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{The Cold War
Chapter 27
Introduction
Wasteland Europe as land of wreckage and confusion Refugees returned home Housing now scarce, food in short supply
Trauma The brutality of war Civil war Liberation and betrayal
Introduction
Recovery Government authority Functioning bureaucracies Legitimate legal systems
The emergence of the superpowers and the Cold War
Collapse of the European empires
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Iron Curtain Soviets argued they had a legitimate claim
to Eastern Europe The Soviets and Eastern Europe
The “people’s republics” Sympathetic to Moscow One party took hold of key positions of
power Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” speech (Fulton,
Missouri, 1946)
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Soviets and Eastern Europe Communist governments in Poland,
Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia (1948)
Yugoslavia Tito declared his government independent
of Moscow in 1948 Drew support from Serbs, Croats, and
Muslims in Yugoslavia Expelled from communist countries’
economic and military pacts
Territorial Changes in Europe after the Second World War
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Soviets and Eastern Europe Soviet purges in the parties and
administrations of satellite governments Began in the Balkans Extended through Czechoslovakia, East
Germany, and Poland Renewed anti-Semitism
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Soviets and Eastern Europe Greece
Local communist-led resistance British and United States determined to
keep Greece in their sphere of influence Greece as touchstone for escalating
American fear of communist expansion
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Soviets and Eastern Europe The two Germanys
Four occupied zones became two hostile states
Berlin divided as well Three Western allies created a single
government for their territories in 1948 Passed reforms to ease economic crisis Introduced a new currency
Czech Propaganda Poster Celebrating German Defeat
Czech Propaganda Poster Celebrating German Defeat, May 1945
Czech Propaganda Card, May 1945
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Soviets and Eastern Europe The two Germanys
Soviets retaliated with the Berlin Blockade (June 1948–May 1949)
The Berlin airlift The Federal Republic (West Germany) The German Democratic Republic (East
Germany)
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Marshall Plan U.S. response to Soviet expansion was
massive economic and military aid The Truman Doctrine (1947)
Military assistance to anticommunists in Greece
Tied the contest for political power to economics
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan (1948)
$13 billion of aid for industrial development over four years
Encouraged states to diagnose their own problems and develop solutions
Founded on the idea of coordination among European countries
The building block of future European economic unity
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Marshall Plan North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO,
April 1949) United States, Canada, and representatives
from Western European states Greece, Turkey, and West Germany added
later Armed attack against one is an armed
attack against all
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Two worlds and the race for the bomb Soviet response
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM, 1947)
Warsaw Pact (1955) Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, East Germany
The Arms Race: a Soviet View
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Two worlds and the race for the bomb The nuclear arms race
Soviets tested an atom bomb in 1949 Soviets and United States both had the
hydrogen bomb in 1953 One thousand times more powerful than
the Hiroshima explosion Intercontinental missiles and delivery
systems Atomic-powered submarines
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Two worlds and the race for the bomb The nuclear arms race
The “nuclearization of warfare” Polarized the Cold War Forced other countries to join United States
or Soviets Generated fears that local conflicts might
trigger a general war The bomb as symbol of an age
Science, technology, and progress The threat of mass destruction
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Two worlds and the race for the bomb Was the Cold War inevitable? Two perspectives
Stalin’s ambitions fueled the Cold War Used devastation of WWII as excuse to expand a Russian
empire Viewed domination of Eastern Europe as reward for winning
WWII United States feared Soviet expansion
Unwilling to give up military, economic, and political power Refused to credit Soviet contributions to defeat Germany in
WWII Was trust between Western democracies and Soviet Russia
because of propaganda on both sides?
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Two worlds and the race for the bomb Was the Cold War inevitable?
