Conducting LIS Research: The Method in our Madness

Emily VardellJohn D. Martin, III

Amanda B. ClickLeslie Thomson

Semi-Structured Interviews

Emily Vardell, MLS

(Atkinson & Silverman, 1997)

Interview Society

• Well-rounded picture of an individual’s experience

• Mirrors back-and-forth of a natural conversation

• Respondent is perceived as the expert

4

Interviews

d

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Semi-Structured and Structured InterviewsSemi-Structured Interviews Structured Interviews

Advantages ∙ facilitates rapport/empathy

∙ allows greater flexibility of

coverage

∙ enables discussion of novel

areas

∙ produces richer data

∙ no fixed range of responses

∙ maximizes researcher control

∙ increases reliability

∙ speed

∙ may be beneficial when participants

have a speech or language

impairment

Disadvantages ∙ reduces investigator's control

∙ increases time spent

∙ more difficult to analyze

∙ limits what can be discussed

∙ investigator may not have predicted

a particular area

∙ unlikely to allow complexity in

responses

∙ stilted

(Ayers, 2008, p. 811; Smith, 1995, p. 12-13; Whiting, 2008, p. 35)

Interview Schedule/Guide

• Includes an outline of topics

• Considers difficulties in advance

• Is open to additional topics

• Is responsive to culture differences

Probes

(Whiting, 2008, p. 38, from Bernard, 2000)

Conducting the Semi-Structured Interview

• Interviewee (person being interviewed) dictates course of interview

• Interviewer should:

Show empathy

Listen actively

Maintain eye contact

Maintain a neutral demeanor

Analyzing Semi-Structured Interviews

1. Read the transcript a number of times, using

notes in the margin.

2. Use the other margin to document emerging

theme titles.

3. On a separate sheet, list the emerging themes

and look for connections between them.

4. Produce a master list of themes, ordered

coherently.

5. Add an identifier of instances.

(Smith, 1995, p. 20)

Recommended ResourcesShort overviews:

• Smith, J. (1995). Semi-structured interviewing and qualitative analysis. In J. Smith, R. Harré, & L. Langenhove (Eds.), Rethinking methods in psychology (pp. 10-27). London, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd.

• Whiting, L. (2008). Semi-structured interviews: Guidance for novice researchers. Nursing Standard, 22(23), 35-40. doi.

In-depth guides:

• Galletta, A. (2013). Mastering the semi-structured interview and beyond: From research design to analysis and publication. New York, NY: NYU Press.

• Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.

• Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Examples from library and information science research:

• Kim, H., Park, S., & Bozeman, I. (2011). Online health information search and evaluation: Observations and semi-structured interviews with college students and maternal health experts. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 28(3), 188-199. doi.

• Stuart, L., & Wiles, P. G. (1997). A comparison of qualitative and quantitative research methods used to assess knowledge of foot care among people with diabetes. Diabetic Medicine: A Journal of the British Diabetic Association, 14(9), 785-791. doi.

• Zhou, L., & Nunes, M. B. (2013). Doing qualitative research in Chinese contexts: Lessons learned from conducting interviews in aChinese healthcare environment. Library Hi Tech, 31(3), 419-434. doi.

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Image Credits

• http://www.ssrc.org/workspace/images/crm/new_program/%7B526bed75-f555-de11-afac-001cc477ec70%7D.jpg

• http://www.tools4dev.org/wp-content/uploads/Semi-structured-interviews-spectrum.png

• http://www.pamf.org/research/studies/?sitecfg=23• http://bobkaylor.typepad.com/.a/6a00d8345304b969e2016768d3ac13970b-800wi• https://www.flickr.com/photos/37031529@N00/516326731?rb=1• https://fstoppers.com/portraits/shooting-jimmy-fallon-interview-lloyd-bishop-3154• http://ftape.com/media/?p=69341• http://article.wn.com/view/2014/03/05/Local_actors_had_roles_in_Oscarwinning_

12_Years_a_Slave/

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Surveys

John D. Martin III

What is a survey?

GTRIP Research Methods Series

?DATA

What is a survey?

?DATA

?DATA

When to use a survey?

?DATA

What are surveys good for?

• collecting structured data

• collecting demographic information

• collecting opinion data

• quantitative data

What are surveys not good for?

• collecting unstructured data

• recording observations about interactions, such as non-verbal cues

• allowing participants to respond to questions at length

• qualitative data

Preparing a survey

• Who am I trying to find out about?

• What concepts are important to me and how are they defined?

• How will I ask questions to get the data I need?

• How can I get people to respond to my questions?

Sampling

Population (N) Sample (n)

Identifying the sampling frame

Sampling frame Sample

Resources

Think about data analysis early on

• Define concepts

• Operationalize variables

Variables provide the basis for our questions.

