Up from Slavery: Up from Slavery: Attitudes towards Attitudes towards economic and social economic and social mobility on the part of mobility on the part of slaves and freedmen in slaves and freedmen in Greco-Roman Greco-Roman antiquity and the antiquity and the American SouthAmerican South

Geof Kron, University of VictoriaGeof Kron, University of Victoria

Victoria, British ColumbiaVictoria, British Columbia

Peter Brunt first sketches out the Peter Brunt first sketches out the distinctiondistinction

“Roman slavery again differed markedly from that known in modern western society, for instance in the United States. In the fields or the mines slaves had little hope of freedom, but the slaves who were extensively employed in the household, in trade and industry and even in public administration and the professions were manumitted in thousands; the prospect of freedom was an incentive to good work, which it was in the interest of the masters to provide. .... If the master was a Roman citizen, his freedman normally obtained the citizenship with his liberty. Many of them became rich and influential, especially the emperor's freedmen. Their sons, born in freedom, might have still better prospects. Pertinax, the son of a freedman, became emperor in 193.” Brunt 1965: 274-5

Freedmen made goodFreedmen made good Wealth of Roman freedmen

well documented Mouritsen 2011: 109-118; 228-47;

reff. in ibid. p. 207 note 6 Treggiari 1969: 140; 239-40

Pompeius Demetrius allegedly makes fortune of 4,000 talents

Aurelius Isidorus has more than 4,000 slaves

Motion to levy special tax on libertine fortunes over 200,000 HS leads to rioting

Freedmen and the collegiaFreedmen and the collegia Roman Roman collegiacollegia and and

professional guilds professional guilds allow ingenui, allow ingenui, freedmen and slave freedmen and slave artisans to associateartisans to associate

and defend interestsand defend interests See Waltzing 1895-See Waltzing 1895-

1900; De Robertis 1955; 1900; De Robertis 1955; 1971; Joshel 19921971; Joshel 1992

Education and upward mobilityEducation and upward mobility “Anyway, I’ve just bought the boy some law books, as I want

him to pick up some legal training for home use. There’s a living in that sort of thing. He’s done enough dabbling in poetry and such like. If he objects, I’ve decided he’ll learn a trade – barber, auctioneer, or at least a barrister – something he can’t lose till he dies. Well, yesterday I gave it to him straight: ‘Believe me, my lad, any studying you do will be for your own good. You see Phileros the solicitor – if he hadn’t studied, he’d be starving today. It’s not so long since he was humping round loads on his back. Now he can look even Norbanus in the face. An education is an investment, and a proper profession never goes dead on you.’”

Petronius, Satyricon 46

Du Bois, Harvard class of 1890Du Bois, Harvard class of 1890

Cicero and his freedman TiroCicero and his freedman Tiro “As I have said, you are the apple of

my eye. I shall see you all on the 30th and smother your eyes in kisses, even though I may sight you in the middle of the Forum. Love me. Good bye.” Cicero, Ad Fam. XVI.5.2

“Your services to me at home, in the forum, in Rome, in my province, in public and private affairs, in my literary work and studies, are innumerable, but you will surpass them all if, as I hope to do, I see you in good health.”

See Treggiari 1969: 202-3; Cic. Ad. Fam. XVI.10; 16; 18; 24; 26

Roman concepts of slaveryRoman concepts of slavery

““Slavery is an institution of the law of nations (Slavery is an institution of the law of nations (ius ius gentiumgentium) whereby someone, against nature, is ) whereby someone, against nature, is made subject to the ownership of another.” made subject to the ownership of another.” Florentinus (Dig. 1.5.4 preface) (2Florentinus (Dig. 1.5.4 preface) (2ndnd c. AD) c. AD)

““With respect to the civil law (With respect to the civil law (ius civileius civile) slaves are ) slaves are held to have no standing. But according to held to have no standing. But according to natural law (natural law (ius naturaleius naturale) that is not the case. ) that is not the case. According to natural law all men are equal.” According to natural law all men are equal.” Ulpian (Dig. 50.17.32) (early 3Ulpian (Dig. 50.17.32) (early 3rdrd c. AD) c. AD)

A Very Different Attitude in 1818A Very Different Attitude in 1818

The caste division is explained by a Maryland federalist: “Be their industry ever so great and their conduct ever so correct, whatever property they may acquire or whatever respect we may feel for their character, we could never consent, and they could never hope to see…free blacks or their descendants visit our houses, form part of our circle of acquaintances, marry into our families, or participate in public honours or employment.”

Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters (1974): 187

The brief dawn of ReconstructionThe brief dawn of Reconstruction

Legislature of South Legislature of South Carolina 1868-1872Carolina 1868-1872

DuBois 1934: 726 “For those seven years between Johnson’s ‘swing round the circle’ and the panic of 1873, a majority of thinking Americans in the North believed in the equal manhood of black folk. They acted accordingly with a clear-cut decisiveness and thorough logic, utterly incomprehensible to a day like ours which does not share this human faith.”

““Slavery by another name”Slavery by another name”http: www.slaverybyanothername.comhttp: www.slaverybyanothername.com

11

KKK terrorism and Great KKK terrorism and Great Depression of 1873 usher in the Depression of 1873 usher in the ‘Redemption’ and Jim Crow‘Redemption’ and Jim Crow

New legal rights nullified by New legal rights nullified by terror and discriminationterror and discrimination

Most blacks reduced to Most blacks reduced to peonage as indebted and peonage as indebted and exploited sharecroppers or exploited sharecroppers or forced labourers sold to forced labourers sold to plantations, mines, or industryplantations, mines, or industry

The Robber Barons & White SupremacyThe Robber Barons & White Supremacy Northern financiers Northern financiers

dominate trade in dominate trade in antebellum Cottonantebellum Cotton 40% of profit over 40% of profit over

production cost go to banks production cost go to banks (Johnson 2013)(Johnson 2013)

Frick, Carnegie & Frick, Carnegie & Morgan’s U.S. Steel with Morgan’s U.S. Steel with 7% of US GNP employs 7% of US GNP employs convict labourconvict labour Able to produce steel at 50 Able to produce steel at 50

c / tonc / ton Mortality rate 10% or more Mortality rate 10% or more

annuallyannually

Scientific Racism and EugenicsScientific Racism and Eugenics

A brave gesture stirs racist hysteria A brave gesture stirs racist hysteria

Ben "Pitchfork" Tillman of S.C.: "Now that Roosevelt has eaten with that nigger Washington, we shall have to kill a thousand niggers to get them back to their places.”

The White Chief, James K. Vardaman calls T.R. "a little, mean, coon-flavored miscegenationist"

Governor of Georgia: "No southerner can respect any white man who would eat with a negro.”

Richmond News: T.R. "at one stroke and by one act has destroyed regard for him. He has put himself further from us than any man who has ever been in the White House."

Brunt on British & Roman ruleBrunt on British & Roman rule

“Indians had no place in either local or central government analogous to that which provincials could reach under Roman rule. One underlying reason was clearly the British sense of superiority, supported by colour prejudice…Romans too could speak with contempt of peoples born to servitude, or deplore race mixture - Orontes flowing into Tiber. But the ever increasing importance of provincials, even from the east, demonstrates that occasional expressions of racialism were of no great moment. Certainly there was no colour bar, perhaps because the empire contained no negroes and because the physical characteristics of some Italians do not differ much from those of most Syrians. If by culture and sentiment men were Romans, Romans they were. The term "Wog" cannot be translated into Greek or Latin.”

A thoroughly cosmopolitan EmpireA thoroughly cosmopolitan Empire Roman Italy’s multi-cultural mix Roman Italy’s multi-cultural mix

includes significant, if unquantifiable, includes significant, if unquantifiable, ‘‘Aethiopian,Aethiopian,’’ Egyptian, and North Egyptian, and North African populationsAfrican populations

““The structures of society carried no The structures of society carried no inherent prejudice against blacks as inherent prejudice against blacks as blacks” Thompson 1989: 162blacks” Thompson 1989: 162 Also see: Snowden 1947; 1970; 1983; Also see: Snowden 1947; 1970; 1983;

Gruen 2011: 197-220Gruen 2011: 197-220

To Left: Bust of Memnon, pupil of To Left: Bust of Memnon, pupil of Herodes Atticus (Thompson 1989: 25 Herodes Atticus (Thompson 1989: 25 and note 32)and note 32)

