Lightbrown’s Classification of Research on Second Language

Learning0Descriptive: collecting speech samples from second

language speakers and then comparing these samplesto target language norms

0Experimental pedagogical studies: manipulatingcertain variables experimentally to determine theireffect on classroom learning.

0Hypothesis-testing studies: testing hypothesis basedon the findings of previous research

Theory

0A way of interpreting,criticizing and unifyingestablishedgeneralizations.

0A system of facts andlaws.

0The facts and laws takeon a new light from thetheory; the theoryillumniates facts andlaws.

Hypothesis Theory

Definition

A suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena.

In science, a theory is a well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven hypotheses.

Based onSuggestion, possibility, projection or prediction, but the result is uncertain.

Certainty, evidence, verification, repeated testing.

Testable Yes Yes

Falsifiable Yes Yes

Is well substantiated No Yes

DataUsually based on very limited data

Based on a very wide set of data tested under various circumstances.

Three assumptions basic toscientific research

1) Research is inseparable from theory

2) There is no one scientific method

3) There is no single scientific truth

The functions of theories

0Understanding

0Transformation

0 Prediction

Types of theories

There are at least two different dimensions that can be used to classify theories: form or content

0 Form: deductive or inductive

0 Content: micro or macro

Deductive approach

0 It characterizes formal theories inwhich the concepts of the theoryare related to each other in a set ofpropositions that are assumed tobe true without proof. Theseconstitute the axioms of the theory.Given these basic axioms orassumptions, laws of logic areapplied to obtain new propositions.This procedure is called ‘deducingthe consequences of the theory’.The new propositions that followfrom the assumptions of the theoryare called ‘hypotheses’. If thesehypotheses are empiricallysupported, they become laws andthe facts of the theory.

Inductive approach

0 It progresses from theaccumulation of sets of factsand sets of laws to theory.Hypotheses are derivedfrom the theory as a result ofgaps in the network ofempirical relationships.Hypotheses are theinvestigator’s best hunchabout a new relationship,given certain empirical facts.

Deductive theories Inductive theories

Beginning point Interim solutions Empirical data

Network Theoretical cencepts andconstructs

Relationships between laws

Ultimate goal Explanation Explanation

Advantage More interesting claims Close to data

Disadvantage Remote from data Limited claims

The construction of theories

Evaluating theory

Norms of validation can be grouped in three categories:

0 Correspondence norms

0Norms of coherence

0 Pragmatic norms

Correspondence norms

0Definitional adequacy-the correspondence of thetheory to some external reality: If a theory is to tell usanything about the world, it must contain empiricalelements. There must be some connection to theinter-subjective world of observation and experience,or the theory is indistinguishable from fantasy.

0Explanatory power- correspondence of the theory tothe facts the theory is to explain: The concepts of atheory need to be defined in a way that clarifies theirmeaning; that is in such a manner that differentspersons will interpret them in the same way.

Operationalizm

Operational definitions: the idea is that a concept issynonymous with the operations that are necessary forits measurement.

The problems related to operationalizm:

0Why one set of operations is chosen rather thananother one?

0There may be two, or more, different ways ofmeasuring a concept.

0Many concepts in a theory have only indirectreference to experience.

Norms of coherence

0The more simple the theory, the greater its appeal toour understanding.

0 If a theory is inconsistent with related acceptabletheories, it has relatively less antecedent probabilityof being valid.

Pragmatic norms

0The theory should be elegant in its formulation

0 ‘There is nothing as practical as a good theory’

Confirmation

0 In addition to three forms addressed above, there is another condition: falsifiability.

A good theory…

0 fits the data well

0 is consistent with related formulations

0 is clear in their predictions

0 is heuristically rich

0 is capable of disconfirmation

Prepared based on the book ‘Theories of Second-Language Learning’ by Barry McLaughlin.

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