Media language

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Introducing the Key Concepts of Media Studies

Ringwood School Media Studies A Level

The Key Concepts are the single most important framework for the whole Media Studies course.

They have evolved as a means of understanding a text by using a critical framework, rather than just

making unconnected and meaningless observations. Throughout the course, you will need to refer to

the Key Concepts and use the terms you learn when analysing media texts in your exams and

coursework. One way of remembering the Key Concepts is to use the mnemonic ‘RAILING’:

• Representations

• Audiences

• Institutions

• Language

• Ideology

• Narrative

• Genre

However, it is important you do not see each Key Concept as separate and stand alone; in fact they

work in unison. The best examination responses do not address each concept in turn, instead the

concepts flow into each other as the text is being analysed.

We will begin by looking at Language, one of the most important of the Key Concepts, and the

closely related concepts Narrative and Genre.

Media Language

� What is a media text?

You will be used to associating the word ‘text’ with something written or printed. In Media Studies,

the word ‘text’ is used to describe any media product such as television programmes, photographs,

adverts, film, newspaper adverts, radio programmes, web pages etc. ‘Texts’ are therefore the main

point of our study in understanding how media languages create meaning. One of the keys to

understanding the meanings in text is the use of codes.

� KEY TERM

CODES Rules or conventions by which signs are put together to create meaning.

The English language itself is a set of codes: letters made up into words, words made up into

sentences and sentences made up into paragraphs. Just as we learn to read the letters, words and

sentences, so, too, we learn to ‘read’ media codes and languages. We learn that sounds or images can

be put together in particular sequences, working as codes, to give particular meaning.

Just as there is a great variety in the form and style of media texts, so the codes used to construct

meaning are varied and frequently depend upon the form of the media text. In most cases, the text

will use a variety of codes—visual, audio and written—that ‘fit’ together in a certain way to create a

particular meaning.

Most of us can easily ‘read’ a basic printed advert, but as Media Studies students we need to learn to

break down and ‘deconstruct’ the image. As a Media Studies student, it is crucial your responses

reflect what you have learned in class. Always think: could my response have been written by

someone who has never studied the media? If so, you will need to rethink your approach.

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Media Language: Image Analysis


Let’s start by looking at some images and describing what we see. This level of analysis is called

denotation, an important term we will look at in more detail later. In theory, at the level of denotation, everyone should describe an image in exactly the same way. However, as we all have a

different understanding of the world (because we have learned about it in different ways), this is

rarely the case in practice.

��Activity

Look at the image above. On a piece of paper, describe what you see in the picture. You will be

asked to share what you have written with the rest of the class.

Now, write down what you think is happening in the picture. Your interpretation of what is

happening will depend a lot on the assumptions you make about the society in which you live. Your response will also be based on codes you implicitly understand. You will again be asked to share

what you have written with the rest of the class.

Your second response will have taken into account the non-verbal communication (NVC) of the men

in the photograph. NVC is an important code used by human beings to communicate, often

unconsciously. It is possible to identify eight aspects of NVC:

Facial expression: eyebrows are important here, e.g. fully raised eyebrows often indicate disbelief whereas fully lowered eyebrows communicate anger.

Gaze: the focus of a person’s look. When two people’s gazes meet, this is eye contact and particularly meaningful. What does the gaze of the men in the picture say about them?

Gestures: try to talk to someone without moving your hands. Look at other people when they talk and see how they move their hands.

Bodily posture: clearly a slovenly stance communicates something different to an upright one

Bodily contact: this is restricted in western culture as it conveys intimacy unless it’s in a professional context such as at the doctor’s or shaking hands.

Spatial behaviour: the distance between people gives you information about their relationship.

Clothes and appearance: clothes make a statement about us. Even a hair cut tells you something about a person. What kind of haircut will a hippy have, for example? Or a fascist?

Non-verbal aspects of speech: examples are tone of voice or grunting a response.

So we all interpret the world around us instinctively. How does this relate to image analysis?

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We would never question the need to read writing, yet we tend to assume that because photographs

represent the real world they are somehow “natural” so all we need to do is look at them. This is

clearly a fallacy. In fact, the word photography literally means “writing with light” and the first

objective in Media Studies is to move from a passive consumption of images to an active reading of

them. The object of analysis in Media Studies is to understand the meaning of a text (whether it be a

novel, a film, a television programme, a still image and so on).

When analysing images, it is common to distinguish between their form (how the image was created)

and their content (what is in the image). One of the key elements in terms of form is the framing of the image.

Framing

Framing defines the position from which the image was created, i.e. it is the border between the

space we are allowed to see and that which is out of our sight. All frames have a shape—such as the

A4 piece of paper these words are printed on. In terms of framing a still image, you can vary:

Angle: the angle of vision refers to the camera’s angle in relation to the vertical. The most common

is the “straight on” position. Other commonly used angles are low angle, which is often used to

indicate a position of power as the audience is forced to look up at the character and high angle, which means the audience has to look down on the character so often (but not always) suggests

subservience.

Height: Simply, this is the height at which the shot is taken, usually eye-level, just under 2m.

Level: This refers to the camera’s horizontal angle. As with the vertical angle, usually it is “straight on” but the camera can also be tilted on its side to the left or right to change the level.

Distance: This refers to the distance of the object from the camera. There are seven categories:

1. Extreme long shot (e.g. a landscape)

2. Long shot (e.g. a group of people)

3. Medium shot (e.g. one or two people)

4. Medium close-up (e.g. part of a body)

5. Close-up (e.g. face)

6. Extreme close-up (e.g. part of face)

Depth of field: This refers to the distance between the nearest and furthest area from the camera which is in focus. Deep focus photography will have the whole scene in focus, whereas a

conventional photograph will focus on the main object with the background out of focus. Soft focus

can be created by using special lenses and layers.

Lens type: wide-angle lenses make the scene appear deeper than it is; an extreme wide-angle will give a “fish-eye” effect while a telephoto lens pulls objects closer together (e.g. two athletes may

seem to be running close together but when the shot is cut you see the true distance between them).

Film stock: This refers to the speed at which the film responds to light. A fast stock will produce grainy images while a slow stock will require lots of light. Slow stock is the norm in cinema while

most television companies use video (Digibeta) tapes.

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So far, we have looked solely at still images. In addition to what we’ve already looked at, there are

six types of moving images:

1. Pan: (short for panorama): the camera moves horizontally from a static position;

2. Tracking (or dolly): the camera moves on tracks (or wheels) to give a smooth movement;

3. Tilt: the camera moves up or down vertically from a static position;

4. Crane: the camera is moved on a device that can move up and down and laterally (the ultimate crane shot is the helicopter shot)

5. Handheld: gives the frame a shaky look, often used as a point-of-view shot

6. Zoom: Technically not movement, but the change of the focal length bringing us closer or further away from the object in the frame.

