Welcome

Prepared for

Mr. Md. Atiur Rahman(Assistant Professor),

Department of Geography and Environmental Science,Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur

Course code: GES 4101

Course Title: Geographical Thoughts and Explanation in

Geography

Group -AName ID No. Registration No.

Md. Saddam Hossain 1011001 000001569

Nushrat Jahan 1011011 000001580

S. M. Zahid Hasan 1011023 000001591

Md. Sahidul Islam 1011036 000001604

Md. A. Raquib 1011045 000001613

Md. Rabiul Islam 1011054 000001622

Aim and Objectives

Introduction

The concept of development and thought

Greek age

The Geographical achievements of Greeks

The ancient classical Geography

The roots of Greek scholarship

Greek Geography

Location of Greece

Greek Scholar’s Contributions in Geography

Findings

Conclusion

References

Aims and Objectives

• To know about the geographical knowledge indifferent stages of Greek period.

• To know about their different developmentbranches.

• To find out the similarities and dissimilaritiesbetween Greek Geography and Modern Geography

• To present the achievements and lackings of GreekGeography

Data Source

Data Collection

Book

Atlas

Internet

Journals

Organization

Newspaper

Data Presentation

Picture

Figure

Map

INTRODUCTIONThe Greeks were pioneers in many branches of

knowledge. Describing the change of geographical

knowledge in different stages may face some problem.

To avoid the problems some approaches have been

risen to describe Geographical knowledge. The basis of

their knowledge was observation, measurement,

generalization process, philosophical and

comprehensiveness of mind were able to make

tremendous advancement in the knowledge of

Geography. Their period is known as the ‘Golden age of

Greece’. Greek philosophers and scientist were also

interested in learning about spatial nature of human and

physical features found on the Earth.

THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT AND THOUGHT

Development is the process of developing or being developed.

Develpoment is an event constituting a new stage in a changing

situation. By hard working and long term efforts geography reach

the present condition.

Factors of Development:

Observation of the people

Encouragement (social, political, financial)

Travelling

Trade and Commerce

Exploration

In geography, Thoughts are the agglomeration of physical, cultural

and biological aspects of the earth and values and beliefs of

different objectives. Explanation is the methodological description

of these thoughts.

GREEK AGE(800 BC – 150 BC)

.

Greek Age

Ancient Greek Age

(800 BC - 500 BC)

Late Greek Age

(500 Bc – 300 BC)

Greek-Roman Age

(300 BC – 150 AD)

THE GEOGRAPHICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF GREEKS

Greeks discovered that, the earth is round.

Greeks first drew the map of ocean.

Eratosthenes first measure the

circumference of the earth.

Greeks invented the pole star.

Greeks created Geography as subject.

Greeks invented latitude, longitude and

projection of the earth.

THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY Geography as a field of learning in the western world had

it’s beginning of ancient Greece.

It is clear that much attention was given to geographical

study in ancient China, and Chinese explorers did as much

do “discover” Europe as the Europeans did to reach the

“Far East". But Chinese scholarship did not form a major

part of the stream of western thought.

The Greeks like all innovative people were great borrowers

from the much older civilizations.

Many of the basic procedures of scholarship still in use

were first developed by the Greeks.

THE ROOTS OF GREEK SCHOLARSHIP The Greeks were indebted to the worlds earliest scholars in many

ways.Egypt has been called the cradle of science because of the very

early development of the methods of observation, measurement and

generalization in that country. Their contribution:

Developed ways to measure land areas.

North-south line

The art of writing

(a + b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2)

Both the Egyptian and Sumerians believed that there were 360 days in

a year.

The Sumerians divided the year into twelve month. They also divided

the circle of the zodiac into 360 parts.

The Babylonians and Assyrians developed the ideas- a body of

concepts that we call Astrology.

The Phoenicians, too, developed the world’s first phonetic alphabet.

GREEK GEOGRAPHY

The Greeks were pioneers in many branches of

knowledge.Their period is known as the “Golden

Age of Greece”.Between the 5th and 3rd century

B.C.,the Greek colonies were established in

different parts of the Mediterranean sea and

Euxine.

Euxine became the main center of geographical

enquiry.

The early expeditionof Hanno.

The establishment of famous library Museum at

Alexandria.

LOCATION OF GREECE The location of Greece, situated on

both sides of Aegean Sea, was alsoconducive to geographical study.The great diversity in it’stopography and physical featuresprovided great impetus to thegrowth and development ofgeography such as-

Hilly and undulating country

Rivers are mainly torrents

Numerous straits

Limestone topography of themainland

These phenomena, the Greek scholarstried to study and explain.

