P1 chapter 10

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Working capital

Chapter

10

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10.1 Working capital

Working capital is the capital available for conducting the day-to-day operations of the

business and consists of current assets and current liabilities.

Current assets Current liabilities Inventories

Trade receivables Cash

Short term investments

Trade payables Bank overdrafts

Working capital can be viewed as a whole but interest is usually focussed on the individual components such as inventories or trade receivables. Working capital is effectively the net current assets of a business. Working capital can either be:

Positive Current assets are greater than current liabilities Negative Current assets are less than current liabilities

Working capital management

Working capital management is the administration of current assets and current liabilities. Effective management of working capital ensures that the organisation is maximising the

benefits from net current assets by having an optimum level to meet working capital demands.

It is difficult trying to achieve and maintain an optimum level of working capital for the organisation. For example having a large volume of inventories will have two effects, firstly there will never be stock outs, so therefore the customers are always satisfied, but secondly it means that money has been spent on acquiring the inventories, which is not generating any returns (i.e. inventories is a non productive asset), there are also additional costs of holding the inventories (i.e. warehouse space, insurance etc). The important aspect of working capital is to keep the levels of inventories, trade receivables, cash etc at a level which ensures customer goodwill but also keeps costs to the minimum. With trade payables, the longer the period of credit the better as this is a form of free credit, but again the goodwill with the supplier may suffer.

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10.2 Working capital cycle (operating/trading/cash cycle)

The working capital cycle measures the time between paying for goods supplied to you and the final receipt of cash to you from their sale. It is desirable to keep the cycle as short as possible as it increases the effectiveness of working capital. The diagram below shows how the cycle works.

The table below shows how the activities of a business have an impact on the cash flow.

TRADE PROCESS EFFECTS ON CASH Inventories are purchased on credit

which creates trade payables. Inventories bought on credit temporarily help with cash flow as there is no immediate to pay for these

inventories. The sale of inventories is made on

credit which creates trade receivables.

This means that there is no cash inflow even though inventory had been sold. The cash for the

sold inventory will be received later. Trade payables need to be paid, and the cash is collected from the trade

receivables.

The cash has to be collected from the trade receivables and then paid to the trade payables

otherwise there is a cash flow problem.

Cash

Trade receivables Customer owing money, as sales made on credit

Trade payables Money owing to suppliers as stock

purchased on credit

Inventories Sold on credit

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The control of working capital is ensuring that the company has enough cash in its bank. This will save on bank interest and charges on overdrafts. The company also needs to ensure that the levels of inventories and trade receivables is not too great, as this means funds are tied up in assets with no returns (known as the opportunity cost).

The working capital cycle therefore should be kept to a minimum to ensure efficient and cost effective management.

Working capital cycle for a trade

Inventories days (time inventories are

held before being sold) +

Trade receivables days (how long the credit customers take to pay)

-

Trade payables days (how long the company takes to pay its suppliers)

=

Working capital cycle (in days)

(Inventories / cost of sales) x 365 days

+

(Trade receivables / credit sales) x 365 days -

(Trade payables / purchases) x 365 days

=


Please note that for the “trade payable days” calculation, if information about credit purchases is not known then cost of sales is used instead. Example 10.1 – (CIMA P7 Nov 06) DX had the following balances in its trial balance at 30 September 2006: Trial balance extract at 30 September 2006 $000 $000 Revenue 2,400 Cost of sales 1,400 Inventories 360 Trade receivables 290 Trade payables 190 Cash and cash equivalents 95 Calculate the length of DX’s working capital cycle at 30 September 2006.

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Working capital cycle in a manufacturing business

Average time raw materials are in stock

+

Time taken to produce goods +

Time taken by customers to pay for goods -

Period of credit taken from suppliers =


(Raw materials / purchases) x 365 days

+

(WIP & finished goods / cost of sales) x 365 days +


(Trade payables / purchases) x 365 days =


Please note that for the “trade payable days” calculation, if information about credit purchases is not known then cost of sales is used instead. Example 10.2 – (CIMA P7 May 05) AD, a manufacturing entity, has the following balances at 30 April 2005: Extract from financial statements: $000 Trade receivables 216 Trade payables 97 Revenue (all credit sales) 992 Cost of sales 898 Purchases in year 641 Inventories at 30 April 2005: Raw materials 111 Work in progress 63 Finished goods 102 Calculate AD’s working capital cycle.

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The shorter the cycle, the better it is for the company as it means:

Inventories are moving though the organisation rapidly. Trade receivables are being collected quickly. The organisation is taking the maximum credit possible from suppliers.