Your accompanying handouts look at camera angles and types of shot in much more detail.

To return to our still images, we can now look at the form and say, for example, that an image is a

high angle shot tilted to the right. This is description, not analysis. Analysis involves describing the

features of an image and showing what these features mean. Before we can do this, we must look at

the second element of an image: content.

Content (mise-en-scene)

There are three main components of mise-en-scene analysis:

• The subject

• The lighting

• The setting

The subject

There may be more than one subject in an image and we bring our cultural knowledge to bear when

looking at subject. For example, if the subject is a person, we would consider all aspects of NVC as

we did earlier.

The lighting

This refers to how the image is lit. You will look at lighting in more detail later. For now think about:

1. Where is the lighting coming from: front, side, back, above or below?

2. Is the lighting of equal intensity? (unlikely)

3. Where is this light coming (or supposed to be coming) from?

Three-point lighting is the commonest set up, made up of a key, fill and backlight.

� KEY TERM

MISE-EN-SCÈNE Literally meaning ‘Put into the Scene’, mise-en-scène refers to anything that goes into a shot, including sets, props, actors, costumes, camera movements and performances. It is

often seen as the principal vehicle by which a film’s meaning is conveyed.

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The key light is the main source of illumination and is directed on the subject, usually from 45 degrees above and to one side of the camera. It is a hard, direct light which produces sharply defined

shadows.

The fill light is the soft or indirect light that “fills” in the shadows formed by the key light.

The back light shines from behind the subject, usually to differentiate it from the background.

The setting

This is self-explanatory; we have different expectations, for example, of a tropical setting when

compared to an Arctic one.

So, now we have the tools to be able to look at an image and talk about its form and content on a

denotative level.

��Activity

Analyse the image above using what you have learned so far. Don’t forget to refer to form (i.e.

framing) and content/mise-en-scene (i.e. lighting, setting, NVC). You should aim to write at least

half a side of A4.

Now we have learned how to analyse an image on a denotative level, we need to look at connotation

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� KEY TERM

DENOTATION What an image actually shows and is immediately apparent, rather than the assumption the individual reader may make about it; the everyday or common sense meaning of a

sign

� KEY TERM

CONNOTATION The meaning of a sign which is arrived at through the cultural experiences a reader brings to it

As we said earlier, we have all learned about the world in different ways and therefore will have

different ways of looking at it depending on our social background, age, gender, ethnicity etc. The

way we interpret what we see is connotation, where we, the reader, add our own pieces of

information. We fill in what is missing from the denotation stage and attempt to identify what

message is being communicated.

Connotations often rest on the individual ’reader’s’ response to a media text.

When you looked at the photograph on the previous page and wrote your analysis, you probably

naturally included connotation in your response. This is because when you look at the image, you

instinctively understand that the denotative codes (framing, lighting, mise-en-scene etc) mean something and so you attempt to consider what this could be.

��Activity Complete the chart below:

Connotation Denotation

The colour white

A clenched fist

A little black dress

A red Ferrari

A bald head

The colour black

Virgins; surrender; innocence; cleanliness; honesty; purity (in the western world).

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Before we move on, there are a couple of other terms we need to look at:

� KEY TERM

ANCHORING (OR ANCHORAGE) fixing or limiting a particular set of meanings. One of the most common forms of anchorage is the caption underneath a photograph.

Look at the picture opposite. It was taken in New

York minutes after the destruction of the World Trade

Center on September 11 2001.

The newspaper running this picture would have

“anchored” it by writing a caption reflecting the

anguish of the two women. Or the headline reflecting

the horror would have anchored the picture. But

imagine what other interpretations could be drawn if

the picture was differently anchored.

If you saw this picture in a newspaper and read the

accompanying caption “Two fans are heartbroken by

Manchester United’s FA Cup defeat” then your

perspective would be very different.

Cropping: The advent of digital photography means many people at home now have experience of cropping pictures on their home computers. Choosing to focus on one particular aspect of a picture,

so by definition missing something out, will clearly have implications.

Juxtaposition: Juxtaposition means “being placed side by side”. By placing information, written or otherwise, near an image is likely to influence your reading of that image. For example, an image of

a craggy, handsome man juxtaposed with a mansion on the cover of a novel would suggest it was a

romantic story. The same man, juxtaposed with a gun and the mansion, would probably suggest a

murder mystery. Collage takes juxtaposition to extremes by placing numerous, usually unrelated,

images together within a frame.

Genre: You will look at this more fully later but genre provides audiences with a clear set of expectations which are used to interpret the text. For example, if we read a horror text, we’d be

surprised if it didn’t include elements such as a big, creepy house, thunder and lightning, horrible

deaths, monsters, supernatural powers etc. Iconography is the objects we recognise as belonging to a particular genre, e.g. A ten-gallon hat and six shooters are linked with the western genre.

On the next few page, you will find a poster for the perfume Opium, featuring the model Sophie

Dahl. This advert was banned by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in 2000 after receiving

many complaints. With a partner, look at the image and make a list of the form and content features

of the image. Then discuss and write down the connotations of these features.

��Activity

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Once you have finished your list with your partner, write a full analysis of the advert based on what

we have talked about so far. You should be at the stage where you are using the Media Studies terms

we have learned and, in terms of analysis, offering more than someone who had never studied media

could offer. Remember there are no right or wrong answers in terms of connotation, although you

must offer reasons for your response. Your response will be marked as an assessment.

You may think your analysis of the image is fairly thorough. In fact, this is just the beginning of

analysis as we will see when we look at our next topic: semiotics.

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Semiotics

One of the key theoretical tools to help us deconstruct media texts is semiology, more often referred

to as semiotics. This is an attempt to create a science of the study of sign systems and their role in the construction and reconstruction of meaning in media texts. It is an excellent tool for analysing

images, but it can be problematic in the sense that some of the terminology often makes it seem

obscure and difficult. What follows attempts to make basic semiotics as simple as possible for you to

understand, but please bear in mind that this is a difficult topic and one you will be expected to have

to work at to comprehend fully. We will look at the work of three key figures: the Swiss linguist

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), Charles Peirce (1839—1914), who coined the term

semiotics, and Roland Barthes (1913—1980), who applied abstract ideas to daily life and culture.

Simply, semiotics is the “study of signs” but it is important to remember that this doesn’t just refer to

formal signs (such as the ones found in the Highway Code), but any system of communication.

Language, of course, is the most fundamental communication system used by human beings.

