafen, Germany• Bradwell - remnant from legio

II Traiana Fortis?• Brancaster – Dalmatian cavalry

43

Saxon Shore Fort

44

Portchester

Alderney

45

46

Evidence of Decline

• Abandonment of towns

• Abandonment of villas

• Decline in construction

• Less innovation in manufacturing (pottery)

47

Construction

48

Occupancy - Villas

49

Pottery Industry

Fortified Cities

50

Caerwent

Changing Role of Cities

• Basilicas sometimes turned to other uses.

• Continue to maintain baths, amphitheaters, roads and water systems.

• Administer taxes. Tax rate from 25% to 33% of gross.

• Revenue used to support army and buy produce.

• Decline of long-distance trade – London.

51

Changes in Cities

• In most cases buildings (baths, basilicas, theatres) remained, were partially demolished and were not repaired; some deliberate demolition

• Gates blocked at Silchester, Caerwent, Canterbury

52

New Construction

• Possible agricultural buildings• No verification

• Canterbury, Gloucester – paved courtyard in temple area• Gathering areas for military?

53

Reuse

• Industrial activity• Iron, bronze, lead, pewter and silver working

• Glass working, bone working

• Found in forum/basilica and temple/’church’ structures

• Recycling

• Metal working may have had ritual significance

54

Timber rather than stone

• Structures take advantage of supporting walls

• Previously interpreted as squatters

55

Wroxeter in its last years

56

A Leader in Wroxeter?

Date: 460-475

Inscription:

CVNORIX | MACVSM/A | QVICO[L]I[N]ETranslation:Cunorix son of Maqui Coline .

57

More Usurpers and Barbarians

•Magnus Maximus 383-8• Use of barbarians to

maintain power• Withdraws troops to fight on Continent

•Stilicho, of Vandal birth, commander of field army in the west. • Fights Picts in 398; takes control of sea to

defeat Saxons and Scots

58

Magnus Maximus

59

Foederati - Federates

• Non-Roman troops with non-Roman commanders• Attacotti – Irish federates?

• Saxons or Alemanni?

• Declining literacy of the military

• Garrison troops (limitanei) -local

60

More Evidence of Decline

• Decrease in money supply• Coin clipping

• Hoards

• Counterfeits

• Abandonment of shops

Clipped Coins

Mildenhall Treasure

Mildenhall Treasure

Hoxne Hoard

Good luck, Lady Juliana

Hoxne Hoard

Hoards

68

Empire under Siege

• Invasions threaten heart of Empire

• Troops needed

• Britain considered less vital

• Is the end near?

69

70

Religious Controversy

Pelagius

• Moral perfection is attainable in this life without the divine grace through human free will,

• Not all humanity was guilty in Adam's sin,

• Adam had condemned humankind through bad example,

• Christ’s good example offered a path to salvation,

Augustine

• Perfection is impossible without divine grace • We are born sinners (original sin)

Continued Religious Controversy

• Missions from Continent to remnants of Christianity in Britain• More concern for deviation than paganism

Military decline

• Legion strength reduced to 10% of former level

• Limitanei less well trained

• Units of federates?

Revolt in the Provinces

• Military revolts elevate Marcus, Gratian (407), Constantine III(407)

• Withdrawal of troops

Revolt in Provinces

• Rejection of central authority• No taxation without protection?

• Allegiance to Honorius not Constantine III?

• Reaction of Honorius• Inability to provide protection

• No protection wo taxation?

The ties are broken

• 406 Effective end of diocesan control

• 409 Britain expels Roman officials

• 410 Defense of Britain left to civitates

• Reassertion by elite Celts who occupy hill-towns and forts in outlying areas.

• End of Pax Romana

• Migrations to Ireland, Brittany, Gaul

Breakdown of Urban Britain

• No new coins after 402 (?)

• Abandoned homes

• New homes built in rubble

• Layers of black dirt – weeds or agricultural use

• Burial within walls

Verulamium

Canterbury Burial

Canterbury Burial

Environment

Climate Change

• Glacial advance c. 400

• Increased rainfall c. 400

• Cooling after 350

• Sea level rise 120-400

• Rhine freezes in 406 allowing barbarians to cross

Impacts on Agriculture

• Marginal boundary drops in altitude

• Increased rainfall-increased erosion

• Impact of military demand

• Disruption of traditional agriculture in border regions

• Changes in labor supply

• Famine-reported by Gildas

Example: Upper Thames

• Spelt wheat disappears but flax and barley continue

• Cattle decrease while sheep increase

• Exotics disappear

• Reduced population, changed social structure or climate change?

Agriculture and Influences

• Reforestation at end of Roman period

• Loss of military market

• Loss of urban markets

• Loss of labor

Consequences

• Coinage disappears

• Loss of skilled masons and engineers• Timber buildings

• Loss of industry• Hand molded pottery

• Exceptions – continuity of use at some level

Continuity at Vindolanda

Latin inscription –

British name

Christian symbol

The end of Roman Britain: what ended, when and why?

Video LectureDr Andrew Gardner (UCL Institute of Archaeology)

Originally given Tuesday 9 March 2010

http://www.ucl.ac.uk/lhl/lhlpub_spring10/13_090310 • Also at iTunes University and YouTube

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FlwwLrA35YI.