Conversation Discourse and Document Analysis

Conversation, Discourse, and

Document Analysis

Studying Discourse

Generating an Archive

The Practicalities of Recording

Transcribing Audio and Video Materials

Exploring Conversations

Exploring Documents

Studying Discourse

Discourse is a study of language and how it is used

Language is never treated as a neutral, transparent, means of communication

FREEDOM FIGHTER KILLS POLITICIAN

TERRORIST KILLS POLITICIAN

Which one is true? Which one is correct? Which one is factual?

I AM OLD

Which one is true? Which one is correct? Which one is factual?

I AM YOUNG

I AM A DOCTOR

I AM NOT A DOCTOR

People studying discourse are interested in how language is used in certain contexts. The focus is on how specific identities, practices, knowledges, or meanings are produces by describe something in just that way over another

Our understanding of things, concepts or ideas that we might take for granted are not somehow natural or pre-given but rather the product of human actions and interactions, human history, society and culture.

UNIVERSITY

PLASTIC

ELEPHANT


Data you have to generate

Data that already exists

Interview Transcripts

Handwritten and Typed Field Notes

Official Documents distributed by Research

Team

Patient Information Leaflets

Consent Forms

Funding Applications

Research Reports

Academic Research Papers and Books

Leaflets, handouts and newspaper cuttings

WebsitesArchive Sources

Document Based Sources

• Primary Sources: historically contemporary and/or first hand accounts

• Secondary Sources: historically or spatially distant and/or second hand accounts

Audio and Video Based Sources

• Radio and Television programmes • News Interviews • Televised Debates • Documentaries • Talk Shows • Your own material

You should generate an archive - a diverse collection of materials that enable you to engage with and thing about the specific research problem or question

Your archive could contain document-based sources as well as audio and visual-based sources

Read other academic work on your specific topic and find out what research materials they used and how they collected them

Rather than solely relying on researcher-initiated audio and visual based materials (e.g. interviews and focus groups), some academics argue that you should focus on naturally occurring data


Audio Recorder or Video Camera Additional Batteries External Microphones Notepad and Pen

A good working knowledge of how to set up and use this equipment

Learn about your recording equipment prior to entering the field!

Just keep playing with it as often as you can

Note-taking after the encounter Note-taking during the encounter Audiotaping the encounter Videotaping the encounter

Video Recording Positives and Negatives

• Records non-verbal conduct • Aids the transcription process

• Participants may be less likely to agree to take part • Participants may take a long time to get accustomed to

the equipment • An additional researcher may have to operate the

camera

Recording at a Field Site(e.g. Ethnographic Work)

• What form of recording is acceptable to the participants? • What form of recording is feasible in this specific site?

• Focus on: • The faces, gestures, and bodies of the participants • Any tools or equipment or objects that are being used • Any documents being used


No-one smiles this much when they are cutting a courgette!

Describing the Scene

On a simple level, transcript can be a description of the recorded event


Ben has been asked to prepare a cucumber - to peel and de-seed it. Mary and Tim offer Ben two different, contrasting ways to prepare that cucumber

Very little access to how this specific interaction emerged


Ben has been asked to prepare a cucumber - to peel and de-seed it. Mary notices the cucumber is frozen. She leans over the table, picks the cucumber up in one hand, picks up a knife in the other and then starts to inspect it, turning it over in her hands. She smiles and she waits for a gap in the talk between Ben and Tim and then says, with some humour in her voice “it’s frozen”

Better level of detail, but this can be very difficult to write out in full

Doesn’t give you a detailed structure of what happened

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1 Mary Its frozen.2 (pause)3 Tim Is it?4 May Yeah ((laughs)). I don’t think you can use it5 (pause)6 Ben It is frozen78

Mary Yeah. The bottom of the fridge is8 Ben Ice cold9 Mary Yeah. I’ll see if there’s part of it that isn’t10 (pause)11 Mary Yeah.12 Tim Is it all frozen?13 Mary No, this part of it’s fine. Okay, when you peel it14 Ben Uh huh15 Mary Slice it in four lengthways16 Ben Oh and then just ((overlap))17 Mary a n d t h e n ((overlap)) just take the seeds out18 Tim Or alternatively slice it in half and use a teaspoon and run it along19 Mary You can choose whichever method you prefer20 Tim And obviously there is going to be politics ((Mary21 laughs)) depending on which method you choose22 Mary Absolutely. No there won’t23 Ben Secretly there will be though24 Mary Heh?25 Ben Secretly there will be ((Mary laughs)

Extract 1 (The politics of cucumbers : Kitchen 10: 2.17-2.17

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1 Mary Its frozen.2 (pause)3 Tim Is it?4 May Yeah ((laughs)). I don’t think you can use it5 (pause)6 Ben It is frozen78

Mary Yeah. The bottom of the fridge is8 Ben Ice cold9 Mary Yeah. I’ll see if there’s part of it that isn’t10 (pause)11 Mary Yeah.12 Tim Is it all frozen?13 Mary No, this part of it’s fine. Okay, when you peel it14 Ben Uh huh15 Mary Slice it in four lengthways16 Ben Oh and then just ((overlap))17 Mary a n d t h e n ((overlap)) just take the seeds out18 Tim Or alternatively slice it in half and use a teaspoon and run it along19 Mary You can choose whichever method you prefer20 Tim And obviously there is going to be politics ((Mary21 laughs)) depending on which method you choose22 Mary Absolutely. No there won’t23 Ben Secretly there will be though24 Mary Heh?25 Ben Secretly there will be ((Mary laughs)

Extract 1 (The politics of cucumbers : Kitchen 10: 2.17-2.17Mixture of Extract number,

descriptive title, technical title

Descriptive names used for each person.

