FATIMA GUL &

SUMAIRA BIBI

USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES IN PAKISTANI LITERATURE AND BRITISH LITERATURE

TOPIC

Within the philosophy of language over the last decade or so, most linguistic studies of modal expressions begin and end with an analysis of modals .My area of study is to analyze the difference between usage of modal auxiliary in Pakistani literature and British literature. The reason behind writing my whole research paper is I as a student of English language and literature feels as if our people i.e. natives of South Asia particularly Pakistani bear less acquaintance with model auxiliaries no matter how good they are at general English .

Introduction

MODAL AUXILIARIES ARE USE TO TALK ABOUT SOMEONE'S ABILITY (OR INABILITY) TO DO SOMETHING. TO TALK ABOUT AN ACTION THAT IS NECESSARY (OR IMPOSSIBLE, OR NOT NECESSARY).THEY ARE ALSO USED TO TALK ABOUT A SITUATION THAT IS POSSIBLE (OR IMPOSSIBLE). MODAL AUXILIARIES ARE ALSO SOMETIMES CALLED AS MODEL VERBS OR MODALS. MODALS ARE SPECIAL VERBS WHICH BEHAVE VERY IRREGULARLY IN ENGLISH. OFTEN, IT IS DIFFICULT TO PINPOINT THE EXACT TYPE OF MEANING CONVEYED BY A MODAL AUXILIARY, AS DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEANING MAY BE PRESENT SIMULTANEOUSLY

It is widely acknowledged in th

e linguisti

c literature

that modal expressi

ons may be used to

communicate at least t

wo broad clusters o

f

meanings: episte

mic modal m

eanings, which deal

with th

e degree of speaker commitm

ent to th

e truth

of the propositi

on that fo

rms th

e complement of th

e

modal, and deontic m

odal meanings, c

oncerned with

the necessity or p

ossibility

of acts perfo

rmed by

morally responsib

le agents, e.g. obligation and

permiss

ion (Lyons 1

977, Kratze

r

Review of English Primary Auxiliary Verbs by Some Grammarians

Paul and Arthur (1969) describe the English primary auxiliary verbs as words that occur with verbs to form verbal groups or verbal phrases. Instead of classifying the English primary auxiliary verbs as other authors have done, they decided to subgroup them according to the form of verb with which it occurs. Through this method of classification, they reveal the English primary auxiliary verbs and their various uses.

Muir (1972) describes the English primary

auxiliary verbs as elements of structure which

may precede the lexical element in any

construction. He identified the English primary

auxiliary verbs as ‘Be’, ‘Have’ and ‘D

o’

which he called non-modal auxiliaries. According to

him, the morphology of auxiliary verbs differs from

that of lexical verbs such that the auxiliary verbs in

focus (Be, Have, Do) have either more or less forms

than the lexical verbs.

The element unique in my research is that I have selected the novel of Pakistani writer, by  Mohammed Hanif, A Case of Exploding Mangoes .On the contrary I have picked a novel of William Goldings, Lord of the flies by British writer .My research work will solely focus not only on the language but in particular the attitudes generated by the usage of model auxiliaries . Comparing this will help me as a researcher to analyze the attitude of writers of contrastive regions, proving that whose language is more declarative and authoritative by the use of these models.

Research questions1. Do Pakistani writers use modals differently?

2. Does the frequency of the use of these models also differ and in what ways

MY RESEARCH WILL FOCUS ON THE USAGE OF WOULD AND COULD, AND THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF AUXILIARY VERBS FOUND DURING ANALYSIS.

TO IDENTIFY THE PRINCIPAL USES OF THE MODAL VERBS IS ANOTHER OBJECTIVE OF MY PROJECTTO DISCOVER SIMILITUDE AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE USE OF MODAL VERBS BY NATIVES AND NON NATIVES.

MY RESEARCH WILL BE ABLE TO PROVE THAT PAKISTANI WRITERS USE MODEL AUXILIARIES IN AWAY DIFFERENT MANNER FAR MORE THAN BRITISH WRITERS.

Objectives

LITE

RATURE

REVIE

W

Modal auxiliaries are always followed by the base

form of verb. Modals are always the same no

matter what th

e subject is. In

standard American

English, a predicate verb phrase cannot contain

more than one modal. Modals (also called modal

verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, m

odal auxiliaries) are

special verbs which behave irregularly in

English. They are used to indicate modality.

According to oxford dictionary model

auxiliaries are a verb used in forming the

tenses, moods, and voices of other verbs.

Cambridge dictionary defines it as a bit

different to Oxford dictionary signifying it as

 giving help or support, especially to a more

important person or thing is model auxiliary.

TWENTY THREE AUXILIARY VERBS

•Epistemic: You must be starving. ("It is necessarily the case that you are starving.")•Deontic: You must leave now. ("You are required to leave now.")