Saussure said that a sign is the sum of the signifier and signified, i.e:

SIGNIFIER + SIGNIFIED SIGN

The SIGNIFIER is the sign’s physical form in the real world while the SIGNIFIED is the mental concept evoked by the signifier. So, if we perceive a four legged animal with a very long neck (the

signifier), this evokes the mental concept of a giraffe (the signified). This combination creates the

sign “giraffe”. In a similar way, the letters g-i-r-a-f-f-e placed together are a signifier (at least for

English speakers) leading to the mental concept of a giraffe (the signified). You can see here how in

our own perception, the signifier and signified are inseparable, but they are separated for the

purposes of analysis. The basic act of signification operates at the level of denotation. Denotation is dealt with more fully elsewhere in this worksheet, but is simply about identifying a sign. The

denotation of an image is what it actually is, rather than what meaning we give to it. For example, the

colour red is the denotation. The meaning we give to red, possibly danger, is its connotation.

The relationship between the signifier and the signified is usually arbitrary (determined by chance

and universally agreed upon). For example, the fact that a four legged animal with a very long neck is

called a giraffe in English is arbitrary. It could equally have been called an elephant or a lion. It

therefore follows that if the signifier determined the signified than the word for a giraffe in English

would be the same in all languages; indeed there probably would be only one language. The fact that

signs are arbitrary means they can have many meanings—they are polysemic. Not all signs are entirely arbitrary in nature. A photograph, for example, looks like what it represents. Signs such as

this were defined by Charles Peirce as iconic (see later).

Our understanding of signs rarely stops at the level of denotation. Once we see a sign, we have

particular associations with it which colour our understanding. For example, arachnophobes would

have negative feelings about the sign “spider” whereas a tarantula owner would have the opposite

feeling. These connotations mean that the original sign has become another signifier which evokes an

associated mental concept to create another sign which consists of “sign” + “associations”

SIGNIFIER SIGNIFIED

(physical form in real world) (mental concept evoked)

SIGN (denotative)

SIGNIFIER SIGNIFIED

SIGN (connotative)

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Semiotics

There is social consensus for many connotations. For example, if you see a border collie dog, sitting

down, tongue hanging out with its head on one side (a denotative description), it is difficult to avoid

the connotation that the dog is friendly. Some signs carry particularly powerful connotations and are

discussed under myths under the section on Barthes later in this worksheet.

One other thing to remember is that meaning cannot exist in individual signs because of their

arbitrary nature. Meaning is derived from context. For example, the word “dog” can mean a four

legged animal or be a verb meaning “to pursue tenaciously”. Look at the following sentences:

1. The dog barked loudly at the postman.

2. The man said he’d dog Charles forever

If we used the meaning “to pursue tenaciously” in the first sentence, it would obviously be nonsense.

We understand the meaning of dog in this case by the difference between it and the other signs in the

sentence. In other words, a sign gets its meaning from its relationship to other signs. To put it simply,

what a sign is could be said to be due to what it isn’t!

Langue and parole

Saussure distinguished between:

• Langue, the rules of sign systems (e.g. grammar)

• Parole, the articulation of the signs (e.g. writing)

Langue is the supporting structure of any communication, often implicitly understood but hidden

beneath the surface. Parole is the performance of the rules, referred to by Noam Chomsky as “what

the speaker does”. To use the writing analogy above, langue is the grammar of English (the rules of

punctuation, for example) and parole the piece of writing produced by a person who implicitly

understands the langue. It is helpful to see langue and parole as an iceberg: langue is the supporting

structure part hidden under the sea, parole is the visible part.

How does this relate to Media Studies? Take the Hollywood cinema industry, for example. There are

certain “codes” associated with Hollywood films, such as continuity editing, use of diegetic and non-

diegetic sounds etc. All of this you will learn about later in the course. These codes act as the

equivalent of the langue while the way these codes are actually used in a specific film is the

equivalent of parole. Unless a person has learned about the media language of Hollywood films, then

it is unlikely he or she would know about the rules of continuity editing, for example. However,

because most people can make sense of the editing when watching films (the parole) then they

implicitly understand the langue, as indicated by Chomsky.

Parole

Langue

“What the speaker does”*

“What the speaker knows

implicitly”*

* Noam Chomsky

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Semiotics

Synchrony and diachrony

Saussure demonstrated another way of structuring meaning: considering the vertical and horizontal

dimensions of sign systems; synchrony and diachrony. Synchrony is the vertical dimension of

meaning and diachrony is the horizontal dimension. These are useful in the study of language. Take

the quote from Shakespeare’s Hamlet below:

‘O that this too too sullied flesh would melt’

The synchronic dimension could be a particular word, say “sullied”, while the diachronic dimension

could be the whole sentence as the diagram shows above. Analysis would usually focus on both

dimensions: what is the meaning of “sullied” in the context of the sentence?

The relationship between the two dimensions is relative. We could argue that the letter “u” is the

synchronic dimension while the whole word “sullied” is the diachronic dimension, or that Hamlet is

synchronic and Shakespeare’s collected works diachronic.

When we look at a still from a film, or a freeze-frame of a video, we are, in effect, looking at the

synchronic dimension: the sequence from which the still is taken is the diachronic dimension.

A useful way of remembering this is that synchronic is like freezing time (as in the example above)

whereas diachronic is concerned with changes over time. If we analyse a text in a synchronic way,

we focus on it as existing at one historical moment. If we analyse diachronically, we acknowledge

that what we are looking at arrives with a history, not something that is complete within itself.

Theorist Warren Hedges defines the terms as follows:

“A diachronic approach involves an examination of origins, development, history and change. For example if we examine the etymology of a word, or the development of a genre. Diachronic

approaches give us a history, like a motion picture documentary. They focus on how things change

over time.”

“In contrast, a synchronic approach gives us a snapshot of a particular system at a particular moment in time. For example we might note how a word is distinguished from other words at the moment.

Synchronic approaches focus on how a given system is at a given moment and how each part fits into

the system.”

To expand on Hedges’ example of words: a synchronic analysis of the word “gay” in 2006 would

focus on how young people in Britain have adapted the word to mean “rubbish” or “worthless” in

addition to it meaning homosexual. A diachronic approach would ground the word “gay” in its

historical context of meaning “happy” and follow the way it has evolved to mean homosexual and

now “rubbish” or “worthless” to British schoolchildren.

Synchronic dimension

Diachronic dimension

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Semiotics

Syntagm and paradigm

These words are difficult but when understood give you the critical ability to open up a text to

different interpretations. Therefore, it is important you work hard at understanding the concepts in

order for you to develop your analytical skills.

Syntagm

This is a chain of signs, that is, an element which follows another in a particular sequence. Saussure

identified a syntagmatic relationship in language: language is linear so there is a relationship between

the words: “the cat sat on the mat”. This syntagmatic level can be seen as the structural level from

which a text can be broken into its constituent parts. For example, the sentence “the cat sat on the

mat” is a syntagm that can be reduced to an analysis of individual words within the sentence,

particularly the subject (cat), object (mat) and verb (sat). In terms of film or television, a syntagmatic

analysis would involve an analysis of how each shot, scene or sequence relates to the others. If you

were analysing a still image, syntagmatic analysis would focus on the spatial relationship between

objects. Roman Jakobson used the word “combination” when defining syntagm.

