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Merton’s four norms of science:
Merton’s four norms of science:•Universalism•Communism•Disinterestedness•Organized skepticism
•Universalism•Communism•Disinterestedness•Organized skepticism
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Does exclusion of women
result in bad science?
Does exclusion of women
result in bad science?
Feminism:Feminism:
Commitment to examine and
address unequal treatment of the
sexes.
Commitment to examine and
address unequal treatment of the
sexes.
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Feminist critique of science:Feminist critique of science:
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Feminist critique of science:Feminist critique of science:
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•Examine inequalities in who gets to do science.
•Examine inequalities in who gets to do science.
Feminist critique of science:Feminist critique of science:
•Examine inequalities in who gets to do science.
•Examine theories that support unequal treatment of the sexes.
•Examine inequalities in who gets to do science.
•Examine theories that support unequal treatment of the sexes.
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Why were women excluded from
science?
Why were women excluded from
science?
Why were women excluded from
science?
Why did it matter?
Why were women excluded from
science?
Why did it matter?
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Scientific theories of sex difference
Scientific theories of sex difference
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Scientific theories of sex difference
Scientific theories of sex difference
•Females less intelligent•Females less intelligent
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Scientific theories of sex difference
Scientific theories of sex difference
•Females less intelligent•Females less rational
•Females less intelligent•Females less rational
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Scientific theories of sex difference
Scientific theories of sex difference
•Females less intelligent•Females less rational•Too much schooling makes females infertile
•Females less intelligent•Females less rational•Too much schooling makes females infertilePHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160
Fit perfectly with society’s attitudes toward the sexes!
Fit perfectly with society’s attitudes toward the sexes!
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Scientific theories of sex difference
Scientific theories of sex difference
How to tell if these theories are good
ones?
How to tell if these theories are good
ones?
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Scientific theories of sex difference
Scientific theories of sex difference
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Excluding women was justifiable at the time, based on theories of sex difference.
Excluding women was justifiable at the time, based on theories of sex difference.
Excluding women was justifiable at the time, based on theories of sex difference.
Excluding women was justifiable at the time, based on theories of sex difference.We know now those theories were wrong, so exclusion now would be wrong.
We know now those theories were wrong, so exclusion now would be wrong.
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Excluding women was a social/political move.
Excluding women was a social/political move.
Excluding women was a social/political move.
Excluding women was a social/political move.As a matter of equality of opportunity, excluding women is wrong.
As a matter of equality of opportunity, excluding women is wrong.
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Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?
Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?
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Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?
Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?•Smaller pool of talent•Smaller pool of talent
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Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?
Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?•Smaller pool of talent•Affects what questions are asked
•Smaller pool of talent•Affects what questions are asked
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Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?
Was exclusion of women harmful to
science?•Smaller pool of talent•Affects what questions are asked•Accuracy and objectivity of scientific knowledge?
•Smaller pool of talent•Affects what questions are asked•Accuracy and objectivity of scientific knowledge?
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Did exclusion of women result in less accurate or objective scientific knowledge?
Did exclusion of women result in less accurate or objective scientific knowledge?NO: Proper use of scientific method produces good knowledge, no matter who’s using it.
NO: Proper use of scientific method produces good knowledge, no matter who’s using it.
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YES: Tribe of science produces good knowledge only if it is inclusive.
YES: Tribe of science produces good knowledge only if it is inclusive.
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Did exclusion of women result in less accurate or objective scientific knowledge?
Did exclusion of women result in less accurate or objective scientific knowledge?
Biology & Gender Study Group
Biology & Gender Study Group
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Biology & Gender Study Group
Biology & Gender Study GroupFeminist critique of
science can lead to better science.
Feminist critique of science can lead to
better science.
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Biology & Gender Study Group
Biology & Gender Study GroupFeminist critique of
science can lead to better science.
Feminist critique of science can lead to
better science.
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Helps science live up to the norm of
organized skepticism by questioning unquestioned assumptions.
Helps science live up to the norm of
organized skepticism by questioning unquestioned assumptions.
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“… masculinist assumptions have impoverished biology by causing us to focus on certain problems to the exclusion of others, and they have led us to make particular interpretations when equally valid alternatives were available.”
“… masculinist assumptions have impoverished biology by causing us to focus on certain problems to the exclusion of others, and they have led us to make particular interpretations when equally valid alternatives were available.”
Biology & Gender Study Group
Biology & Gender Study Group
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Multiple theories can account for the same
set of data.
Multiple theories can account for the same
set of data.
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Quine:Quine:
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Microvilli observed,
but ignored in accounts
of fertilization.
Microvilli observed,
but ignored in accounts
of fertilization.
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Microvilli observed,
but ignored in accounts
of fertilization.
Microvilli observed,
but ignored in accounts
of fertilization.
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WHY?WHY?
Microvilli observed,
but ignored in accounts
of fertilization.
Microvilli observed,
but ignored in accounts
of fertilization.
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No good way to fit microvilli into gendered
fertilization story.
No good way to fit microvilli into gendered
fertilization story.
WHY?WHY?