Types of Modals

PRIMARY MODAL CAN MAY WILL SHALL

SECONDARY MODAL COULD, MIGHT, OUGHT TO, WOULD AND SHOULD

•1. DO PAKISTANI WRITERS USE MODALS DIFFERENTLY?

•2. DOES THE FREQUENCY OF THE USE OF THESE MODELS ALSO DIFFER AND IN WHAT WAYS?

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

A METHODOLOGY IS DEVELOPED BEFORE CARRYING OUT THE RESEARCH, PRAGMATICALLY. A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, WHICH COMES THIRD IN SEQUENCE OF THE COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH STUDY, IS CONSIDERED THE BACKBONE OF ANY RESEARCH.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Quantitative research – research that relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data. • Qualitative research – research that relies on the collection of qualitative data. • Mixed research – research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics. Later in the lecture you will learn about the two major types of mixed research, mixed method and mixed model research.

METHODOLOGY RESEARCH IS A PROCESS OF COLLECTING, ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING INFORMATION TO ANSWER QUESTIONS.

Method THE METHOD I WILL CHOSE FOR MY WORK IS DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS. THE STUDY OF THE WAYS IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS USED IN TEXTS AND CONTEXTS. DEVELOPED IN THE 1970S, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS "CONCERNS ITSELF WITH THE USE OF LANGUAGE IN A

RUNNING DISCOURSE, CONTINUED OVER A NUMBER OF SENTENCES, AND INVOLVING THE INTERACTION OF SPEAKER (OR WRITER) AND AUDITOR (OR READER) IN A SPECIFIC SITUATIONAL

CONTEXT, AND WITHIN A FRAMEWORK OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONVENTIONS"

would

Variable

• VARIABLES OF MY RESEARCH ARE SPECIFICALLY LANGUAGE. WOULD AND COULD ARE THE TWO VARIABLES THAT WOULD BE ANALYZED THROUGHOUT THE TEXTS AND THAN THEIR VARIABILITY WILL BE ASSED.

Level

Word to word is the level looked throughout the texts in my

research paper.

Tools

The tool that is been utilized in my research is Antconc software.

AntConc is a freeware concordance program developed by Prof.

Laurence Anthony, Director of the Centre for English Language

Education, Waseda University (Japan). There are versions

available for Windows, Mac & Linux.

Novel the lord of flies comprises of 61059 words in total and according to the data analyzed by Antconc software would is used 111 times and could is used161 times which gives the percentage of 0.18% and 0.26%.

“These breezes reached the platform the palm fronds would whisper, so

that spots of blurred sunlight slid …” In this line it can be observed that the

situation is not clear and beauty of nature is highlighted. As we know that

phenomena of nature cannot be predicted so an element of uncertainty is always

found discussing about nature. It can be said that the writer has used the modal auxiliary to hint upon the uncertainty of nature, yet emphasizing the beauty of

nature.

He used to blow it and then his mum would come is another quoted text that hints upon the nostalgic feelings of one of character made by writer. Here the use of would throws light on the fact that the character is home sick and more especially misses his mum. Status of would in this suggested line is depicting the strong past embedded with alluring memories which keep on flashing in his mind and never leave him alone .

He paused for a moment, not sure if Ralph would take him seriously is another example alluding to different usage of would in the specific context. Expressing the conditional mood of character that will the other person be able to take him seriously or not. This shows the complexity of mind in character implying through the use of would. Would also indicate the hidden desire in character to be taken as seriously and importantly.

“.

• Three were playing at the other boy had gone home in an aircraft, he would have accepted the statement without fuss or… his natural state and this imperfect covering would soon go, like the velvet on a young stag's antler know what the time was."These couple of lines draws our attention to the idea of acceptance. The narrator used would to emphasize the idea of acceptance. The writer used would specifically to tell his reader’s that he wants his ideas to be naturally accepted without any fuss. Although would also tells about the improbability lingering in the mind of writer about his idea of acceptance but still he is hopeful and compassionate towards his idea by using a simple word would .

“Was it better to fetch Piggy's glasses, or would the ship have gone? Or if they climbed on,…His voice was vicious with humiliation.”

Would used here in the center of line indicates the psychic division of writer created in his characters to show that modern man is always uncertain about his action . In this we can analyze that the characters are not sure to perform an action. They are in the middle of situation and their mind is not composed to act properly. Would underscore the significance of divided state of mind where the character is unable to perform the required function. Would also bring to light the irresponsible behavior and dwindling of decision among the characters. It not only delays their action but also publicize the negligent nature of characters.

COULD

You could see now that he might make a boxer, as far as wid…

In this sentence we can distinguish that the use of modal auxiliary is quite significant. Could here denote that the person is capable of doing something but dint do it. It can be considered that he might hints on the adept nature of character but we can examine that has not made a boxer yet. Duplicity in the nature and ambitions of characters is represented through the use of word could.

Then he lifted his chin and spoke. I could swim when I was five. We can use could to speculate about what has happened. Or sometimes to talk about that has not happened. In these lines it can be speculated that either the character was able to swim back at five or this gesture only remain confined to the dreams. This vague idea is picked out because of the use of cold by character.