Fig : Map of Greece

HOMER

Idealized portrayal of Homer dating to the Hellenistic period. British Museum.

Born : Melesigenes, as told

in Pseudo-Herodotus

c. 8th century BC,

according to

Herodotus, Smyrna

Died : Ios Island

Residence : Smyrna, Cyme

(Aeolis), Chios

Nationality : Greek

Notable work : Iliad, Odyssey,

Homeric Hymns,

Epic Cycle, other

Homerica

Religion : Greek polytheism

Era : Geometric Period

Region : Shores and islands of

the Aegean Sea

The earth to be a place of circular form,

surrounded on all sides by ocean river. The

sky (Vault of Heaven), which he conceived as

a solid concave surface, resting on tall pillars.

The sun rose out from ocean stream and

again sank into the same way. Stars are also

bathing everyday in the Ocean like sun.

He described the name ‘Europe’ was applied

to the shore of the Aegean Sea towards the

setting sun and ‘Asia’ was applied to the

shore towards the rising sun.

Winds are coming from four directions• Bores: North wind, Strong and cool with clear

skies;

• Euras: East wind, warm and gentle;

• Notus: south wind, on the from of advanced

storm;

• Zephyrus: West wind, dreaded, Balmy with

gale force

HOMERContribution In Geography

Fig: Earth in Homer’s

Thought

ANAXIMANDER

Relief representing Anaximander.This is the only existing image of Anaximander from the ancient world.

Born : c. 610 BC

Died : c. 546 BC

Residence : Miletus, Lonia

(Turkey)

Nationality : Greek

Notable Ideas : The apeiron is the

arche

Evolutionary view of

living things Earth floats

unsupported

Mechanical model of

the sky Water of rain from

evaporation

Main Interest : Metaphysics,

Astronomy, Geometry,

Geography.

Era : Pre-Socratic philosophy

Cosmology Anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water

and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through

their interactions.

The Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything.

Stars are closer to Earth and then Moon and Then Sun. From this model he gave

the explanation on eclipse.

ANAXIMANDERContribution In Geography

Fig: Map of Anaximander's universeIllustration of Anaximander's models of the universe.

On the left, daytime in summer; on the right, nighttime

in winter.

Meteorology Anaximander attributed some meteorological

phenomena, such as thunder and lightning.

Rain as a product of the humidity pumped up

from Earth by the sun.

Cartography Anaximander prepared a world map to scale. In

scale. In this map Greek has been shown in the

the center of the world and surrounded by the

the Ocean river.

Geometry Gnomon is a pole set vertically above a flat

surface which the varying position of the sun

sun could be measured by the length and

direction of the shadow cast by the vertical pole.

pole. With the help of Gnomon, noon could be

be established by noting when shadow was the

the shortest; The noon shadow provided the

the exact north-south line.

ANAXIMANDERContribution In Geography

Fig: Anaximander's world map

HIPPARCHUS

Fig: Hipparchus

Born : c. 190 BC

Nicaea,

Kingdom of

Bithynia

Died : c. 120 BC

Rhodes, Roman

Republic

Occupation : Astronomer

Mathematician

Geographer

Nationality : Greek

He discovered the precession of the equinoxes. He made the star catalogue, listed 850 stars. Divided the circle into 360 degree based on Assyrian arithmetic. Equator as a great circle which divided the earth in to two equal parts. ‘Astrolabe’ The instrument helps to determine Latitude and Longitude. The conversion of three dimensional sphere to two dimensional plane. Orthographic and Stereographic, these projections are designed by him. Orbit and Motion of the sun and moon Distance of Sun and Moon from the Earth

HIPPARCHUSContribution In Geography

Fig: Geometric construction used by Hipparchus in his determination of the distances to the sun and moon.

HERODOTUS

Fig: A Roman copy of a Greek bust of Herodotus

Born : c. 485 BC

Halicarnassus, Caria,

Asia Minor

Died : c. 425 BC

Thurii, Calabria or Pella,

Macedon

Occupation : Historian

Ethnicity : Greek

Notable work : The Historian

HERODOTUSContribution In Geography

He gave description of thenexisting tribes and their lifestyle.

The meridian was drawn in theworld map.

Divided the Land mass of theearth into three continent :Asia, Europe and Libya (Africa).

Divided Libya (Africa) intothree latitudinal zones. Mediterranean coast from

Atlas mountain to delta ofNile.