A new balance of power George Kennan and the policy of
containment Domestic intensification of the Cold War
Anxiety Air raid drills, spy trials, the menacing
“other”
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Khrushchev and “the thaw” Death of Stalin (March 1953) Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) came to
power in 1956 Agreed to summit with Britain, France, and
the United States
Nikita Khrushchev
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Khrushchev and “the thaw” The Secret Speech (1956)
Denounced Stalinist excesses Allowed rehabilitation of some of Stalin’s
victims “De-Stalinization” “The thaw” (1956–1958)
Camps released thousands of prisoners
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Khrushchev and “peaceful coexistence” East Germans continued to flee (2.7
million between 1949 and 1961) Khrushchev demanded a permanent
division of Germany with a free city of Berlin
The Berlin wall (1961)
The Berlin Wall, 1961
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Repression in Eastern Europe Hungary
Imre Nagy: nationalist and communist Much broader anticommunist struggle Attempted to leave Warsaw Pact Soviet troops entered Budapest on
November 4, 1956 Hungarian citizens resorted to street
fighting The Soviets installed Janos Kadar
Staunch (Moscow) Communist
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Repression in Eastern Europe Poland
Demands for more independence to manage its own economy (1956)
Government responded with military repression and promises of liberalization
Wladyslaw Gomulka pledged Poland’s loyalty to the Warsaw Pact
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Repression in Eastern Europe East German government faced economic
crisis in 1953 Fifty-eight thousand East Germans left for
the West Strikes and unrest
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Khrushchev and “the thaw” The Secret Speech (1956)
Cultural expression freed up Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)
The Gulag Archipelago (Paris, 1973)
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
Khrushchev and “peaceful coexistence” East Germans continued to flee (2.7
million between 1949 and 1961) Khrushchev demanded a permanent
division of Germany with a free city of Berlin
The Berlin wall (1961)
Economic Renaissance
The economic “miracle” War provided technologies with practical
and immediate applications Improved communications Manufacture of synthetic materials,
aluminum, and alloy steels Advances in techniques of prefabrication High consumer demand and high levels of
employment
Economic Renaissance
The role of government The necessity of planning Broad experiments with the
nationalization of industry and services “Mixed economies” providing public and
private ownership France—electricity, gas, banking, radio,
television, and auto industry are state-managed
Britain—coal, utilities, road and rail transport, and banking are nationalized
Economic Renaissance
The role of government West Germany experienced
unprecedented economic growth Production increased sixfold (1948–1964) Unemployment reached 0.4 percent (1965) German demand for labor attracted foreign
workers
Economic Renaissance
The role of government Britain
The economy remained sluggish Obsolete factories and methods Unwillingness to adopt new techniques
Economic Renaissance
European economic integration European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC, 1951) Coal accounted for 82 percent of Europe’s
primary energy consumption Key to relations between West Germany and
France
Economic Renaissance
European economic integration European Economic Community (EEC or
Common Market) France, West Germany, Italy, Britain,
Holland, and Luxembourg Abolition of trade barriers Committed to common external tariffs The free movement of labor A unified wage structure and social security
systems
Economic Renaissance
European economic integration European Economic Community (EEC or
Common Market) Britain
Feared effects of ECSC on declining coal industry
Continued to rely on economic relations with the Empire and Commonwealth
EEC became the world’s largest importer (1963)
Total production 70 percent higher than it had been in 1950
Europe during the Cold War
Economic Renaissance
European economic integration Bretton Woods (July 1944)
Aimed to coordinate movements of the global economy
Created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank
All currencies pegged to the dollar
Economic Renaissance
Economic development in Eastern Europe
National income rose and output increased
Poland and Hungary strengthened their economic connections with the West
30 percent of Eastern European trade done outside the Soviet bloc (1970s)
COMECON compelled other members to trade with the Soviet Union
Economic Renaissance
The welfare state Economic expansion promised more
comprehensive social programs “Welfare state” coined by Clement Atlee
(British Labour Party)
Economic Renaissance
The welfare state Britain
Free medical healthcare through the National Health Service
Guaranteed secondary education Welfare relief as entitlement and not poor
relief
Economic Renaissance
European politics Pragmatism Konrad Adenauer
West German chancellor (1949–1963) Despised German militarism Remained apprehensive about German
parliamentary government
Economic Renaissance
General Charles de Gaulle and the Fifth French Republic
Retired from politics in 1946 Returned to office after Algerian War
(1958) Insisted on a new constitution
Economic Renaissance
General Charles de Gaulle and the Fifth French Republic
Strengthened executive branch of government
France withdrew from NATO in 1966 Cultivated better relations with Soviet
Union Modern military establishment, with
atomic weapons
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The Third World Avoiding alignment with either
superpower The Chinese Revolution (1949)
Civil war since 1926 Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975)—nationalist Mao Zedong (1893–1976)—communist Nationalists and communists defeated
Japan Mao refused to surrender northern
provinces
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The Chinese Revolution (1949) U.S. intervention The revolution was the act of a nation of
peasants Mao adapted Marxism to Chinese
conditions The “loss of China” provoked fear in the
West United States considered China and the
Soviet Union to be a “communist bloc”
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The Korean War A Cold War hot spot Korea under Japanese control during
World War II Post–1945: Soviets controlled North (Kim
Jong II) and United States controlled South (Syngman Rhee)
North Korean troops attacked across the border (June 1950)
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The Korean War UN permitted an American-led “police
action” General Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964)
Former military governor of occupied Japan Led amphibious assault behind North