Each line has a number

Use of lines makes it look like structured conversation. But

notice ((overlap))

How much detail to include?

Argued by many that transcripts should be verbatim accounts of what transpired in the interview.

Should not be tidied up to make them sound better


Argued by many that transcripts should be verbatim accounts of what transpired in the interview. Should not be tidied up to make them sound better

PausesShort pause in tasing denoted by a series of dots (…) Number of dots can be used to signify amount of time that has passed

Laughing, Coughing etc. Indicate in parenthesis e.g. (coughs), (laughs)

Interuptions Indicate speech is broken off at mid sentence by including a hyphen. e,g. What do you-

Overlapping speech Use a hyphen to indicate the interruption for speaker A, and then use (overlapping) to indicate the interruption for speaker B

Garbled speechFlag words that are not clear with square brackets and question marks. Use a number of x to show that speech cant be understood at all.

Emphasis Use caps to denote strong emphasis e.g. “He did WHAT”

Held Sounds Repeat the sound that are held, separated by hyphens e.g. No-o-o-o-o

Paraphrasing Other When someone assumes a voice that indicates a parody use (mimicking voice)


Can take this one step further (…you won’t though…)

Jefferson style transcript

Detail in Video Transcriptions

Other things to consider when you are transcribing videos

• Gaze - the direction of participants gaze and how it shifts during interactions

• Touch - Self-touching and touching others. Touching and manipulating objects

• Gestures - actions such as pointing or illustrating • Posture - orientation of head, shoulders, and lower body • Spatial Positioning - Where people are in relation to

others • Other Actions - Including walking


1 Sue Wonder how he found out an all that2 (0.4)3 Fiona I:::: I don’t know through work or Kay probably

Does Fiona know? Most people would say that Fiona is displaying a hunch

Is she saying “Don’t hold me accountable for the accuracy of this information!”

Looking beyond the simple words

1 John So what do you think about bicycles on campus2 Judy I think they’re terrible3 John Sure is about a MILLION of ‘em4 Judy eh heh

1. John invites Judy to talk about a topic 2. Judy talks about the topic 3. John then gives his perspective on the same topic and his

perspective closely fits with Judy’s

Exploring a mundane moment in talk

1 Dr How’s Bobby doing?

2 Mo

Well he’s doing pretty good you know especially in the school. I explained to the teacher what you told me that he might be sent to a special class maybe, that I was not sure. And he says you know I asks his opinion, an’ he says that he was doing pretty god in the school. Now he thinks he’s not gonna need to be sent to another school3 Dr He doesn’t think he’s gonna need to be sent?

4 Mo

Yeah that he was catching on a little bit but hu more you know like I said, that he needs a- you know I was ‘splaining other that I’m you know that I know for sure that he needs some special class or something.

5 Dr Wu’ shauna you think his problem is?

6 Mo Speech.

7 Dr Yeah, his main problem is you know, a language problem.

8 Mo Yeah, language

Do caution

We follow a structure in most conversations. Thing about a phone call:

Structural Organisation

• Opening - Say hellos and sometimes work out who is talking and is it the person you wanted to speak to

• Reason for call - introduce reason for getting in touch • Discussion - May or may not go on for a long time • New topic emerges - Again, may or may not happen • Discussion of new topic • Close - Say goodbyes.

Most of the time we’re used to seeing conversations that have agreement and acceptance

Refusals and Disagreements

1 A Well, will you help me (out2 B (I certainly will

1 A It’s really a clear lake, isn’t it?2 B It’s wonderful

Agreement happens immediately, with no gap in the talk, and sometimes even overlapping.

Sometimes we have to deal with refusals and disagreements…


1 A Wanna come down ’n have a bit a’ lunch with me?2 B Wul yer real sweet hon, uhh, let…3 A D’you have sumps else?

1 C And we were wondering if there’s anything we can do to help

2 B

0.7 Well that’s most kind Heatherton… At the moment no…because we’ve still got the bo:ys at home

Main difference is the inclusion of the following actions:


• Delays: gaps before responses, or delays before an answer is given

• Hesitations: like ‘mm’ ‘erm’ and in-breath and out-breath • Prefaces: like ‘well’ and ‘uh’, agreement tokens like ‘yeah’ • Mitigations: apologies and appreciations

Why is this important though? Gives information about how different groups can deal with rejection and alternative theories

Exploring Documents

Thinking about Documents

• How did you read the document? • Did you take notes on a separate piece of paper? • How do your notes relate to or transform the text? • Was it a photocopy? • Did you read sections out loud to others? • Where were you reading this? • With Friends? • In the Library?

Think about a time where you have been doing additional research about a module topic*

*lol

Document Analysis isn’t just about the Document

Need to examine the material culture of where and how this is happening

• Things • Technology • Artefacts • Built Environment

Studies of how documents - and other objects and technologies - feature in and are used in mundane

interactions can help us throw new light on the structures of social life.

Ideas on the Documents you create

• That you describe how you generated, worked with, and analysed your materials.

• Checked and re-checked your ideas against materials and searched for instances that might contradict your claims

• Your main or central analytic points give the reader detailed access to the materials that led you to make these claims

• That your ideas have been checked against previous work by other authors in this topic

• That you have, if possible, presented or discussed your findings with those that you have studied

Different solutions available to you to demonstrate to others that your argument is convincing. Different ways to do this include:

Studying Discourse





Exploring Documents

Information in this presentation was

based on…

Education

Conversation Discourse and Document Analysis