Barriers to ManumissionBarriers to Manumission Often desired by actual slave-owners but social

pressure prevents: Georgia farmer refuses because “He was most afraid the community would think hard of him”

Upper South usually requires judicial review Lower South usually requires act of Legislature

In Alabama: “On the average, a mere 20 Negroes annually passed from slavery to freedom in a state which counted almost 120,000 slaves in 1830.” (Berlin 1974: 140-1)

Equivalent to 0.0016% annually Roman households of Statilii and Volusii show 31.7

and 46 % freed (Mouritsen 2011: 139 n.96)

Freedmen as % of African-AmericansFreedmen as % of African-Americans1820 1840 1860

U.S. 13.2 13.4 11North 83.9 99.3 100South 8.1 8 6.2Upper South 10.6 12.5 12.8Lower South 3.5 3.1 1.5Kentucky 2.1 3.9 4.5Maryland 27 40.9 49.1Missouri 3.3 2.6 3N.C. 6.7 8.5 8.4Tennessee 3.3 2.9 2.6Virginia 8 10 10.6Alabama 1.3 0.8 0.6Arkansas 3.5 2.3 0.1Florida - 3.1 1.5Georgia 1.2 1 0.8Louisiana 13.2 13.1 5.3Mississippi 1.4 0.7 0.2S.C. 2.6 2.5 2.4

Slaves without MastersSlaves without Masters “Once free, blacks generally

remained at the bottom of the social ladder, despised by whites, burdened with increasingly oppressive racial proscriptions, and subjected to verbal and physical abuse. Free negroes stood outside the direct governance of a master, but in the eyes of many whites their place in society had not been significantly altered. They were slaves without masters.” Berlin 1974 quoted by Patterson 1982: 259.

Intense poverty & much higher mortality than slaves or whites Berlin 1974: 250-60

Slaves without Masters – some statisticsSlaves without Masters – some statistics

98% of freed blacks support themselves with manual labour, sometimes skilled

Only 10% of freed blacks own agricultural land (although only effective source of independence)

Mean wealth for free blacks is $644 Mean wealth for whites is $10,000 One third have no wealth whatsoever 94% of free blacks have less than $2,000 with mean

wealth of $270 ($185 in real estate, equivalent to a few acres at most) See Johnson & Roark 1984: 58-64 for statistical breakdown

Plus ça changePlus ça change "The Negro baby born in America

today … has about one-half as much chance of completing high school as a white baby born in the same place on the same day, one-third as much chance of completing college, one third as much chance of becoming a professional man, twice as much chance of becoming unemployed, about one-seventh as much chance of earning $10,000 a year, a life expectancy which is 7 years shorter, and the prospects of earning only half as much."

John F. Kennedy 11th June 1963

A Continuing Legacy…A Continuing Legacy…

A Haven for Freedmen in New A Haven for Freedmen in New OrleansOrleans

““After conversing with one cultured and wealthy free black in 1865, Carl Schurz concluded: ‘There is no country of the world, save this, in which he would not be received as a gentleman of the upper class.’ “ (Foner 1988: 47)

Free blacks own $2 million in real estate and other property

Mean real estate holding for wealthy blacks in Louisiana $10,311 more than twice value in any other state

““Quasi-citizenship” in LouisianaQuasi-citizenship” in Louisiana State Supreme Court of defends unique rights of

Louisiana freedmen under Napoleonic Code: “In the eyes of Louisiana law, there is with the exception

of certain political and social privileges, and the obligation of jury and militia service, all the difference between a free man of color and a slave that there is between a white man and a slave. The free man of color is capable of contracting. He can acquire by inheritance and transmit property by will. He is a competent witness in all civil suits. If he commits an offence against the laws, he is to be tried with the same formalities, and by the same tribunal as the white man.” (State v. Harrison (a slave), 11 La. An. 722, Dec. 1856) (quoted by Sterkx 1972: 171 n. 35)

Louisiana’s Leading FreedmenLouisiana’s Leading Freedmen Antoine Dubuclet

State treasurer under Reconstruction

a sugar planter with over 100 slaves.