Paradigm

A paradigm is a class of objects or concepts which are all members of a defining category but

markedly different in themselves. To use the example of language, the vocabulary of a language is a

paradigm. The use of one paradigm over another (i.e. the choice of one word rather than the choice of

another word) shapes the meaning of a text. For example, take the syntagmatic sentence:

IRA terrorists overran an army post in Northern Ireland.

If a journalist writes that sentence, then he or she chooses each “sign” from a range of alternatives.

That is, instead of “IRA terrorists”, the journalist could have chosen to write “IRA scum”, “IRA

paramilitaries”, “IRA freedom fighters” or “IRA lunatics”. Each of these choices would have

substantially altered the meaning of the text. Equally, the journalist could have chosen to write

“Ulster” or “the occupied counties” rather than Northern Ireland. As it stands, an analysis of the

sentence may result in speculation that it was written by an English (or at least Unionist) journalist

due to the choice of paradigms. So a paradigm releases one sign choice at the expense of all others,

just as the selection of an England footballer deselects all others from the paradigm “footballers

eligible to play for England”. To change the selection is therefore potentially to change the wider

meaning, which is crucial when it comes to analysis in Media Studies.

Roman Jakobson used the word “selection” when defining paradigm. You can think of syntagm and

paradigm as two axes (we will use the example above):

IRA terrorists overran

freedom fighters liberated

guerrillas freed

active units attacked

paramilitaries occupied

Syntagmatic axis

Par

adig

mati

c ax

is

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Semiotics

So, by their very nature, paradigms expand the possible meanings of a sign. For example, a television

newsreader may introduce a 6pm news bulletin by saying “Good evening”. (syntagm). Other

possibilities in the paradigm of this greeting include “Hi”, “Hello” “G’Day” or no salutation at all.

Thinking about these rejected alternatives helps to reveal the contribution which “Good evening”

makes to the text as a whole. Paradigmatic analysis focuses on the creation of meaning by the

deselection of the signs in the paradigm. In this case, the paradigm locates its meaning in the

spectrum of formality. By recognising that the newsreader has rejected “Hi”, “Hello” etc, we come to

understand more about the newsreader’s level of formality and friendliness.

In television and film, paradigms include ways of changing shot (such as cut, wipe, fade, dissolve)

and camera angles. The chosen genre is in itself a paradigm. So, by thinking about why a director

chooses not to use a cut, but uses a dissolve instead, we can start to reveal more about the way meaning is created.

It is important to recognise that there can be more than one paradigm for a sign. For example, the

word “cat” can belong to the paradigm “mammal” “domestic animal” “lazy animal” or “cat family”.

In the sentence “the cat sat on the mat”, the syntagm prevents confusion by limiting the number of

meanings. We instinctively realise that the paradigm must be “domestic animal” as, for example, “the

whale sat on the mat” (mammal paradigm) or “the lion sat on the mat” (cat family paradigm) seem

inappropriate, if not absurd.

To summarise: paradigmatic elements are those from which you choose (to use a restaurant analogy:

starters, main courses, desserts). The syntagm is the sequence into which they are arranged, i.e. the

three course meal.

All of this is particularly useful in image analysis. For example, the use of a cat in a double glazing

advert relies on the paradigm “domestic animal” combined with the syntagm which places the cat

next to the double glazed window. This communicates that the product is effective in eliminating

draughts. The syntagm “cat and window” could suggest the cat belongs to the “lazy animal”

paradigm as it is looking outside, doing nothing. However, the name of the product (double glazing

company) anchors the meaning of the paradigm as “domestic animal” as its function is to eliminate

draughts.

Placing a dog in the same position would not have the same effect, even though it too belongs to the

“domestic animal” paradigm. The syntagm “dog and window” has different associations, such as a

dog waiting for its owner to return home or wanting to go for a walk.

Commutation test

In semiotics, the replacement of one sign by another is called a commutation test and illustrates how

powerful syntagms and paradigms can be in analysis. By substituting objects for other signs in the

same paradigm and decoding the new meaning, we can isolate what contribution the original sign is

making to the meaning of the image (just as substituting the paradigm “Good evening” for “Hello” or

“Hi” in the newsreader example gives us an insight into the formality of the programme). As John

Fiske puts it: “the meaning of what was chosen is determined by the meaning of what was not.”

Study the poster for Marlboro Cigarettes on the next page and then answer the questions underneath

the image.

��Activity

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The significant paradigms in the image above are: the stallion and, separately, the rider.

Try the commutation test by changing the sign within the relevant paradigm. In other words, change

the stallion for something else relevant to the paradigm (a mule, perhaps).

What effect does this change have on the advert? Think carefully about what this tells you about the

advert itself (i.e. what does the meaning of what not was chosen tell you about what was chosen).

Do the same with the rider. Change him for something else within the paradigm of “human beings”.

(Often, when a gender is changed, the effect is ridiculous but you can be sure that any alterations to

the meaning of the image is caused by gender and our assumptions about it.)

Again, what effect does this change have on the advert? What does it tell you about the advert itself?

Based on your commutation test, discuss what you think are the connotations of the word

“STALLION”. What does your commutation test tell you about the way the advert has been

constructed? (don’t forget the syntagmatic relationship that helps anchor this).


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Hopefully, you are able to see that by using the commutation test, we can learn a lot about the

meaning of a text based on the choices its creator has not made. The commutation test demonstrates semiotics at its most powerful and is a particularly effective way of unmasking myths (see later).

��Activity

This time, you are going to try a commutation test without any direct input from the teacher.

Decide yourself what are the significant paradigms in the CD cover above. Remember, they can be

more varied than merely paradigms of content: design features and camera angles also operate in a

paradigmatic way. Consider this quote from Fiske and Hartley when referring to commutation tests:

“The effects of each substitution are considered in terms of how this might affect the sense made of

the sign. This might involve imagining the use of a close-up rather than a mid-shot, a substitution in

age, sex, class or ethnicity, substituting objects, a different caption for a photograph etc.”

Then, carry out a commutation test by changing the sign within the significant paradigms you have

identified.

Once you have done this, consider what this tells you about the CD cover and the way it was

constructed.

Write down your “reading” of the CD cover. There is no right answer but the commutation test

should help you focus your response.

What we are doing when we identify paradigms is beginning to see the text in one of its primary

contexts: what is missed out or what might have been. We are beginning to expose the matrix or grid

of relationships from which all texts are produced, the master set of permutations from which any

specific combination has been constructed. From this point on, the text is open in the sense that you

have exposed its inner workings, even if this means you recognise it as being closed in that many of

the possibilities that you have recognised have been denied. This puts you in a strong position.

In the A2 part of the course, you will take this a step further to consider alternative views of texts,

based on ideological positions such as feminism, Marxism, post modernism, post structuralism and

post colonialism.