Area of Wild beast (South) True Sahara Desert

Fig: ancient map based on Herodotus

ERATOSTHENES

Fig: Eratosthenes

Born : c. 276 BC

Cyrene

Died : c. 194 BC

Alexandria

Occupation : Scholar,

Librarian,

Poet,

Inventor

Ethnicity : Greek

Described and Mapped the known world and dividing the Earth in to fiveclimatic zone : two freezing zone around the pole, two temperate zoneand a equatorial zone.

Placed grids of overlapping lines over the surface of the earth.

ERATOSTHENESContribution In Geography

Fig: The World according to Eratosthenes

He wrote three books on Geography.

• The first book was something of

an introduction and gave a review

of his predecessors, recognizing

their contributions that he

compiled in the library.

• Second Book “A text on

Mathematical Geography”. Here

he described about the discover of

the circumference of the earth.

• Third book “the Geography”

contains political geography.

calculated the Sun's diameter about 27

times that of the Earth Founder of ‘Leap Year’

Measured the Circumference of the

Earth.

ERATOSTHENESContribution In Geography

Plato is one of the greatest Greek philosophers. He was student of Socrates.His concept till now are taught in universities worldwide.

Contribution:

In Astronomical Geography:

Explanation of solar system as system (circle shape).

Explanation Size, shape of sun, moon, and earth (round, circular)

Concept of revolution of sun, moon, and planets (in circular way)

Concept about position of earth (at centre of solar system).

PLATO (C. 427 BC – 347 BC)

In mathematical geography:

Analyzing physical science by mathematical way.

Concept of deduction (pollution).

Books:

Pheadu.

Philebus.

Timaeus.

Republica( Studied worldwide till now).

PLATO (C. 427 BC – 347 BC)

In Mathematical Geography:

Concept of area measurement.

Existence of size of every matter (expressed by

numerically).

Concept about earth size.

Concept of existence of planets.

where

a2 + b2 = c2

Figure :Area measurement method of Pythagorus

Source: http:/ /en. Wikipedia.Pythagorus contribution in

Greek geography

Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher who made a great many contributions to the history

of mathematics, science, astronomy and music theory. He is perhaps best known for his

contribution to mathematics however the famed Pythagoras theorem.

Contribution:

PYTHAGORAS(C. 570 BC – 495 BC)

Activities :

• Established an organization (Pythagorean).

• Concept of anti-earth.

• Concept the source of energy.

In 529 BC, he migrated to Italy due to oppression in his own country. Later on, the

Concepts about the movements of heavenly bodies (circular way).

Concept of the position of earth (center of solar system).

Concept of revolution of Sun and moon (round the earth).

Contribution:

PYTHAGORAS(C. 570 BC – 495 BC)

Contribution:

Explanation of solar system by molecule theory.

Produce world map.

Ocean

Ocean

Figure: World map produced by Democritus

Source: http:/ /en. Wikipedia.Democritus contribution in

Greek geography

Democritus was a scholar of the Greek Golden Age who was born in approximately 460 BC,

twenty years after the Battle of Salamis, in the city of Abdera. Democritus is considered by

some to be the father of science because he and his mentor Leucippus were both materialists.

DEMOCRITUS

Concept of anti-earth.

Identified the central fire.

Systematized the number theory of

Pythagoras.

Stressed the importance of numerical

groupings and the divine properties of

number.

Conceived number ‘one’ as ‘the first

principle of all things’.

Figure: Earth moves round a central fire

Source: http://en.Wikipedia.cosmogenic concept by Philalaus

Contribution:

Philolaus was a Greek Pythagorean and Presocratic philosopher. He argued that at the

foundation of everything is the part played by the limiting and limitless, which combine

together in a harmony. He is also credited with originating the theory that the earth was

not the center of the universe.

PHILOLAUS (500 BC – 440 BC)

Rotation of earth on its own axis.

Revolution of moon round the earth. (no

doubt.

Concept of solar system as pure.

Irregular revolution of mercury and Venus.

Revolution of Jupiter, Mars, Saturn around

earth.

Figure: Rotation of earth on its own axis.

Source: http: //en.Wikipedia.rotation of earth

concept by Heraclaids

Contribution:

Heraclides Ponticus (Ancient Greek) also known as Herakleides and Heraklides of Pontus, was a

Greek philosopher and astronomer who lived and died at Heraclea Pontica, now Karadeniz Eregli,

Turkey.He is best remembered for proposing that the earth rotates on its axis, from west to east, once

every 24 hours. He is also frequently hailed as the originator of the heliocentric theory, although this is

doubted.