Korean lines Wanted to press assault into China Relieved of duty by Truman
Chinese troops supported North Koreans
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The Korean War Stalemate The end of the Korean conflict (June 1953) Korea remained divided
Decolonization The decline of older empires Nationalist movements and independence
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels India
Post–1945: waves of Indian protest for Britain to quit India
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) Pioneered anticolonial ideas and tactics
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) Led the pro-independence Congress Party
Ethnic and religious conflict The Muslim League
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels India
British India partitioned into India (majority Hindu) and Pakistan (majority Muslim)
Brutal religious and ethnic warfare Gandhi assassinated in January 1948 Nehru as prime minister of India (1947–
1964) Program of industrialization and
modernization Steered a course of nonalignment with
Soviet Union and United States
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Palestine
Balfour Declaration (1917) Promised a “Jewish homeland” in Palestine
for European Zionists Rising conflict between Jewish settlers and
Arabs (1930s) British limited further immigration (1939)
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Palestine
A three-way war Palestinian Arabs—fighting for land and
independence Jewish settlers determined to defy British rule British administrators with divided sympathies
United Nations partitioned territory into two states
Israel declared independence in May 1948 Palestinian Arabs clustered in refugee camps Israel recognized by United States and Soviet
Union
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Africa
Several West African colonies moved toward independence
Britain left constitutions and a legal system but no economic support
More African colonies gained independence Could not redress losses from colonialism
Mau Mau Rebellion (Kenya) Killing of civilians
Decolonization in Asia
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Africa
Britain tolerated apartheid in South Africa Required Africans to live in designated
“homelands” Forbade Africans to travel without permits Banned political protest
Rhodesia declared independence (1945)
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Crisis in Suez and the end of an era
Britain found the cost of maintaining naval and air bases too high
Protected oil-rich states of the Middle East Nationalists forced British to withdraw
troops from Egypt within three years (1951) King Farouk (1921–1965) deposed by
nationalist officers and a republic is proclaimed (1952)
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Crisis in Suez and the end of an era
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) Became Egyptian president Nationalization of the Suez Canal Company Pan-Arabism Willing to take aid and support from the
Soviets Israel, France, and Britain found pan-
Arabism threatening
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The British Empire unravels Crisis in Suez and the end of an era
Egypt attacked by Israel, France, and Britain (1956)
United States inflicted financial penalties on Britain and France, and they were forced to withdraw
Decolonization in the Middle East
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
French decolonization The French experience
Decolonization was bloodier, more difficult, and more damaging to French prestige
The first Vietnam War, 1946–1954 The French in Indochina—one of France’s
last imperial acquisitions Nationalist and communist independence
movements
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
French decolonization The first Vietnam War, 1946–1954
Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) Hoped for independence at Versailles
(1919) Marxist peasants organized around social,
agrarian, and national issues Allies supported communist independence
movement Vietnamese guerrilla war against the
French French pressed on for total victory
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
French decolonization The first Vietnam War, 1946–1954
French established a base at Dien Bien Phu (fell in May 1954)
French began peace talks at Geneva The Geneva Accords
Indochina divided into four countries: North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
North Vietnam—taken over by Ho Chi Minh’s party
South Vietnam—taken over by pro-Western politicians
A virtual guarantee that war would continue
“Dien-Bien-Phu: . . . They Sacrificed themselves for Liberty.”
Decolonization of Africa
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
French decolonization Algeria
Since the 1830s, a settler state of three social groups
Post–1945: Algerian nationalists called on the Allies to recognize their independence
Public demonstrations Arab activists form the National Liberation
Front (FLN) in the mid-1950s
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
French decolonization Algeria
Civil war on many fronts Guerrilla war between regular French army
and FLN FLN terrorism in Algerian cities Systematic torture by French security
forces Algeria declared its independence by
referendum in 1962 The war divided French society
Postwar Culture and Thought
The black presence Aimé Césaire (b. 1913) and Léopold
Senghor (1906–2001) Both men were exponents of Negritude
(black consciousness) Powerful indictments of colonialism
Postwar Culture and Thought
The black presence Frantz Fanon (1925–1961)
Withdrawing into black culture was not an answer to racism
A theory of radical social change The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
The reevaluation of blackness
Postwar Culture and Thought
Existentialism Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) and Albert
Camus (1913–1960) Individuality, commitment, and choice
“Existence precedes essence” Meaning in life is not given, it is created “Bad faith”—denying one’s freedom
Postwar Culture and Thought
Existentialism Existentialism and race
Race derived meaning from lived experience
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) The Second Sex (1949) “One is not born a woman, one becomes
one”
Postwar Culture and Thought
Memory and amnesia: the aftermath of war
Individual helplessness in the face of state power
George Orwell (1903–1950)—Animal Farm (1946) and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) Nazism and Stalinism should be understood
as a form of totalitarianism
Postwar Culture and Thought
Memory and amnesia: the aftermath of war
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
Totalitarianism worked by mobilizing mass support
Used terror to crush resistance Reaching a larger audience
The Diary of Anne Frank (1947)
Postwar Culture and Thought
Memory and amnesia: the aftermath of war
Repressing the past War crimes and trials Few executions led to cynicism Mythologizing the resistance movement
The Cold War and the burying and distortion of memory