The answers to our questions allow us to produce estimates.

Design the instrument

How will it be administered?

Demographic data

Open- and closed-ended questions

Open-ended

What is a typical question that a first-year student might ask at the reference desk? Please write your answer below.

Closed-ended

In your experience, do first-year students ask more non-reference questions than other students? Yes No

Asking good questions

What? Huh?

Be specific

What is your national origin? What country were you born in?

Be specific

What is your national origin? What country were you born in?

Beware!

What is your national origin? بك؟الخاصةالقوميالعرقما

Beware!

What is your national origin? بك؟الخاصةالقوميالعرقما“What is your ethnicity?”

Beware!

What is your national origin?

In what country were you born?

بك؟الخاصةالقوميالعرقما

“What is your ethnicity?”

ولدت؟بلدأيفي

Leading Questions

In general, how would you rate the questions you receive from first-year students? Very high quality High quality Neither high nor low Low quality Very low quality

In general, how happy are you with the type of question you receive from first-year students? Very happy Somewhat happy Neutral Not happy Very unhappy

Leading Questions

In general, how would you rate the questions you receive from first-year students? Very high quality High quality Neither high nor low Low quality Very low quality

In general, how happy are you with the type of question you receive from first-year students? Very happy Somewhat happy Neutral Not happy Very unhappy

Leading Questions

In general, how many non-reference questions do first year students ask compared to other students? A lot more More About the same Fewer A lot fewer

Do you first-year students ask more non-reference questions than other students? Yes No

Leading Questions

In general, how many non-reference questions do first year students ask compared to other students? A lot more More About the same Fewer A lot fewer

In your experience, do first-year students ask more non-reference questions than other students? Yes No

Double-barrelling

In your experience, do first-year students ask general information questions and questions about classes at the reference desk? Yes No

Double-barrelling

In your experience, do first-year students ask general information questions and questions about classes at the reference desk? Yes No

Two questions are better than one

In your experience, do first-year students ask general information questions and questions about classes at the reference desk? Yes No

Do first-year students ask questions about classes at the reference desk? Yes No

Recruit participants

• Briefly describe the study and its goals

• Identify possible benefits of the research

• Identify the incentive for participants to participate

• Estimate how long the survey will take to complete

How long to collect data?

Recruit

Remind

Stop

Analyzing and reporting data

• Cleaning data

• Coding open-ended responses

• Choose appropriate statistical methods

• Graphs are not just for reporting: they help us see patterns in data

Recommended ResourcesIn-depth guides:

Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., & Christian, L. M. (2009). Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey methodology(2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

Tourangeau, R., Conrad, F., & Couper, M. (2013). The science of web surveys. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Tourangeau, R., Rips, L. J., & Rasinski, K. (2000). The psychology of survey response. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Examples from library and information science research:

Creaser, C. (2006). User surveys in academic libraries. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 12(1), 1–15. doi. Franklin, B., & Plum, T. (2006). Successful web survey methodologies for measuring the impact of networked

electronic services (MINES for libraries). IFLA Journal, 32(1), 28–40. doi. Hayslett, M. M., & Wildemuth, B. M. (2004). Pixels or pencils? The relative effectiveness of Web-based versus paper

surveys. Library & Information Science Research, 26(1), 73–93. doi. Kelly, D., Kantor, P. B., Morse, E. L., Scholtz, J., & Sun, Y. (2009). Questionnaires for eliciting evaluation data from

users of interactive question answering systems. Natural Language Engineering, 15(Special Issue 01), 119–141. doi.

Focus Groups

Amanda B. Click, MLIS

What is a focus group?

“A focus group study is a carefully planned series of discussions

designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a

permissive, nonthreatening environment” (Krueger & Casey,

2009)

“A form of group interview that capitalises on communication

between research participants in order to generate data”

(Kitzinger, 1995)

Focus groups involve

people.

The people possess certain

characteristics.

Focus groups provide

qualitative data.

Focus groups have a

focused discussion.

Characteristics of the Focus Group

Advantages of the Focus Group

Efficiency

Interaction

Flexibility

Usable results

(see Stewart, Shamdasani, & Rook, 2007)

Do not use a focus group if...