None of the boys could have found good reason for this; what intelligence.

Could use in the above line underscore the idea of criticism on boys. Writer has used word could in order to censure the intelligence of boys which has been certainly of no use because they have not find any good reason. The use of could emphasize the scorning attitude of writer towards its knitted characters.

• THE LORD OF FLIES• TOTAL WORDS 61059• MODAL AUXILIARY  • FREQUENCY • PERCENTAGE • WOULD • 111 • 0.18% • COULD• 161• 0.26% 

would could0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

the lord of the fliesthe case of exploding mangoes

The case of exploding mangoesTotal words 105929 case 0.27%

could196

0.18%

Modal auxiliary Frequency Percentage

Would 296 0.27%

could 196 0.18%

The case of exploding mangoesTotal words 105929

• would

I assumed he would come straight to the parade square. Here in the above mentioned sentence "would" have been used to show the possibility of the action, it can be assumed that there are some other options as well but the most preferred situation is that he would come to the parade square. But in this sentence Hanif has utilized it to ensure the possibility of action.  In this line writer has tried to highlight the uncertainty in the minds of characters through the use of would . would here not only suggest uncertainty but also a symbol of positive hope developed by the character that the other character will come.

I hear the voice. I would recognise it from my coffin. "Under Officer Ali?". . . that it's very painful for you.Would can be used to demonstrate hope and presumption. Here in the above mentioned sentence Muhammad Hanif has used "would" to demonstrate the presumption. but at the same time it can be said that writer might used it to show some sort of hope. It also shows the character is so over-powered by his conscious and unconscious thoughts that if he is in the coffin, then he will recognize it. The character has been in great grief and anguish that he can identify that person who hurt him.

if he started changing into his uniform he would be late for his prayers. Not that it mattered, because the imam would wait for him to turn up before starting the prayer.

In this sentence the use of would indicates the possibility. this line depicts that the character tries to fulfil the rules of Islam, he didn't even change the uniform. The use of would shows that the character is so obsessed with the assumptions, that he even not prefer to change his uniform. The character is so paranoid that he didn't acknowledge his value, that the imam would wait for him, here in the next half of the sentence, the use of would indicates that the imam is compelled to wait for him before starting the prayer, because that man might have been in some sort of authoritative place, and if the imam ignored then it may cause some harm to him.

• Could

Not that I could afford to miss. Not that I was going to be given...and were two different entities. I could make them work together better.

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is often used for emphasis. the writer has used "could" to illustrate the loss that is unaffordable, or it can be said that it has been used by the writer to highlight the importance of the thing, that is unbearable to lose.

They shifted in their seats and before he could declare the meeting open, the Naval Chief said, that the training had prepared them for many tasks.

Could is used as the past tense of the can, and in the above mentioned sentence writer have used it to show some sort of possibility and ability as well. The character has the ability to declare the meeting but navel chief have interrupted and made a remark that the training has prepared them to confront any sort of danger and threat.

So unexpected was the attack that Obaid could only whimper. His knees buckled and he fell on the ground and breathe deeply. I wish I could afford the luxury of passing out. This is the another example that demonstrates the certain possible situation according to certain context. the writer has made a different usage of could in certain context. The use of "could" in the midst of the sentence reveals the intensity of the attack, and it also indicates that the attack was so sudden and unanticipated, that the character was unable to restore his energy to breathe even. In this sentence the use of "could" denotes the character's inner inability or weakness.

CONCLUSIVELY IT CAN BE SAID THAT THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS AND EACH OF IT HAS ITS OWN SIGNIFICANCE, VALUE AND ASPECTS. IN MY RESEARCH I HAVE FOCUSED WOULD AND COULD THE SECONDARY MODAL AUXILIARIES AND ANALYZED THEM IN TWO DIFFERENT WRITINGS OF DIFFERENT NATIVE WRITERS. EACH AND EVERY THING IS EXPLICITLY EXPLAINED SO THAT OTHER RESEARCHER CAN SEEK HELP FROM MY RESEARCH PAPER. FINALLY IT CAN BE SAID THAT AS THE ENTIRE THING AMONG DIFFERENT WRITERS IS DIFFERENT SO EVERY ASPECT OF USE OF MODALS IS ALSO FOUND DIFFERENT. IT CAN BE SAID THAT WOULD IS FREQUENTLY USED BY PAKISTANI WRITERS WHEREAS COULD IS MORE UTILIZED BY BRITISH WRITERS. THIS RESULT HAS NOT ONLY HELPED USE TO SEE DIFFERENCE IN MODALITIES AMONG DIFFERENT ASPECT BUT IT IS ALSO PROVED THAT BECAUSE IN THE VARIATION OF CULTURE AND IDEOLOGIES USE OF WORDS CONSEQUENTLY CHANGES IN DIFFERENT AND UNIQUE WAY.