16


A good way of demonstrating how well identifying paradigms can be when analysing an image is to

think back to the Sophie Dahl perfume advert you looked at earlier in the course. If you identify the

paradigm of “human” and change the gender of Sophie Dahl to male, then this reveals a lot about the

way in which the advert represents women (which would have been a good way of beginning to think

about how the advert deals with the issue of gender representation). In fact, the thought of a man in

the same position is almost comic: a fact seized upon by the manufacturer of Newcastle Brown Ale,

which parodied the advert by creating a “male” version (see image below).

When a media text deliberately makes reference to another media text and the audience is expected to

understand the reference, it is called intertextuality. This can possibly lead to confusion if the reference is not understood. For example, someone unaware of the Sophie Dahl advert could see the

advert below and identify the paradigm of clothing. The decision to use a white suit, rather than a

black suit or shirt and jeans, may then be taken to be significant in relation to the type of person the

drinks manufacturer is appealing to. One conclusion could be that Newcastle Brown sees its drinkers

as colonial types. In fact, anyone who knows the Newcastle Brown brand would recognise this as

wildly inaccurate; the choice of the white suit is almost certainly to mimic the translucency of the

naked Sophie Dahl in the original advert.

��Activity

17

Charles Peirce, the other great pioneer of semiotics, created a tripartite categorisation of signs:

• Iconic

• Index

• Symbol


Indexical signs

In a sense, indexial signs lie between symbolic and iconic signs. Indexical signs have some sort of

direct connection with what is being ‘signified’. For example, smoke is often used as an indexical

sign for fire and a tear running down a cheek can be an indexical sign for sorrow.

In the same way, a thermometer is an index of ‘temperature’ and a barometer an index of ‘weather’.

Symbolic (or arbitrary) signs

A symbol is a sign that represents an object or concept solely by the agreement of the people who use it. Therefore, symbolic signs have no obvious connection between the sign and the object. For

example, the word DOG has no obvious link with a furry animal usually domesticated as a pet. It

only works because we understand the rules that say the letters D-O-G, when put into a certain order,

mean or ‘signify’ that furry animal. If it was a different ‘we’, for example a group of French people,

then the ‘rules’ would be different and we would use the letters C-H-I-E-N to signify the animal.

Internationally, the colour green is used in traffic signs to signify ‘go’. This is a symbolic or arbitrary

sign because the world as a whole has agreed to its meaning. The colour pink could equally have

been chosen if this had been agreed upon.

This means some symbolic signs can have several meanings that are contested, or about which

people might not agree. For example, the Union Jack has a variety of meanings depending upon who

is using it—a group of football supporters, the monarchy, the Unionists in Ulster, the British National

Party etc.

Iconic signs

On the other hand, iconic signs always resemble what they signify. There is a physical similarity

between a photograph, or a good drawing, of a dog and most people’s experience of these animals.

Therefore, unlike the symbolic word ‘DOG’, the photo or drawing is an iconic sign.

We are familiar with iconic signs in our everyday lives, for example a wheelchair is used to signify

facilities for disabled people and we can usually find the men’s and women’s toilets wherever we are

in the world by looking for the iconic signs on the doors.

18

Reading signs

Media texts can have several possible meanings depending upon the way in which the signs are read

and the background of the individual ‘reader’.


You must remember that the three categories of sign are not mutually exclusive—in fact, a sign can

very well be all three categories at the same time. For example, take the crossroads sign:

This road sign is symbolic because it is in the shape of a triangle, which we

have arbitrarily agreed indicates a warning. The cross in the middle is iconic, in that its shape is determined by the shape of the object it represents, a

crossroads, and the sign is also indexical because it is related to the physical presence of the actual crossroads farther along the road.

This can be seen through the use of the ‘men at work’ road sign in Britain. The

image in the sign is iconic as it looks like a man at work. However, that is to some extent determined by our culture and conventions inherent in our society.

For example, it could equally be an image of someone trying to put up an

umbrella. In a rural culture, it could be the sign of someone shovelling manure

rather than mending the road. In rural cultures where women do such menial

work, it could signify a woman shovelling manure.

When signs are open to different interpretations, they are said to be polysemic. This ambiguity can be

potentially disruptive and one way of trying to control the meanings made by a reader is anchoring, as we saw earlier.

Finally, we will look at Roland Barthes, whose crucial contribution to semiotics was his definition and exploration of myths. Barthes looked at how signs take on the dominant value system of a

particular society and make these values seem natural. The dominant value system of a society is

known as ideology, that is, a way of looking at things shared by the majority of that society. To oversimplify grossly in order to give an example , the political ideology of the west is largely

based on democracy, freedom of the individual and the belief in a free market economy, i.e.

capitalism. This ideology is not one shared by all parts of the world, where different dominant

political ideologies (e.g. communism, a system which sees wealth shared) exist.

Barthes used the example of a flower with red petals, green leaves and a thorny stem— a signifier

evoking the mental concept of rose at the denotative level. However, rose can also signify the mental

concept of romance, particularly if it is red and placed in the context of St Valentine’s Day. Romance

is a myth that defines heterosexual love as tender and caring; the female is passive and the male

active in the relationship. We have already seen how the original denotative sign can become the

signifier for a second-order system of signification, creating a connotation. Barthes showed that

Saussure’s sign can become a signifier to create, not only a connotation, but a myth.

Because it is virtually impossible to understand “a red rose on Valentine’s Day” (denotation) as

anything other than meaning “romance” (connotation), it seems that what appears to be a denotation

(“a red rose on Valentine’s Day”) is actually a connotation (“romance”). In other words, Barthes

pointed out that signs can disguise themselves, a trick that allows myths to structure the meaning of

the communication without appearing to do so. Myths position the audience in a specific relationship

with a sign and simultaneously disguise themselves.

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For example, consider an after-shave advertisement that includes an image of a fast car: in this text

the fast car connotes masculine power and is part of a system of signs which create the myth of

masculinity. Masculinity is a social creation, gender, rather than a biological definition. To be

defined as masculine in the West, the male needs to be strong (have muscles), physically skilful,

rugged and adept in the use of technology. The use of cars in advertising (they are almost always

fast) often symbolises these aspects of masculinity.

In order to deconstruct this particular use of the myth, we could use a commutation test by

substituting the car for a bicycle. A feminist reading of the car in the text may emphasise that the

car’s speed signifies men’s lack of sexual staying power. This sort of reading helps the

deconstruction of the text because it helps emphasise that the association—in this case, speed with

masculinity—is not natural but a social construct. Looking at readings alternative to the consensus

(such as Marxism, Post-Colonialism, Feminist etc) will be emphasised at A2 Level.

The identification of myths, because the appear natural, can be difficult, but they are a potent way of

making meanings in society.