The shorter the cycle, the lower the company’s reliance on external supplies of finance like bank overdrafts which is costly. Excessive working capital means too much money is invested in inventories and trade receivables. This represents lost interest or excessive interest paid and lost opportunities (the funds could be invested elsewhere and earn a higher return). The longer the working capital cycle, the more capital is required to finance it.

Exam questions often ask how working capital can be managed effectively. To answer the question you need to discuss the overall working capital levels, and then the individual components like stock, debtors and creditors.

10.3 Overtrading When a company is trading large volumes of sales very quickly, it may also be generating large amounts of credit sales, and as a result large volume of trade receivables. It will also be purchasing large amounts of inventories on credit to maintain production at the same rate as sales and therefore have large volumes of trade payables. This will extend the working capital cycle which will have an adverse effect on cash flow. If the company doesn’t have enough working capital, it will find it difficult to continue as there would be insufficient funds to meet all costs as they fall due. Overtrading occurs when a company has inadequate finance for working capital to support its level of trading. The company is growing rapidly and is trying to take on more business that its financial resources permit i.e. it is “under-capitalised”. Overtrading typically occurs in businesses which have just started to trade and where they may have suddenly begun to experience rapid sales growth. In this situation it is quite easy to place high importance on sales growth whilst neglecting to manage the working capital.

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Symptoms of overtrading Remedies for overtrading

• Fast sales growth. • Increasing trade payables. • Increasing trade receivables. • Fall in cash balances and

increasing overdraft.

Short-term solutions

• Speeding up collection from customers. • Slowing down payment to suppliers. • Maintaining lower inventory levels.

Long term solutions

• Increase the capital by equity or long-term debt.

Overtrading may result in insolvency which means a company has severe cash flow problems, and that a thriving company, which may look very profitable, is failing to meets its liabilities due to cash shortages.

Over-capitalisation This is the opposite of over trading. It means a company has a large volume of inventories, trade receivables and cash balances but very few trade payables. The funds tied up could be invested more profitably elsewhere and so this an effective use of working capital.

Differences in working capital for different industries

Manufacturing

Retail

Service

Inventories High volume of WIP and finished goods.

Goods for re-sale only and usually low volume.

None or very little inventories.

Trade receivables

High levels of trade receivables, as they tend be dependant on a few customers.

Very low levels as most goods are bought in cash.

Usually low levels as services are paid for immediately.

Trade payables

Low to medium levels of trade payables.

Very high levels of trade payables due to huge purchases of inventory.

Low levels of payables.

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10.4 Types of working capital policy

Within a business, funds are required to finance both non-current and current assets. The level of current assets fluctuates, although there tends to be an underlying level required for current assets.

Assets £m 100 80 50 0 Time

A company must decide on a policy on how to finance its long and short-term assets. There are 3 types of policies that exist:

Conservative policy

Moderate policy

Aggressive policy

All the non current assets, permanent assets and some of the temporary current assets are financed by long-term finance.

All the non current assets and permanent asset are financed by long-term finance. The temporary fluctuating assets financed by short-term finance.

All the non current assets and part of permanent assets financed by long term. Remaining permanent assets all temporary fluctuating assets by short term.

£90m long term debt and equity. £10m short term overdrafts and bank loans.



Permanent current assets

(Core level of inventories, trade receivables etc)

Non current assets

Temporary fluctuating current assets

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Summary of the three policies:

Conservative policy Moderate policy Aggressive policy

Long term finance

Non current assets Permanent assets

Temporary current assets



Short term

finance



Permanent assets


With an aggressive working capital policy, a company will hold minimal levels of inventories in order to minimise costs. With a conservative working capital policy the company will hold large levels of inventories. The moderate policy is somewhere in between the conservative and aggressive. Short-term debt can be cheap, but it is also riskier than long-term finance since it must be continually renewed. Therefore with an aggressive policy, the company may report higher profits due to lower level of inventories, trade receivables and cheaper finance, but there is greater risk. Example 10.3 – (CIMA P7 May 06) A conservative policy for financing working capital is one where short-term finance is used to fund: A all of the fluctuating current assets, but no part of the permanent current assets. B all of the fluctuating current assets and part of the permanent current assets. C part of the fluctuating current assets and part of the permanent current assets. D part of the fluctuating current assets, but no part of the permanent current assets. Example 10.4 – (CIMA P7 Nov 05) An entity’s working capital financing policy is to finance working capital using short-term financing to fund all the fluctuating current assets as well as some of the permanent part of the current assets. What is this policy an example of?