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
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Feminist critique as experimental
control:
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
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Be aware of gendered
assumptions
Be aware of gendered
assumptions
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
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Strive not to build gendered
assumptions into scientific
theories
Strive not to build gendered
assumptions into scientific
theories
Be aware of gendered
assumptions
Be aware of gendered
assumptions
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nucleuscytoplasm
cell membrane
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Models of nucleus-cytoplasm relation embodying societal views of marriage
Models of nucleus-cytoplasm relation embodying societal views of marriage
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Feminist critique as experimental
control:
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
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Feminist critique as experimental
control:
Feminist critique as experimental
control:Be aware of explanatory pattern forced by gendered thinking
Be aware of explanatory pattern forced by gendered thinking
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
Feminist critique as experimental
control:
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Consciously consider ungendered explanatory
patterns
Consciously consider ungendered explanatory
patterns
Be aware of explanatory pattern forced by gendered thinking
Be aware of explanatory pattern forced by gendered thinking
Helps science live up to the norm of
organized skepticism.
Helps science live up to the norm of
organized skepticism.
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Feminist critique identifies background
assumptions.
Feminist critique identifies background
assumptions.
Biology & Gender Study Group
Biology & Gender Study Group
Examine gendered assumptionsExamine gendered assumptions
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Examine gendered assumptionsExamine gendered assumptions
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Fewer theories based on societal prejudices
Fewer theories based on societal prejudices
Examine gendered assumptionsExamine gendered assumptions
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Fewer theories based on societal prejudices
Fewer theories based on societal prejudices
More women in science?
More women in science?
Longino:Longino:
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Including women in the tribe of science
could make for more objective output.
Including women in the tribe of science
could make for more objective output.
Subjective -Subjective -
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Subjective -Subjective -
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how things seem to mehow things seem to me
Subjective -Subjective -
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how things seem to mehow things seem to me
Objective -Objective -
Subjective -Subjective -
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how things seem to mehow things seem to me
Objective -Objective -how things actually arehow things actually are
Subjective -Subjective -
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how things seem to mehow things seem to me
Objective -Objective -how things actually arehow things actually arewhat anyone could seewhat anyone could see
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Kuhn:Kuhn:
Same rules applied to same set of data can
lead to different pictures of reality.
Same rules applied to same set of data can
lead to different pictures of reality.
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Kuhn:Kuhn:
Same rules applied to same set of data can
lead to different pictures of reality.
Same rules applied to same set of data can
lead to different pictures of reality.
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Kuhn:Kuhn:
Observations are
theory-laden.
Observations are
theory-laden.
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Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Peer ReviewPeer
ReviewMy results (scientific paper)
My results (scientific paper)
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Peer ReviewPeer
Review
Journal editorJournal editor
My results (scientific paper)
My results (scientific paper)
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Peer ReviewPeer
ReviewMy results (scientific paper)
My results (scientific paper)
Journal editorJournal editor
Reviewers(other scientists)
Reviewers(other scientists)
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Reviewers evaluate the paper
Reviewers evaluate the paper
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Reviewers evaluate the paper
Reviewers evaluate the paper • Why not this
interpretation?• Why not this interpretation?
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Reviewers evaluate the paper
Reviewers evaluate the paper • Why not this
interpretation?• How does your finding fit with this other result?
• Why not this interpretation?• How does your finding fit with this other result?
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Reviewers evaluate the paper
Reviewers evaluate the paper • Why not this
interpretation?• How does your finding fit with this other result?• Did you control for X?
• Why not this interpretation?• How does your finding fit with this other result?• Did you control for X?
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Reviewers evaluate the paper
Reviewers evaluate the paper • Why not this
interpretation?• How does your finding fit with this other result?• Did you control for X?• You should also measure this.
• Why not this interpretation?• How does your finding fit with this other result?• Did you control for X?• You should also measure this.
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Peer ReviewPeer
ReviewI receive reviewsI receive reviews
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I receive reviewsI receive reviews
Revise paper to respond to reviewsRevise paper to
respond to reviews
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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Revise paper to respond to reviewsRevise paper to
respond to reviews
Journal editorJournal editor
Peer ReviewPeer
ReviewI receive reviewsI receive reviews
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Revise paper to respond to reviewsRevise paper to
respond to reviews
PublishedPublishedPublishedPublishedJournal editorJournal editor
Peer ReviewPeer
ReviewI receive reviewsI receive reviews
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Scientific knowledge from
my research plus
Scientific knowledge from
my research plustransformative criticism
and dialogue between me and my scientific
peers
transformative criticism
and dialogue between me and my scientific
peers
Peer ReviewPeer
Review
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How composition of the tribe of science
matters:
How composition of the tribe of science
matters:
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How composition of the tribe of science
matters:
How composition of the tribe of science
matters:•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.
•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.
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How composition of the tribe of science
matters:
How composition of the tribe of science
matters:•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.•But, could be due to shared subjective biases!
•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.•But, could be due to shared subjective biases!
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How composition of the tribe of science
matters:
How composition of the tribe of science
matters:•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.•But, could be due to shared subjective biases!•Dialogue with scientists with whom we disagree weeds out subjective bias.
•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.•But, could be due to shared subjective biases!•Dialogue with scientists with whom we disagree weeds out subjective bias.
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How composition of the tribe of science
matters:
How composition of the tribe of science
matters:•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.•But, could be due to shared subjective biases!•Dialogue with scientists with whom we disagree weeds out subjective bias.•Diverse community increases chances of disagreement.
•If all the members are similar, lots of agreement.•But, could be due to shared subjective biases!•Dialogue with scientists with whom we disagree weeds out subjective bias.•Diverse community increases chances of disagreement.
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Clash of background assumptions brings
them out of the
background, opens them to
scrutiny.
Clash of background assumptions brings
them out of the
background, opens them to
scrutiny.