HERACLIDES (388 BC – 315 BC)

Contribution:

Attempted to measure distance to moon andsun.

Used geometry to solve scientific problem.

Discovered the sun clock and measuringinstrument.

Rotation and revolution of Planets (roundthe sun).

Proposed heliocentric model of solar

system.

Figure: Distance among sun,moon and earth.

Source: http: //en.Wikipedia. Distance

measurement among sun, moon and earth by

Aristrarcus

Aristarchus of Samos was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who

presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the center of the known

universe with the Earth revolving around it (see Solar system).

ARISTARCHUS (310 BC – 230BC)

Figure: Heliocentric model of solar system

Figure: measuring distance of sun, moon and earth by Aristrarcus

Figure: Heliocentric model of solar system

Source: http: //en.wikipedia. Astro-Geographic concept by Aristrarcus

ARISTARCHUS (310 BC – 230BC)

Thales of Miletus

Socrates

Anaximenes of Miletus

Posidonius

Par t ia l scope of w r it ings

He attempted to create a unified system for understanding the human intellect and the universe

which would provide an explanation of and a guide for human behavior.

Philosophy

His philosophical grand vision was that the universe itself was similarly interconnected, as if an

organism, through cosmic "sympathy", in all respects from the development of the physical

world to the history of humanity.

Posidonius taught that the human soul had faculties that were spirited (anger, desires for

power, possessions, etc.) and desiderative (desires for sex and food). Ethics was the problem of

how to deal with these passions and restore reason as the dominant faculty.

Phy sics

In physics, Posidonius advocated a theory of cosmic "sympathy", the organic interrelation of all appearances in the world, from the sky to the earth, as part of a rational design uniting humanity and all things in the universe.

A str onomy

Posidonius advanced the theory that the Sun emanated a vital force which permeated the world.

He attempted to measure the distance and size of the Sun and reached a figure larger and more accurate than those proposed by other Greek astronomers.

Posidonius

Theophrastus

Eudoxus (c. 400 B.C.) is the greatest of the ancient mathematicians,surpassed only by Archimedes. Biographical highlights:

Eudoxus was born in Cnidos, on the Black Sea.

He studied mathematics with Archytus in Tarentum.

He studied medicine with Philistium on Sicily.

At 23 years he went to Plato's academy in Athens to study philosophy and rhetoric.

Some time later he went to Egypt to learn astronomy at Helopolis.

He established a school at Cyzicus on the sea of Marmora and had many pupils.

In 365 B. C. he returned to Athens with his pupils. He became a colleague of Plato.

At the age of 53 he died in Cnidos.

Eudoxus (c. 400 B.C.)

Eudoxus was the most renown astronomer and mathematician of his day. In astronomy devised an ingenious planetary system based on spheres.

The spherical earth is at rest at the center.

Around this center, 27 concentric spheres rotate.

The exterior one caries the fixed stars

The others account for the sun, moon, and five planets.

Each planet requires four spheres, the sun and moon, three each.

Eudoxus 's contributions to mathematics include:

A theory of proportion; this allowed the study of irrationals (incommensurables).

The concept of magnitude, as not a number but stood for such as line segments,

angles, areas, etc., and which could vary continuously. Magnitudes were opposed

to numbers, which could change discontinuously. This avoided giving numerical

values to lengths, areas, etc. Consequently great advances in geometry were

made.

The method of exhaustion.

Establishing rigorous methods for finding areas and volumes of curvilinear figures

(e.g. cones and spheres).

A profound influence in the establishment of deductive organization of proof on

the basis of explicit axioms.

ARISTOTLEAristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, making

contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany,

ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student

of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. He was more empirically-

minded than Plato or Socrates and is famous for rejecting Plato's theory of

forms.

Contribution on different field:Works on natural history

History of Animals (physical/mental qualities, habits)

On the parts of Animals

On the Movement of Animals

On the Progression of Animals

On the Generation of Animals

Physical works

Physics (explains change, motion, void, time)

On the Heavens (structure of heaven, earth, elements)

On Generation (through combining material constituents)

Meteorologics (origin of comets, weather, disasters)

Philosophical works

Metaphysics (substance, cause, form, potentiality)

Nicomachean Ethics (soul, happiness, virtue, friendship)

Eudemain Ethics

Magna Moralia

Politics (best states, utopias, constitutions, revolutions)

Poetics (tragedy, epic poetry)

PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE

Motion is the passage of matter into form, and it is of four kinds:

(1) motion which affects the substance of a thing, particularly its beginning and its ending;

(2) motion which brings about changes in quality;

(3) motion which brings about changes in quantity, by increasing it and decreasing it; and

(4) motion which brings about locomotion, or change of place. Of these the last is the most

fundamental and important.