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10.5 Working capital ratios Ratios are way of comparing financial values and quantities to improve our understanding. In particular they are used to asses the performance of a company. When analysing performance through the use of ratios it is important to use comparisons as a single ratio is meaningless. The use of ratios

• To compare results over a period of time • To measure performance against other organisations • To compare results with a target • To compare against industry averages

We shall now look at some of the working ratios in detail and explain how they can be interpreted. 1 Current ratio (CA) or working capital ratio

CA = Current assets (times) Current liabilities

The current ratio measures the short term solvency or liquidity; it shows the extent to which the claims of short-term creditors are covered by assets. The current ratio is essentially looking at the working capital of the company. Effective management of working capital ensures the organisation is running efficiently. This will eventually result in increased profitability and positive cash flows. Effective management of working capital involves low investment in non productive assets like trade receivables, inventory and current account bank balances. Also maximum use of free credit facilities like trade payables ensures efficient management of working capital. The normal current ratio is around 2:1 but this varies within different industries. Low current ratio may indicate insolvency. High ratio may indicate not maximising return on working capital. Valuation of inventories will have an impact on the current ratio, as will year end balances and seasonal fluctuations. 2 Quick ratio or acid test

Quick ratio = Current assets less inventories (times) Current liabilities

This ratio measures the immediate solvency of a business as it removes the inventories out of the equation, which is the item least representing cash, as it needs to be sold. Normal is around 1: 1 but this varies within different industries.

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3 Trade payable days (turnover) Year end trade payables x 365 days Credit purchases (or cost of sales) This is the length of time taken to pay the suppliers. The ratio can also be calculated using cost of sales, as credit purchases are not usually stated in the financial statements. High trade payable day’s is good as credit from suppliers represents free credit. If it’s too high then there is a risk of the suppliers not extending credit in the future and may lose goodwill. High trade payable days may also indicate that the business has no cash to pay which indicates insolvency problems. 4 Trade receivable days (turnover)

Year end trade receivables x 365 days Credit sales (or turnover)

This is the average length of time taken by customers to pay. A long average collection means poor credit control and hence cash flow problems may occur. The normal stated credit period is 30 days for most industries. Changes in the ratio may be due to improving or worsening credit control. Major new customer pays fast or slow. Change in credit terms or early settlement discounts are offered to customers for early payment of invoices. 5 Inventory days

Average inventory x 365 days Cost of sales

Average inventory can be arrived by taking this year’s and last year’s inventory values and dividing by 2 - (Opening inventories + closing inventories) / 2. This ratio shows how long the inventory stays in the company before it is sold. The lower the ratio the more efficient the company is trading, but this may result in low levels of inventories to meet demand. A lengthening inventory period may indicate a slow down in trade and an excessive build up of inventories, resulting in additional costs. 6 Inventory turnover is the reciprocal of inventory days.

Cost of sales x number of times Average inventory

This shows how quickly the inventory is being sold. It shows the liquidity of inventories, the higher the ratio the quicker the inventory is sold.

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Example 10.5 – (CIMA P7 May 07) DR has the following balances under current assets and current liabilities:

Current assets

$ Current liabilities

$

Inventory

50,000 Trade payables

88,000

Trade receivables

70,000 Interest payable

7,000

Bank

10,000

Calculate DR’s quick ratio. Example 10.6 A company's current assets are less than its current liabilities. The company issues new shares at full market price. What will be the effect of this transaction upon the company’s working capital and on its current ratio? Working capital Current ratio A Increase Increase B Constant Increase C Constant Decrease D Decrease Decrease Example 10.7 If the current ratio for a company is equal to its acid test (that is, the quick ratio), then: A The current ratio must be less than one. B Working capital is negative. C Trade payables and overdraft are greater than trade payables plus inventories. D The company does not carry any inventories

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Example 10.8 The following are extracts of the Income Statement and Balance Sheet for Umar plc.

Extract Balance Sheet at 30 June

20X2 20X1 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 Current assets Inventories 84 74 Trade receivables 58 46 Bank 6 10 148 130 Current liabilities Trade payables 72 82 Taxation 20 20 92 102 Net current assets 56 -

Extract Income Statement for the year ended 30 June 20X2 20X1 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 Turnover 418 392 Opening inventory 74 58 Purchases 324 318 398 376 Closing inventory (84) (74) 314 302 Gross profit 104 90 Calculate and comment on the following ratios for Umar plc: 1 Current ratio 2 Quick ratio 3 Inventory days 4 Trade receivable days 5 Trade payable days 6 Working capital cycle in days

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Example 10.9 Controlling working capital Explain how a manufacturing company could control its working capital levels, and the impact of the suggested control measures. Example 10.10 Working capital mini Q’s During January 20X4, Gazza Ltd made credit sales of £30,000, which have a 25% mark up. It also purchased £20,000 of inventories on credit. Calculate by how much the working capital will increase or decrease as a result of the above transactions? Tuffy Ltd has an annual turnover of £18m on which it earns a margin of 20%. All the sales and purchases are made on credit and it has a policy of maintaining the following levels of inventories, trade receivables and payables throughout the year. Inventory £2 million Trade receivable £5 million Trade payable £2.5 million Calculate Tuffy Ltd’s cash cycle to the nearest day?