Aristide Mary owns real estate valued at

$30,000 François Edmond Dupuy

owns 12 buildings in New Orleans

See Foner 1988: 47-50; Berlin 1974: 108-32; Schweniger 1990: 117-21

Left: Nicholas Augustin Metoyer

Another important cultural Another important cultural differencedifference

Louisiana custom tolerates concubinage with black women by Creoles and other wealthy whites

Examples: Jean Baptiste Meullion (son of

white planter Luis Augustin Meullion and slave Maria Juana)

Nicholas Augustin Metoyer Andrew Dunford Antoine Ducuir

No Miscegenation!No Miscegenation! From 1913 to 1948 30 of 48 U.S.

states ban interracial marriage “In 1958, in the earliest

national poll taken, 96 percent of whites disapproved of interracial marriage. In 1965, 72 percent of southern whites and 42 percent of non-southern whites approved of laws banning intermarriage. By 1970, those numbers had dropped to 56 and 30 percent respectively.” (Dorr 2008: 209)

““Lynch a thousand a week…”Lynch a thousand a week…”

28

Mixed Marriages in the SouthMixed Marriages in the South

“A substantial majority of free women of color who lived openly with property-owning white men in 1850 were residents of Louisiana (158 of 199 or 79 percent)”

“Only about one-third as many propertied Negro men in the Lower South cohabited with white women. With few exceptions they were listed as mulattoes by census takers and tended to cluster together with a few other mixed couples in rural areas…seeking to avoid contact with the outside world.”

Schweniger 1990: 134

Placage: interracial concubinagePlacage: interracial concubinage ““When a man makes a declaration of love to a When a man makes a declaration of love to a

girl or this class she will admit or deny … If girl or this class she will admit or deny … If she is favorably disposed, she will usually she is favorably disposed, she will usually refer the applicant to her mother. The mother refer the applicant to her mother. The mother inquires, like the Countess of Kew, into the inquires, like the Countess of Kew, into the circumstances of the suitor; whether he is able circumstances of the suitor; whether he is able to maintain a family; and, if satisfied …to maintain a family; and, if satisfied …requires of him security that he will support requires of him security that he will support her in a style suitable to the habits she has her in a style suitable to the habits she has been bred to, and that if he should leave her, been bred to, and that if he should leave her, he will give her a sum for future support, and he will give her a sum for future support, and a certain additional sum for each of the a certain additional sum for each of the different children she shall then have.” F. L. different children she shall then have.” F. L. Olmstead quoted by Sterkx 1972: 250Olmstead quoted by Sterkx 1972: 250

See Sterkx 1972: 250-6; Schweniger 1990: 99-See Sterkx 1972: 250-6; Schweniger 1990: 99-101; Genovese 1974: 429-31101; Genovese 1974: 429-31

Marriage into the nobilityMarriage into the nobility Imperial Freedman Claudius Etruscus marries into

consular family “Who but knows of Etrusca's exalted birth and beauty?

Although I never saw her with my own eyes, her portrait, equal to her fame, renders her surpassing loveliness, and the charm and resemblance of her children displays it in their faces. Nor common was her race: her brother bore the rods and the highest curule chair, faithfully commanding Ausonian swords and entrusted standards, what time madness first pushed the fierce Dacians and doomed their race to a grand triumph. So whatever fell short in the father's blood the mother made good, and rejoicing in the marriage the house saw its dim side brighten.””

Statius 3.3 vv. 111-21

A toxic legacy which is far from ancient historyA toxic legacy which is far from ancient history

Michelle Alexander, Michelle Alexander, The New Jim The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Crow: Mass Incarceration in the age of color-blindnessage of color-blindness

Prison population goes from Prison population goes from 300,000 to 2.3 million since 60s300,000 to 2.3 million since 60s

U.S. incarceration rate over 700 U.S. incarceration rate over 700 per 100,000per 100,000

White 393; Latino 957; Black White 393; Latino 957; Black 2,531 2,531 Russia 450Russia 450 UK 153UK 153 Japan 52Japan 52

32

FinisFinis

Remember to read:Remember to read:W.E.B. DuBois, Black W.E.B. DuBois, Black

Reconstruction in AmericaReconstruction in America