Binary oppositions

One of the most powerful creators of a sign’s meaning are binary oppositions. Here, signs are

contrasted with signs which have meanings that operate in opposition. For example, town and

country, man and woman, child and adult, public and private, civilisation and savagery.

Binary oppositions are not natural descriptions but cultural creations. Some theorists claim that the

west uses binary oppositions such as white-good, black-evil to perpetuate and legitimise western

power structures that favour “civilised” white men.

The following adjectives could be applied to town: artificial, polluted, over-crowded, exciting,

commercial, dangerous. The following could be applied to country: natural, clean, deserted, boring,

non-commercial, sage. These lists are essentially connotations of both town and country. Taken

together, they form myths of urban and country life.

The media often use binary oppositions to structure their representations. So a portrayal of a town,

for instance, may use pollution as a starting point. A text that uses binary oppositions usually assigns

a positive value to one side against the other; by stating that one side is good, it follows that the other

side is bad.

��Activity

On the next page, you will find five images. The first three are all stills taken from a Lynx (men’s

deodorant) advertising campaign in Britain. The bottom two are adverts for men’s aftershave.

With a partner, look at the first three images separately and then together. What myths can you

identify? Discuss your own personal interpretation of the adverts. Is this advertising campaign

tongue-in-cheek and harmless or does it help to reinforce western myths about gender? Go back to

the Sophie Dahl advert. Can you identify any myths? Does the advert reinforce myths or do

something different? Look at the two aftershave adverts. Can you identify any myths? What is your

own interpretation of the adverts?

By analysing the media language in the adverts, you have also been looking at the Key Concept of

representation. Bad responses in Media Studies look at the Key Concepts as single entities: students

write about language, for example, then audience, then representation etc. The best responses “flow”

more with Key Concepts naturally linking to each other. Bear this in mind when doing written work.

20

21


We have looked in some detail at how to analyse still images, yet we have not looked in any detail at

the analysis of moving images.

The relationship between still and moving images can be understood at a very early age: the “stick

person” animated by flicking quickly through the pages of a book is a common trick learned by

young people. The rapid juxtaposition of images, each slightly different from the previous one, gives

the illusion of movement. The same principle is used in the cinema; a still image (or frame) is

projected momentarily on to a screen to be immediately followed by another and so on.

Editing

The word ‘edit’ often means to ‘cut out’ but in audio-visual texts it refers to the join between shots.

The purpose of conventional editing is to make this join as smooth as possible—invisible, in fact.

The need for a narrative flow, to tell a story, led to the development of the continuity system of

editing. This was perfected by the film-makers in Hollywood and is one reason why this particular

part of the USA has dominated film production in the Western world ever since.

Continuity editing

One objective of continuity editing is to create a coherent cinematic space in which the action can

take place. Early cinema placed the camera as if it was in a theatre’s stalls, and the players acted in

front of it. This was clearly very limiting with no different camera positions or movement. Once the

camera moves, whether the movement is seen on screen or if it’s done between cuts, it is essential the

audience know where it has moved to, or they would become disorientated. To prevent confusion,

the following rules are used; these rules form the codes of continuity editing. If the audience did not

understand them, they would become disorientated. The fact that audiences understand these rules

unconsciously, and cannot describe them (unless they’ve studied film or media) is a testimony to

their effectiveness.

The 180-degree rule

The 180-degree rule was established as the best way of facilitating continuity of cinematic space

within one scene. By staying on one side of the imaginary axis, the ‘axis of action’, which is formed

through the subject(s) in the scene, the audience will always have a clear idea of where the characters

are in relation to one another and where they are within the scene. If, however, the 180-degree line is

crossed and the camera remains facing the characters, then everything appears the other way around.

See the diagram below.

The camera can be positioned

anywhere to the right of the two men

(the axis of action) and the man in the

light hair will always be on the left.

But if you cross the 180-degree line,

the light haired character suddenly

appears on the right. This could

confuse an audience!

22


Establishing shot

The position of the 180-degree line is usually established by the first shot of the scene, the

‘establishing’ shot. This creates the ‘axis of action’ and it is necessary that the characters and the

space are seen within this shot.

Re-establishing shot

Once a scene’s space has been established, a number of medium or close-up shots may follow, which

would fragment the space. In the case, a ‘re-establishing shot’ might be required to re-anchor the

audience’s perception of the scene’s space.

Shot/reverse shot

Once the scene has been established, medium shots can show each end of the 180-degree axis,

although they must always stay on the same side. The angle of these two shots from the axis of action

must be the same. This technique is usually used in filming conversations between characters; for

example, an over-the-shoulder shot could show one person talking, cut to over-the-shoulder of this

person would show the other listening. This is a shot/reverse shot pattern.

30-degree rule

Whenever a camera position is changed, it must move at least 30 degrees in relation to the shot’s

subject(s) from its previous position in order to make the movement obvious. Anything less tends to

have a jarring effect.

Eyeline match

When a character looks off-screen followed by another shot, the second shot shows what the

character is looking at.

Match on action

If a character starts to move in a particular direction, it is possible to cut to a shot where the character

is still moving but has covered space that was not shown. Because of the 180-degree rule, and the

consistency of the character’s direction, audiences tend not to notice the missing space and time.

The cut

In terms of editing, there a number of ways of getting from one shot to the next. The most common is

the cut, where one sequence of film is immediately followed by another. You can also:

Fade-out: the scene simply fades to black—it has ended

Fade-in: the scene appears from a black frame, which signifies the beginning

Dissolve: the second shot fades-in and is superimposed over the first shot, which fades out, usually taking less than a second. This usually suggests a passage of time or links two shots together. In

television, this is often referred to as a mix.

Wipe: The second shot flows horizontally across the first, as if it were a curtain being pulled across the frame giving the effect of an abrupt conclusion to the scene. Editing packages often allow you to

use lots of different (often cheesey) wipes, such as the second shot wiping off the first through a page

turn, or flying in as a shape from different areas of the screen.

Continuity editing appears to be invisible as audiences assume there is a spatial relationship between

23


one shot and the next. This was proved by Soviet film-maker Lev Kuleshov in the 1920s. Kuleshov

filmed an actor with a neutral expression on his face and cut this together with various other images

such as a baby or a bowl of soup. When audiences watched the result and were asked to note the

emotion of the character, they commented on how hungry he appeared when his face followed the

shot of the soup and how loving and fatherly he appeared after the shot of the baby. The shot of the

actor, of course, never changed. The audience assumed the shot of the actor and the object occupied

the same space. In reality, of course, they do not.

When we analyse moving images, we must comment on the effect that the juxtaposition of different

images has upon the creation of meaning. Four relationships between images at the edit should be

considered:

Graphical relationships: Graphics refers to a shot’s brightness and the patterns of line, shape, volume,

depth, movement and stillness. The focus of analysis is on whether the graphic properties of shots are

edited to create either continuity or contrast.