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Key summary of chapter

Working capital is the capital available for conducting the day-to-day operations of the

business and consists of current assets and current liabilities.

Working capital management is the administration of current assets and current liabilities.

Effective management of working capital ensures that the organisation is maximising the benefits from net current assets by having an optimum level to meet working capital

demands.

TRADE PROCESS EFFECTS ON CASH Inventories are purchased on credit

which creates trade payables. Inventories bought on credit temporarily help with cash flow as there is no immediate to pay for these

inventories. The sale of inventories is made on

credit which creates trade receivables.

This means that there is no cash inflow even though inventory had been sold. The cash for the sold

inventory will be received later. Trade payables need to be paid, and the cash is collected from the trade

receivables.

The cash has to be collected from the trade receivables and then paid to the trade payables

otherwise there is a cash flow problem.

Working capital cycle

Inventories days (time inventories are

held before being sold) +

Trade receivables days (how long the credit customers take to pay)

-

Trade payables days (how long the company takes to pay its suppliers)

=


(Inventories / cost of sales) x 365 days

+


(Trade payables / purchases) x 365 days

=


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Working capital cycle in a manufacturing business

Average time raw materials are in stock

+

Time taken to produce goods +

Time taken by customers to pay for goods -

Period of credit taken from suppliers =


(Raw materials / purchases) x 365 days

+

(WIP & finished goods / cost of sales) x 365 days +


(Trade payables / purchases) x 365 days =


Overtrading occurs when a company has inadequate finance for working capital to support its level of trading. The company is growing rapidly and is trying to take on more business that its financial resources permit i.e. it is “under-capitalised”.

Conservative policy Moderate policy Aggressive policy

Long term finance





Short term

finance



Permanent assets


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Working capital ratios

Current ratio

Current assets_ (number of times) Current liabilities

Quick ratio

Current assets – inventory (number of times) Current liabilities

Trade payable days

Trade payables_____ x 365 days Cost of sales (or purchases)

Inventory days

Inventory_ x 365 days Cost of sales

Trade receivable days

Trade receivable x 365 days Sales

Inventory turnover

Cost of sales x number of times Average inventory

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Solutions to lecture examples

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Chapter 10 Example 10.1 – (CIMA P7 Nov 06)

Inventories days (Inventories / cost of sales) x 365 days (360 / 1,400) x 365 days

93.9 days

Trade receivable days (Trade receivables / credit sales) x 365 days (290 / 2,400) x 365 days

44.1 days

Trade payable days (Trade payables / cost of sales) x 365 days (190 / 1,400) x 365 days

49.5 days

Working capital cycle 93.9 + 44.1 – 49.5 88.5 days Example 10.2 – (CIMA P7 May 05) 1 Average time raw materials are in stock (Raw materials / purchases) x 365 days (111 / 641) x 365 = 63.2 days 2 Time taken to produce goods (Work in progress & finished goods / cost of sales) x 365 days (63 + 102 / 898) x 365 = 67.1 days 3 Time taken by customers to pay for goods (Trade receivables / credit sales) x 365 days (216 / 992) x 365 = 79.5 days 4 Period of credit taken from suppliers (Trade payables / purchases) x 365 days (97 / 641) x 36 = 55.2 days Working capital cycle = 63.2 + 67.1 + 79.5 – 55.2 = 154.6 days

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Example 10.3 – (CIMA P7 May 06) The answer is D. Example 10.4 – (CIMA P7 Nov 05) An aggressive policy. Example 10.5 – (CIMA P7 May 07) Quick ratio = (current assets – inventory) / current liabilities = (70,000 + 10,000) / (88,000 + 7,000) = 0.84 Example 10.6 The answer is A. The cash balance will increase, which means there is more working capital. The current ratio will increase as there are more current assets than current liabilities. Example 10.7 The answer is D.

