Learning, Perception and Attribution

CHAPTER

THREE

LEARNING is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. When a person behaves differently from what he previously did, it can be said that there is change in the person’s behavior. With change, there is learning.

A change in behavior happens due to any or both of the following:

1. Learning2. Other causes such as drugs, injury, disease

and maturation

Behavioral change starts with the mind when it accepts new knowledge. Sometimes, the mind

orders the body to show some signs of behavior that is different from the previous one.

Sometimes, the mind is just plain contented with new knowledge and do not make attempts

to order the body to show some outward manifestations of behavior change.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

Classical ConditioningOperant Conditioning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGThis is a type of learning in which a stimulus

acquires the capacity to evoke response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. A stimulus is something that incites action. Example is ‘demotion

in rank’. The respond could be ‘a law suit’.

Original Stimulus Response

Neutral Stimulus 

Conditioned StimulusConditioned Response

OPERANT CONDITIONINGOperant conditioning is a type of learning where

people learn to repeat behaviors that bring them pleasurable outcomes and to avoid behaviors that lead to uncomfortable outcomes.

Learning Repeat Behavior Pleasurable Outcomes

Avoid Behavior Uncomfortable Outcomes

Difference between the two theories:Classical conditioning involves

adjustment to events (or stimuli, whether conditioned or otherwise) over which the

person has no control. In contrast, operant conditioning involves adjustment to

situations in which the actions of the person determines what happens to him.

SOCIAL LEARNINGSocial learning may be defined as the process of observing the behavior of

others, recognizing its consequences, and altering behavior as a result. One of the ways by which people learn is through

social contacts with other people.   

How Social Learning is AchievedSocial learning may be done in three ways:

1. By observing what happens to other people

2. By being told about something and3. Through direct experience

PERCEPTIONPerception is a process by which individuals

organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. It may be defined as the process by which people select,

organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from their environment.

 Why is this important to the study of OB?

This is important to the study of OB because people’s behavior is based on their perception of

what reality is, not on reality itself.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Perceiver

Target

Situation

Factors that influence the perceiver’s perception:1. His past experiences2. His needs or motives3. His personality4. His values and attitudes

Characteristics of the target:Contrast1. Intensity2. Figure-ground separation3. Size4. Motion5. Repetition or novelty

Situational factors that influence perception:

1. Time2. Work setting3. Social setting

ATTRIBUTION THEORYAttribution theory is the process by which people

ascribe causes to the behavior they perceive.

Our perception and judgment of a person’s actions are influenced by the following assumptions:

- We make inferences about the actions of people that we do not make about inanimate objects.

- Nonliving objects are subject to the laws of nature.- People have beliefs, motives, or intentions.

TWO KINDS OF CAUSATION:

1. Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the

individual. 2. Externally caused behavior is seen as

resulting from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the

behavior by the situation.

Factors That Influence Attributions

Distinctiveness

Distinctiveness – the consideration given to how consistent a person’s behavior is

across different situations.

Consensus Consensus - refers to the likelihood that all those facing the same situation will have similar responses.

Consistency

Consistency – refers to the measure of whether an

individual responds the same way across time.

1. Fundamental Attribution Error – the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal

factors in the behavior of others.

2. Self-serving Bias – the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes/achievements to their good inner qualities (internal factors) whereas they attribute their failures to adverse factors within the

environment.

Common Attribution Errors:

Shortcuts Used in Forming Impressions of Others

We use a number of shortcuts when we judge others. Those judgments or impressions

constitute a database in our minds that we later use as aides in making decisions concerning others. An understanding of these shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they

can result in significant distortions.

Selective Perception – happens when a person selectively interprets what he sees on the basis of his interests, background, experience, and

attitudes. It is impossible for a person to assimilate everything he sees, hears, smells, touches or tastes. Only a limited number of stimuli can be taken in. As a result, people

engage in selective perception, but the process is affected by personal interests, background,

experience and attitude of the perceiver.

Halo Effect – occurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an

overall impression of the person or situation. In short, this occurs when we draw a general

impression on the basis of a single characteristic.

Contrast Effects – evaluations of a person’s characteristics that are affected by

comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the

same characteristics. Here, we do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one

person is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered.

Projection – attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings or motives to

another. It is likely to occur in the interpretation stage of perception.

This tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people can

distort perceptions made about others.

Stereotyping – judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.

Generalization is not without advantages. It is a means of

simplifying a complex world, and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem, of course, is when we

inaccurately stereotype.

Specific Applications in Organizations

Employment Interview

Performance Expectation

Ethnic Profiling

Performance Evaluation

Employee Effort

THANK YOU!The End!

Other reference:business.fullerton.edu/management/slpurkiss/MGMT%20340/OB5.doc