Rhythmic relationships: These are created by the length of a shot, how long a shot runs before the

edit. If a sequence consists of shots of the same length, then a rather monotonous rhythm will be

created; conversely, a series of long shots followed by rapid editing is likely to create an exciting

effect. Some documentaries use “long take”, that is, very little editing, in order to create a sense of

reality.

Spatial relationships: As already discussed, continuity editing uses various rules, such as the 180-

degree rule, to create coherent space.

Temporal relationships: These are about how on-screen time is constructed. It is unusual for on-

screen time to match ‘real time’. A text can take place across any length of time; from a few hours to

centuries. Editing is often used to cut out redundant actions: for example, a character may stand up to

leave the room; an immediate cut shows the character exiting by a door—the movement to the door

is taken out. This is an ellipsis.

Linear and non-linear editing

Before the development of digital technology, editing had to be carried out in a linear fashion. In

other words, the film had to be made in order from start to finish with shots placed next to each other.

The development of digital technology allowed images to be digitised, giving the editor access to all

the footage at all times. This gives the editor the flexibility to change what has already been made or

throw away parts of the film and start again.

Continuity editing is not the only editing system. Montage is distinguished from continuity editing by its discontinuity. Montage is a series of shots that establishes connections based on a conceptual

relationship. One definition of montage is: the juxtaposition of seemingly unrelated shots or scenes

which, when combined, achieve meaning (as in, shot A and shot B together give rise to a third idea,

which is then supported by shot C etc).

��Activity

You are about to shown a series of television or film clips.

In each clip, look at how continuity editing is used to ensure the audience does not become

disorientated. Look at the edits and camera angles and write down anything you note.

You will see each clip more than once.

24


Sound

Sound is important for the audience to make sense of what they are seeing. Even silent films had

some kind of sound effects as well as musical accompaniment, often from a man playing the organ in

the cinema! Sound plays more of an important role in films and television programmes than you

probably realise and is as crucial as visuals.

Sound will be something you need to think carefully about for your coursework. It is difficult to get

sound right—even professional organisations constantly encounter sound problems. It is therefore

unrealistic to expect to be able to make an amateur film with excellent audio, especially as many of

today’s cheaper camcorders do not even have the facility to add external microphones.

One of the key roles of sound is to tell the audience how to react at different points in a film or

television programme. Distinctive sound devices are used for particular genre. In fact, sound is an

important device in establishing the genre for an audience and getting them in the mood for watching

something.

Listen to the five sound-track examples and jot down in the spaces provided which genre you

perceive them to be from. In the Why? section try to describe the kinds of instruments you hear.

��Activity

Sound track no. Genre Why?

1

2

3

4

5

25


The type of sound you have just heard, the sound track, is an example of what is known as non-

diegetic sound. In other words, it is sound that comes from outside the world of the film or programme. Theme music throughout the programme/film can similarly be defined as non-diegetic

and is often used to tell the audience what is going to happen next. For example, in the film Star

Wars, the evil force of Darth Vader is known to be present because his theme is played. Even if he is

not on screen, his influence can be indicated through music.

The opposite of non-diegetic sound is diegetic sound. This is the sound that comes from the world of the film/programme.

There are four dimensions of sound to be analysed:

Dialogue (or monologue): the most obvious diegetic sound—what characters are saying onscreen. Dialogue is usually carefully mixed to make it clear. It is either recorded at the same time or may be

added later (post-dubbed).

Sound effects: non-verbal, diegetic sounds, the source of which is clear to the audience. These are often post dubbed. The sounds of a fist fight, for example, are usually added later.

Ambient sounds: background sounds, again diegetic, which add to the atmosphere. Often called spot effects, an example of ambient sound is the noise of insects or birds in a country scene, or traffic in a city scene (whether the insects, birds or traffic are actually seen or not).

Non-diegetic sounds: not originating from the on-screen space, such as sound track or voice-over. As we have just seen, music is particularly effective as non-diegetic sound and is often used to evoke

a period or genre. Remember that music is not always non-diegetic. If it is coming from a radio, or a band, then it is part of the diegetic world of the film. In the opening of Touch of Evil, which you saw

earlier, Orson Welles tried to ensure all the music was diegetic. Music can be heard coming from the

radio and out of bars etc. This is part of the diegetic world of the film.

Narration

There are, of course, many different types of dialogue, including narration. Sometimes the story is

told by one of the characters at the start of the film and then it drifts into dialogue and returns to a

voice-over narration at the end. This happens in American Beauty and The Big Lebowski, for

example. Here are some different types of narration:

Voice over

Voice of God

Epistolary voice

Subjective voice

This often acts as an expository device. In other words, it puts things

in context and explains what people will see.

The narrator here can see all and hear all, hence the name Voice of

God. It is unlikely the narrator will be seen on screen.

Used in programmes such as Dawson’s Creek when a character

leaves a letter for someone and we hear their voice reading it.

This is when we hear what someone is thinking and when they

imagine conversations. Six Feet Under is interesting as it uses

dialogue from corpses to act like a conscience for the characters.

26


Sound can be used in many different ways for artistic effect. Here are two terms you need to know

about:

Synchronous sound

Asynchronous sound

Synchronous sounds are matched to what is viewed. For example, if you

see someone play the piano, you hear a piano playing. This adds to the

realism of film and also help to create a particular atmosphere. For

example: the “click” of a door being opened may simply serve to convince

the audience that the image portrayed is real, and the audience-may only

subconsciously note the expected sound. However, if the “click” of an

opening door is part of an ominous action such as a burglary, the sound

mixer may call attention to the “click” with an increase in volume; this

helps to engage the audience in a moment of suspense.

Asynchronous sound effects are not matched with a visible source of

the sound on screen. Such sounds are included so as to provide an

appropriate emotional nuance, and they may also add to the realism of

the film. For example:a film maker might opt to include the

background sound of an ambulance's siren while the foreground sound

and image portrays an arguing couple. The asynchronous ambulance

siren underscores the psychic injury incurred in the argument; at the

same time the noise of the siren adds to the realism of the film by

acknowledging the film's (avowed) city setting. Choosing to use sound

in an asynchronous way can be very effective. You are about to watch a

scene from The Godfather that makes good use of asynchronous sound.

Watch the scene and be prepared to talk about the effect the use of

sound has on you.

��Activity

These activities are designed to get you thinking about how important the use of sound is in film:

1) You are about to watch a scene from Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho. Firstly, you will watch the scene with no sound. Then you will watch it again twice—this time with sound. Be prepared to talk

about how effective the use of sound is.

2) You are about to see a montage of images taken from the Baz Luhrmann film of Romeo and

Juliet. You will watch exactly the same montage a number of different times, but the music

accompanying the sequence will change each time. Forgetting what you already know about the

story of Romeo and Juliet, think about how your view of the relationship between the two

characters changes emotionally depending upon which soundtrack is used.