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Example 10.8 1 Current ratio = 148 / 92 = 1.61 for 20X2 =130 / 102 = 1.27 for 20X1 The current ratio has increased, meaning that the organisation is more liquid. This is due to the fact that inventory and trade receivables have increased (which are non productive assets), and trade payables have been reduced. Although this may be better for the current ratio, it may not necessarily mean that the company is operating more efficiently. Has it increased it inventory piles because it anticipates higher sales and doesn’t want to run out? Is it offering it’s credit customers longer time to pay to increase sales? Why are they paying their suppliers quicker? Surely it would be better to take as long as possible? 2 Quick ratio = (148 – 84) / 92 = 0.70 for 20X2 = (130 – 74) / 102 = 0.55 for 20X1 In 20X2 current liabilities are better covered than 20X1. Bad management of working capital perhaps…investigate further. 3 Inventory days = (74 + 84) x 0.5 / 314 x 365 days = 91.8 days for 20X2 = (58 + 74) x 0.5 / 302 x 365 days = 79.8 days for 20X1 Inventory is taking longer to sell; this could indicate poor inventory management. Why have inventory levels risen? Maybe the company is taking a cautious approach and wants to ensure enough is available to meet customer needs. But this is resulting in additional costs (unproductive asset) 4 Trade receivable days = 58 / 418 x 365 days = 50.6 days for 20X2 = 46 / 392 x 365 days = 42.8 days for 20X1 The collection of debts is worsening. Have the credit terms been extended to increase sales. Are there new customers who were not screened properly, resulting in delayed payments? Is there a delay in issuing invoices, lack of screening new customers? Are the year end figures representatives of the year? Perhaps there are seasonal fluctuations that need to be considered. Further investigation required as yet again this is an unproductive asset. 5 Trade payable days = 72 / 324 x 365 = 81.1 days for 20X2 = 82 / 318 x 365 = 94.1days for 20X1 (Alternatively could have used cost of sales) The suppliers are being paid quicker, which is good for relationship with the suppliers, but bad for cash flow purposes. It is still quite high and might jeopardise supplier relationship, discounts foregone etc. Trade credit is a free source of finance, and the company must try to maximise this.

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6 Working capital cycle 20X2 20X1 Inventories days 91.8 79.8 Plus Trade receivables days 50.6 42.8 Minus Trade payables days (81.1) (94.1) Equals Working capital cycle (in days) 61.3 28.5 In 20X2, the working capital cycle increased to 61.3 days from 28.5 days in 20X1. The company is taking longer to covert its inventories into cash. The management of inventories, receivables and payables has deteriorated, and this needs to be investigated and corrected. Example 10.9 Controlling working capital Some of the practical aspects that could be taken to achieve this include: 1 Reducing average raw material inventory holding period • Ordering in small quantities to meet immediate production requirements, but could lose quantity discounts. • Reducing the level of buffer stocks if these are held, but this will increase the risk of production being halted due to a stock out. • Reducing the lead time allowed to suppliers, but could also increase the risk of a stock out. 2 Increase the period of credit taken from suppliers • If the credit period is extended then the company may lose discounts from prompt payment. The financial effect of this should be calculated and compared with the cost of funds from other sources. • If credit period is extended then goodwill may be lost, which is important in the event of goods being required urgently.

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3 Reducing the time taken to produce goods and inventory holding period or finished inventories • Efficiency leads to cost savings, therefore finding an efficient way to produce goods (i.e. in economic batch quantities), but the company must ensure than quality is not sacrificed. • The savings arising from inventory holding reduction must be evaluated against the cost of inventory out, together with the effect on customer service. 4 Reducing the average debt collection period • The administrative costs of speeding up debt collection and the effect on sales of reducing credit period allowed must be evaluated. Example 10.10 Working capital mini Q’s Firstly note the difference between a mark up and a margin Mark-up = 100% + 25% = 125% Profit = (25 / 125) Cost = 100 / 125 Margin = 75% + 25% = 100% Profit = (25 / 100) Cost = 75 / 100 1 Effect on WC Increase in trade receivables £30,000 Increase in trade payables (£20,000) Inventories – increase due to purchases £20,000 Inventories – Decrease due to sales (i.e. COS) {30,000 x 100 / 125} (£24,000) Net effect on WC - increase £ 6,000 2 Cash cycle = inventory days + trade receivable days – trade payable days Inventory days = Average inventory x 365 Cost of sales Cost of sales = £18 million x 0.8 = £14.4 million

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Inventory days = £2 / £14.4 x 365 = 51 days Trade receivable days = Trade receivable / sales x 365 = £5 / £18 x 365 = 101 days Trade payable days = Trade payable / COS x 365 = £2.5m / £14.4 x 365 = (63) days Cash cycle = 89 days 89 days is the average time from the payment of a supplier to the receipt from a customer.

Education

P1 chapter 10