Aristotle rejects the definition of space as the void. Empty space is an impossibility. Hence, too, he

disagrees with the view of Plato and the Pythagoreans that the elements are composed of

geometrical figures. Space is defined as the limit of the surrounding body towards what is

surrounded. Time is defined as the measure of motion in regard to what is earlier and later. It thus

depends for its existence upon motion. If there where no change in the universe, there would be no

time. Since it is the measuring or counting of motion, it also depends for its existence on a counting

mind. If there were no mind to count, there could be no time. As to the infinite divisibility of space

and time, and the paradoxes proposed by Zeno, Aristotle argues that space and time are potentially

divisible ad infinitum, but are not actually so divided.

HECATAEUS OF MILETUSHecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC), son of

Hagesandrus, was an early Greek historian of a wealthy

family. He flourished during the time of the Persian

invasion. Hecataeus is the first known Greek historian and

was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic

people.

WorksSome have credited Hecataeus with a work entitled Periodos ges,

"Travels round the Earth" or "World Survey", written in two books.

One, on Europe, is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean,

describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as Scythia.

The other book, on Asia, is arranged similarly to the Periplus of the

Erythraean Sea of which a version of the 1st century AD survives.

Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known

world, the account of Egypt being particularly comprehensive; the

descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon

Anaximander’s map of the earth, which he corrected and

enlarged.

The other known work of Hecataeus was regarded as the

Γενεαλογίαι (Genealogiai) or the Ἱστορία (Historia), a rationally

systematized account of the traditions and the myths of the

Greeks, a break with the epic myth-making tradition, which

survives in a few fragments, just enough to show what we are

missing.

HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates of Kos (Greek: Hippokrátēs; c. 460 – c. 370 BC)

was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles (Classical

Greece), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures

in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "Father of

Western Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to

the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine.

Work:

Hippocratic theory on disease: Hippocrates is credited with

being the first person to believe that diseases were caused

naturally, not because of superstition and gods. Ancient Greek

schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on

how to deal with disease.

Direct contributions to medicine: Hippocrates and his followers

were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.

He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the

fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease,

lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason,

clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic

fingers“

He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and

especially as very practical. Francis Adams describes him as

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Alexander III of Macedon commonly known as Alexander the Great was a

King of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the

Argead dynasty, a famous ancient Greek royal house. Born in Pella in 356

BC, Alexander succeeded his father, Philip II, to the throne at the age of

twenty. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most

successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by

the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16. Alexander's legacy includes the

cultural diffusion his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He

founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in

Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of

Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of

which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-

15th century and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern

Anatolia until the 1920s.

Contributions: The Macedonian king, when he conquered the known parts of the world had spread the Greek

civilization throughout the world. The Greek culture blended with the cultures of other nations which is

known as Hellenism. One common currency and Greek language untied the whole territories. Alexander

was responsible for the opening up of trade relations between the east and west. He had established

many cities on the way to India and these cities were established near the trade routes. The establishment

of even the Roman Empire was based on the conquests of Alexander. The conquest of Alexander had

sparked an inspiration among the people to study science. There were contributions in the field of

mathematics, science, geography, philosophy, and astronomy.

Main towns founded by Alexander

• Alexandria, Egypt

• Alexandria Asiana, Iran

• Alexandria in Ariana, Afghanistan

• Alexandria of the Caucasus, Afghanistan

• Alexandria on the Oxus, Afghanistan

• Alexandria of the Arachosians, Afghanistan

• Alexandria on the Indus, or Alexandria Bucephalous, Pakistan

• Alexandria Eschate, "The furthest," Tajikistan

• Iskenderun (Alexandretta), Turkey

• Kandahar (Alexandropolis), Afghanistan

STRABO

Strabo (/ˈstreɪboʊ/ Greek Στράβων Strabōn; 64/63 BC – c.

AD 24), was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian.

Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus

(modern Amasya, Turkey), a city that he said was situated the

approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea.