3) You are about to watch a scene from James Cameron’s Titanic. How important do you think the role of non-diegetic sound is in this scene? How important do you think the role of non-diegetic

sound is to the film as a whole?

Now you have learned a little about sound, be sure to comment on it in analysis. It is easy to get

caught up in talking about visuals as the mind tends to process this information first and the sound

gets put somewhere in the background. But, as we said earlier, sound is crucial to a film. Steven

Spielberg says “half the success” of Jaws is simply down to John Williams’ inspired theme. As we

have seen, sound plays a major role in Psycho, from the chilling score during the shower scene to

the diegetic sound of a knife slashing into flesh (achieved by simply thrusting a knife into a melon!)

27


So far this term we have looked closely at the skills needed to analyse media texts and you have

learned quite a lot about image analysis. A lot of what you have learned about moving images will be

applied practically when we start talking about your coursework and you start storyboarding, filming

and editing a practice piece.

In How To Study Television (1995), Selby and Cowdery offer a comprehensive framework for

analysing texts. This uses media terminology and is methodical in its approach. In effect, the

framework is a summary of all the work we have done on media language so far. It is therefore a

helpful way of revising. Although the framework originated from a study of television and the

moving image, it can also be applied to still images and, in part, to radio or sound texts.

Let’s look at the framework and finish off our introduction to media language by analysing some

moving image texts. Selby and Cowdery split the tools needed for deconstructing a text into two

groups: technical codes and mise-en-scène codes:

Mise-en-scène codes Technical codes

• Setting • Props • NVC (non-verbal communication) • Dress

• Shot size • Camera angle • Lenses • Composition • Focus • Lighting • Film Stock • Film colour • Sound/music/sound effects • Colour e.g. golden = warm

NB Sound/music/sound effects and colour were not included in Selby and Cowdery’s book and have been added later.

A range of possible connotations of each code is given below to help you see how this model can be

applied in practice:

Technical codes


Shot size—e.g. long shot

Camera angle—e.g. low-angle shot

Lenses—e.g. telephoto lens

Composition—e.g. symmetrical framing

A character shot from far away seems removed from the audience, distanced, isolated and alone

A low down shot, looking up, implies the subject is powerful, more important than the audience

Selecting and focusing on one object or subject gives it exclusive importance

This implies the filmed space has order and that the inhabitants of it are organised and tidy

28


Technical codes


Focus—e.g. blur

Lighting—e.g. low-key state

Film stock—e.g. grainy/speckled/under-exposed

Film colour—e.g. Technicolor, overall finish

In a still image (e.g. advert), a blurred background and a focused image of a car imply speed

The lighting implies a sombre feeling without the need for speech

This gives a documentary or ‘realist’ effect

If the colour of a film is unusually bright, it has a fantasy feel; if it’s grey its connotation is dullness

Sound/music/sound effects—e.g. solemn music

Colour—e.g. character wearing white

The soundtrack emphasises a solemn feeling

White has connotations of purity and innocence, implying the character shares these

Mise-en-scène codes


Setting—e.g. affluent, well-decorated, middle class home with hi tech gadgets

Props—e.g. a muddy bike in a house

NVC— e.g. hunched shoulders, head hanging down

Dress—e.g. a young character wears a brown, chunky cardigan

The inhabitants are successful, probably young; they are proud and have wealth and good taste

Character enjoys open spaces; indifferent to getting dirty. Not concerned about bike in house

The character is vulnerable, unhappy or depressed

The character rejects fashion in favour of comfort (and perhaps security).

This approach should give you confidence with Module 1, your unseen media text examination.

Although it is important to apply critical frameworks to the study of media texts, the danger of doing

so is that you can end up producing a mechanical response that sounds like it has been written by a

computer. Like in English, you can easily make the mistake of “spotting” or “listing” what’s there

rather than analysing effects. The examples on the next page show you how you need to try to

develop your analysis beyond the superficial.

29


Imagine you are analysing a scene from a film. You may write:

The woman wears a red dress. Therefore she is sexually charged and passionate. She lives in a

high-rise flat so she must be poor. There is a bottle of wine on the table so she must like to drink

alcohol.

This is far too simplistic. What if the red dress is one she wears for work? In any case, it doesn’t

necessarily follow that she is feeling ‘sexy’ at this moment. Nor does the flat have to be hers.

The following is better analysis (although there may be other ways to respond to the same material):

The woman wears a red dress. The colour could connote passion and lust, but her non-verbal

communication seems to suggest otherwise. She appears tired, perhaps having just come home

from work. The bottle of wine and a single glass that sit on the table connote that she leads a

hectic life and may find some comfort in relaxing with a drink after work. Overall, the image,

which looks like an attempt to capture a realistic moment, has a documentary feel to it and could

perhaps be commenting on the damaging nature of twenty-first century lifestyles.

You can see how the quality of analysis is lifted using media language terms. As the course

progresses, you will learn lots of other technical media terms and theories that you should introduce

into your writing. For now, it is important to practise using the terms we have learnt so far.

��Activity

Later in the course, you will look at how narrative, genre, institution, audiences and values and

ideology all contribute to the effect a media text has on the person ‘reading’ it. For now, you should

concentrate on using what you have already learnt to begin analysing some moving image texts.

You are about to be shown FIVE short film clips. You will be shown each clip FOUR times.

Do not write anything during the first showing of each clip.

When you watch the clip for a second time, write down anything you note about technical codes (i.e.

shot size, camera angle, composition, focus, lighting, sound, music, sound effects etc).

When you watch the clip for a third time, write down anything you notice about the mise-en-scène

(i.e. setting, props, non-verbal communication, dress).

Watch the clip for a fourth time and add anything you missed earlier. What genre do you think each

film is? How can you tell? Don’t forget, we are all the subjects of socialisation; our different

experiences and interactions mean one person’s reaction to a text will be different to another’s. This

doesn’t make one person ‘right’ and one person ‘wrong’, so don’t be afraid to say whatever you want

as long as you can make a reasoned argument for your particular point of view.

A class discussion on each clip will take place before the next clip is shown.

The clips are:

1. Ocean’s Eleven (2001)

2. Trainspotting (1996)

3. The Virgin Suicides (1999)

4. American Beauty (1999)

5. The Wicker Man (1973)

30


��Assessment

You will be shown the opening of a film THREE times.

Do not write anything during the first showing.

Make notes during the second and third showing, focusing on how the director uses technical codes

and mise-en-scène to create effects.

Write an analysis of the opening of the film, commenting on how effective you think the opening is.

Don’t forget to try and use as many technical terms as you can.

This format is similar to the one used for the Unit 1 examination, although you could be asked to

analyse a moving image, printed material or even an extract from a radio programme.

Later on, you will be expected to comment in greater depth, but for now focus on what you have

learned about media language so far.

Education

Media language