Preparing for a Focus Group

Developing questionso Openingo Introductoryo Transitiono Keyo Ending

Recruitment

Running a Focus Group

scene setting and ground

rules

individual introductions

the opening topic

discussion

ending the discussion

Moderating a Focus Group

The moderator should… Potential challenges

Online Focus Groups

synchronous vs.

asynchronous

anonymity

communication styles

Recommended ResourcesIn-depth guides: Bloor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M., & Robson, K. (2001). Focus groups in social research. London, UK; Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Carey, M.A., & Asbury, J. (2012). Focus group research. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M.A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). Los Angeles,

CA: Sage Publications. Pickard, A. J. (2013). Research methods in information. Chicago, IL: Neal-Schuman. Stewart, D. W., Shamdasani, P.N., & Rook, D.W. (2007). Focus groups: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Examples from library and information science research: Burhanna, K. J., Seeholzer, J., & Salem Jr, J. (2009). No natives here: A focus group study of student perceptions of

Web 2.0 and the academic library. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 35(6), 523-532. doi. Crowley, G. H., Leffel, R., Ramirez, D., Hart, J. L., & Armstrong II, T. S. (2002). User perceptions of the library’s Web

pages: A focus group study at Texas A&M University. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 28(4), 205-210. doi. Latham, D., & Gross, M. (2013). Instruction preferences of first-year college students with below proficient

information literacy skills: A focus group study.College & Research Libraries, 74(5), 430-449. doi. Walden, G. R. (2006). Focus group interviewing in the library literature: A selective annotated bibliography 1996-

2005. Reference Services Review, 34(2), 222-241. doi.

Participant Observation

Leslie Thomson

What is Participant Observation?

• A “qualitative research method for collecting data that depends on direct, firsthand sensory experience of human events, activities, and interactions” (Preissle, 2009)

• One of the oldest forms of data collection, often associated with ethnography

Characteristics of Participant Observation

• Occurs in a natural setting, in situ, in a field site

• Involves a researcher’s immersion in the setting and activities

• Often means a lengthy time commitment by a researcher

• Demands a researcher’s constant note-taking

• Produces an immense amount of collected data

Advantages of Participant Observation

• Allows for a researcher’s observation and participation

• Allows for a researcher to see natural occurrences

• Allows for a researcher to collect

real-time data

• Allows for a researcher to collect

highly detailed data

• Is flexible, and thus suitable to many different contexts

• Does not always require participants’ informed consent

Disadvantages of Participant Observation

• Depends upon the researcher for all collected data

• May disrupt participants’ natural behaviours

• Demands a researcher’s

constant attention

• Relies upon the trust of participants

being gained

• Involves a large time investment

• Alone, does not provide a full picture of a scenario

Preparation for Participant Observation

Carrying Out Participant Observation

01. Gain field site access, and build rapport with participants

02. Gain a “grand-tour” overview of the setting

03. Obtain more focused “mini-tour” pictures of the setting

04. Continue to make both “grand-” and “mini-” tour observations

05. Begin analysis of data while observations are still occurring

06. Exit the field site, and maintain relationships with participants

Note-Taking during Participant Observation

• Substantive field notes are descriptive accounts of observations

• Methodological field notes explain methodological tactics, plans, and reflections

• Analytic field notes are an ongoing record of concept development and theory

• calendars, schedules, video, audio, photographs, documents, or artifacts may also be collected

Analyzing Participant Observation Data

Bias in Participant Observation

• The accounts of one researcher (or of a research team) are unavoidably limited, and can never be totally objective or ‘true’

• Over-attachment or over-detachment by a researcher or by participants in the field will also affect what data is collected

• Stringent record-keeping is one way to guard against bias

Recommended ResourcesIn-depth guides:

• Gold, R. (1958). Roles in sociological field observations. Social Forces, 36(3), 217-223. doi. • Jorgenson, D. L. (1989). Participant observation: A methodology for human studies. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE

Publications.• McKechnie, L. E. F. (2008). Participant observation. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative

research methods (pp. 599-600). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. doi. • Preissle, J. (2009). Participant observation. In I. B. Weiner & W. E. Craighead (Eds.), The Corsini encyclopedia of

psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi. • Schwartz, M. S., & Schwartz, C. G. (1955). Problems in participant observation. American Journal of Sociology, 60(4),

343-353. doi. • Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observation. Toronto, ON: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

Examples from library and information science research:

• Chatman, E. A. (1984). Field research: Methodological themes. Library & Information Science Research, 6(4), 425-438.

• Cooper, J., Lewis, R., & Urqhardt, C. (2004). Using participant or non-participant observation to explain information behaviour. Information Research, 9(4). Retrieved from http://www.informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper184.html.

• Hartel, J. (2010). Managing documents at home for serious leisure: A case study of the hobby of gourmet cooking. Journal of Documentation, 66(6), 847-874. doi.

Questions? Comments?

Emily Vardellevardell@email.unc.edu

John D. Martin, IIIjohnmar3@live.unc.edu

Amanda B. Click

aclick@live.unc.edu

Leslie Thomsonlethomso@live.unc.edu