Leadership

Power, influence and leadership in organisations

Power and influence Power is an important ingredient in the process of

influencing others Many of the behaviours that can be observed in

organisations are concerned with the acquisition, retention and application of power.

Power is more important to some than to others, but none of us relish being wholly powerless• E.g. McClelland’s ‘Need for power’ Current emphasis on ‘empowering’ people Kanter – “It is powerlessness which corrupts, not power.”

Power and influence

Power is the capacity to influence others to do what they might not otherwise do.

Power involves dependency

The level of dependency and thus the strength of the power, will be determined by:-

Importance

ScarcityNon-substitutability

Power and influence

Examples of Power and dependencyImportance Scarcity Non-

substitutabilitity

Power to hire & fire

Control of information

Importance of the job as a source of income

Labour market conditions – availability of other equivalent or better jobs

Job not required as a source of income (e.g. just won lotto!!)

Information needed to accomplish a particular task

Alternative sources of the critical information are available

The task for which the information is needed can be replaced by an alternative action based on other information

Sources and Bases of powerWhere do you get power from?

What tactics can you use to influence others?

Sources of power:

-Position

-Personal qualities

-Expertise

-Control of information

Bases of power:

-Coercion

-Reward

-Persuasion

-Knowledge

Common power ‘tactics’ used in organisations

Reason Friendliness Coalition Bargaining Assertiveness Appeal to higher authority Sanction

Power and influence

Power related behaviour is often ‘political’ e.g.

Behaviours outside ones formally specified job role / status

Behaviours that influence, or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages in an organisation• E.g. protecting &/or developing bases of power

• Information resources

• alliances / friendships / obligations

Examples of ‘political’ behaviours in organisations

Maintaining networks of contacts Creating obligations in others to call on later Establishing ones own credibility or possibly

discrediting others Such behaviours are a normal aspect of human

behaviour and are often constructive• E.g. Lobbying for support of an innovative

development. Such ‘political’ behaviour need not be

approached as a ‘zero sum’ game.

Leadership: Two dimensions of interest

What determines or influences effective leadership?• Leadership as a dependent variable

How does leadership influence the behaviour of others?• Leadership as an independent variable

Leadership: The main theoretical approaches

Trait Theory

Behavioural Theory

Contingency Theory

Leadership: Trait Theory

By studying great leaders from the past we can develop a profile of the characteristics needed to be an effective leader.

Problems with this approach?

Leadership: Behavioural Theory

Behavioural theories took the view that it was the behaviour, not the personal characteristics, of leaders that determines leadership effectiveness.

The major studies / theories include• Ohio State studies –

• Initiating structure

• Consideration

• Michigan studies• Employee or production centred

• Blake-Mouton Leadership Grid Problems with behavioural approaches?

The Blake-Mouton Leadership Grid

Concern for people

Concern for production

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Country- club management

Team management

Middle of the road management

Impoverished management

Task management

Leadership: Contingency theories

Contingency theories assume that there is not one best style of leadership. Leadership effectiveness will be determined by situational factors.

Major contingency theories of leadership include:• Fiedler’s Contingency theory

• House’s Path-Goal theory

• Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership theory

• Vroom & Yetton’s Leader-Participation theory

Fiedler’s Contingency theory

Leader-member relations

Task structure

Position power

Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor PoorHigh High Low Low High High Low Low

Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

High control Moderate control Low control

Task oriented leadership more effective

Relationship oriented leadership more effective

House’s Path-Goal theory

Draws on expectancy theory The leader’s task is to clarify goals and ‘clear’ the path to achievement of

these goals Contingency factors

• Situational factors• Task structure

• Formal authority system

• Work group structure

• Subordinate factors• Locus of control

• Experience

• Perceived ability

Leader Behaviours• Directive

• Supportive

• Participative

• Achievement-oriented

Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational theory

Relationship behaviour

High

Low

Low High Task behaviour

Subordinate maturity

Able and Able but Unable Unable

willing unwilling but willing & unwilling

Participating

Delegating

Selling

Telling

Vroom & Yetton Leader-Participation model

Linked leader behaviour with participation in decision making. Leader decision styles

• Autocratic no discussion

• Autocratic, but with some discussion

• Consultative – leader consults with subordinates individually before making decision

• Consultative – leader consults with subordinates as a group before making decision

• Group makes decision Decision style depends on:

• Decision quality required

• Adequacy of information available

• Degree of structure in problem

• Importance of acceptance

• Likelihood of acceptance

• Degree to which subordinates share goals

• Likelihood of consensus amongst subordinates

Leadership issues

Defining leadership

Managers and leaders

Does leadership make a difference

Substitutes for leadership

Leadership – a process

Defining leadership

What do we mean by leadership?

Can we measure it?

Can we demonstrate the causal links between leadership and organisational outcomes?

Managers and leaders

Manager Leader

Transactional Transformational

Required Discretionary

Does leadership make a difference?(From Pfeffer – The Ambiguity of Leadership)

Definitional problems

Potential cloning of leaders

Leaders discretion often constrained

Leadership as an explanation of social causality

Substitutes for leadership

Substitutes for leadership may include• Knowledge, skills and motivation of

subordinates

• Structure and nature of tasks / decisions

• Quality of information and communication systems

• Reward systems What aspect of leadership are these

factors most likely to substitute?

Leadership – A process? We tend to consider leadership in terms of the

attributes or behaviour of those designated (formally or informally) as leaders.

Perhaps we should also consider leadership as a process in which all those in the group or organisation are involved.

This may be particularly relevant given the increasing emphasis on the ‘empowering’ of employees and the development of ‘self-managing’ teams.