Contribution:

Education: Strabo studied under several prominent teachers

of various specialties throughout his early life at different

stops along his Mediterranean travels. Strabo was an admirer

of Homer's poetry, perhaps a consequence of his time spent

in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around the age of 21 Strabo

moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the

Peripatetic Xenarchus, a highly respected tutor in Augustus's

court. Despite Xenarchus's Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later

gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations.

Geographica: Strabo is most famous for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which

presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the

world known to his era. Although the Geographica was rarely utilized in its

contemporary antiquity, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine

Empire. It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued

around 1469. Strabo is pro-Roman politically, but culturally he reserves primacy to

Greece "... pro-Roman throughout the Geography. But while he acknowledges and

even praises Roman ascendancy in the political and military sphere, he also makes a

significant effort to establish Greek primacy over Rome in other contexts.“

Geology: Strabo... enters largely, in the Second Book of his Geography, into the

opinions of Eratosthenes and other Greeks on one of the most difficult problems in

geology, viz., by what causes marine shells came to be plentifully buried in the earth

at such great elevations and distances from the sea.

Strabo rejects this theory as insufficient to

account for all the phenomena, and he proposes

one of his own, the profoundness of which

modern geologists are only beginning to

appreciate. 'It is not,' he says, 'because the lands

covered by seas were originally at different

altitudes, that the waters have risen, or subsided,

or receded from some parts and inundated

others.But the reason is, that the same land is

sometimes raised up and sometimes depressed,

and the sea also is simultaneously raised and

depressed, so that it either overflows or returns

The very first written definition/discussion of volcanism (Effusive eruption) observed atKatakekaumenē (modern Kula, Western Turkey) until Pliny the Younger witnessed to the eruptionof Vesuvius on 24 August 79 AD in Pompeii: Karadivlit Scoria Cone and AA type basaltic fissure lavaflow in Katakekaumenē (modern-day Kul, Turkey).…There are no trees here, but only the vineyards where they produce the Katakekaumene wineswhich are by no means inferior from any of the wines famous for their quality. The soil is coveredwith ashes, and black in color as if the mountainous and rocky country was made up of fires. Someassume that these ashes were the result of thunderbolts and sub‐ terranean explosions, and donot doubt that the legendary story of Typhon takes place in this region. Ksanthos adds that theking of this region was a man called Arimus. However, it is not reasonable to accept that the wholecountry was burned down at a time as a result of such an event rather than as a result of a firebursting from underground whose source has now died out. Three pits are called “Physas” andseparated by forty stadia from each other. Above these pits, there are hills formed by the hotmasses burst out from the ground as estimated by a logical reasoning. Such type of soil is veryconvenient for viniculture, just like the Katanasoil which is covered with ashes and where the bestwines are still produced abundantly. Some writers concluded by looking at these places that thereis a good reason for calling Dionysus by the name (“Phrygenes”)

MEGASTHENESMegasthenes ( ca. 350 – 290 BC) was a Greek

ethnographer and explorer in the Hellenistic period, author of

the work Indika.He was born in Asi Minor (modern-day Turkey)

and became an ambassador of Seleucus I of the Seleucid

dynasty possibly to Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra India.

However the exact date of his embassy is uncertain. Scholars

place it before 298 BC, the date of Chandragupta's death.

Travel: Arrian explains that Megasthenes lived in Arachosia,

with the satrap Sibyrtius, from where he visited India:

"Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and

often speaks of his visiting Sandracottus, the king of the

Indians." Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri

We have more definite information regarding the parts of India

Megasthenes visited. He entered the subcontinent through the

district of the Pentapotamia (modern day Punjab region,

providing a full account of the rivers found there (thought to be

the five affluents of the Indus that form the Punjab region), and

proceeded from there by the royal road to Pataliputra. There

are accounts of Megasthenes having visited Mathura (Muttra),

in Bihar, but he appears not to have visited any other parts of

India.

Indica: His Indica served as an important source for many

later writers such as Strabo and Arrian. He describes such

features as the Himalayas and the island of Sri Lanka. He also

describes a caste system different from the one that exists

today, which shows that the caste system may to some extent

be fluid and evolving.

Idea about distance of area.

Conception about solar system.

Limitation of Technology.

Lack of instruments.

Limitation of communication and transportation system.

Lack of Locational Knowledge .

Lack of prominent structural education system.

Findings

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form ofGeography that was more than mere map making orCartography. They borrowed many of the concepts ofAstronomy, Geometry and Mathematics from the Egyptians,Chaldeans and Assyrians. The Greeks possessed philosophicaland scientific aptitude, versatility of intellect, inquisitive natureand comprehensiveness of mind.

Conclusion

References