Components of Motivation

Management Theory & Organizational Behavior

IV Unit

Introduction:

Motivation can be defined as "the complex forces, needs, drives, tension states, or other

mechanisms within us that will create and maintain voluntary activity directed toward the

achievement of personal goals". Employee motivation can be defined as "psychological forces

that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort

and a person's level of persistence". It is important to understand that employee motivation is a

separate and distinct topic apart from motivation. Vast articles and studies exist on this topic

indicating the level of importance employee motivation has in business success. A study

conducted by the District Chief of the Tulsa, Oklahoma Fire Department concluded that morale

does, in fact, have a direct impact on employee productivity. Employers who understand the

theories of motivation have a greater ability to understand what motivates employees, to boost

employee morale and thus obtain the advantage of greater organizational productivity. Various

studies on motivational techniques have proven the effectiveness of job design, rewards,

employee participation, and quality-of-work-life programs on employee motivation.

Definition:

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or

reading a book to gain knowledge.

It involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In

everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something.

For example, you might say that a student is so motivated to get into a psychology program that

she spends every night studying.

Components of Motivation

There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence and intensity. Activation

involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class. Persistence is

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the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist, such as taking more

psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of

time, energy and resources. Finally, intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes

into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another

student will study regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of research

opportunities outside of class.

Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic.

Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve

rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition or praise. Intrinsic motivations are those that

arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated cross-word puzzle purely for the

personal gratification of solving a problem.

Characteristics or Features of Motivation

1. Motivation is a Psychological Concept: Motivation has to come from within each

individual. There are two desiring factors in motivation-(a) Fundamental needs, such as

food, clothes and shelter and (6) Ego-satisfaction including self-esteem, recognition from

others, opportunities for achievements, self-development and self actualization which act

as powerful though unconscious, motivator of behavior. Inner motivation can be more

decisive for behavior than any external influence.

2. Motivation affects the Whole Individual, not part of Him /Her: A person’s basic

needs determine to a great extent what he will try to do at any given time. All these needs

are inter-related because each individual is an integrated organized whole.

3. Motivation is never an Unending Process: Man is a social animal. As a social animal

he has innumerable wants which induce him to work. If one basic need is adequately

satisfied for a given individual it loses power as a motivator and does into determine his

current behavior but at the same time others needs continue to emerge.

4. Non-fulfillment of Basic Needs Makes a Man Sick: If anybody fails in trying to meet a

need which he feels is essential for him, he becomes to some extent mentally ill and such

frustrated man cannot be motivated any further until his essential need is satisfied.


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5. Goals are Motivators: Goals and motives are inseparable. Man works to achieve the

goals. A soon as the goal is achieved he would be no longer interested in work.

Therefore, it is very essential for the management to know his goal to push him to work.

6. The Self-concept as a Unifying Force: According to Geller-man unifying forces run

through each individual’s history. Unifying force means the drive to activate his/her

image of him-herself. The outline of a person’s self image is fairly well checked in early

childhood and thereafter does not act ordinarily change. Thus, two things that individual

is always trying to do are (a) to act like the person; he thinks he is, and (b) to get what he

thinks, he can.

7. Motivation is a complex phenomenon: Motivation being an internal feeling cannot be

observed directly. Since motives themselves are dynamic, it further adds to complexity.

8. Motivation is different from Satisfaction, Inspiration, and Manipulation: Motivation

refers to the drive and efforts to satisfy a want or goal, whereas satisfaction refers to the

contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. In contrast, inspiration is bringing

about a change in the thinking pattern. On the other hand Manipulation is getting the

things done from others in a predetermined manner.

Importance of Motivation

1. Productive use of resources: Modem organisation work through physical, financial and

human resources. The utilization of physical and financial resources depends on the willingness

of people to work.

Motivation enables people to convert physical and financial resources into useful products. It

helps management to get the best out of human as well as non-human resources.

2. Increased efficiency and output: Motivation enables people to work enthusiastically.

Performance is a product of not merely ability to do a task but the willingness to do the same

with zeal and enthusiasm. Motivation bridges the gap between the overall efficiency and output.

This, ultimately, helps in reducing the cost of operation.

3. Achievement of goals: Motivation causes goal directed behavior. It helps people to move in a

desired direction and earn rewards. In organizations where managers try to understand the needs



of employees and institute appropriate incentive systems, accomplishment of goals in fairly easy.

If people are not properly motivated, no useful purpose can be served be planning, organizing

and staffing functions.

4. Development of friendly relationships: Motivation brings employees closer to organisation.

The needs of employees are met through attractive rewards, promotional opportunities, etc.

employees begin to take more interest in organizational work.

5. Stability in workforce: Attractive motivational schemes satisfy the needs of employees. As a

result, their commitment to organizational work increases. Employees do their tasks loyally and

enthusiastically, they are not tempted to leave the organisation. This means reduced employee

turnover. Further, satisfaction on the job means reduced absenteeism.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a theory in psychology that Abraham Maslow proposed in

his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which he subsequently extended. His theory

contends that as humans meet 'basic needs', they seek to satisfy successively 'higher needs' that

occupy a set hierarchy. Maslow studied exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams,

Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill orneurotic people, writing

that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple

psychology and a cripple philosophy."


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Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the four

lower levels are grouped together as deficiency needs associated with physiological needs, while

the top level is termed growth needs associated with psychological needs. While deficiency

needs must be met, growth needs are continually shaping behavior. The basic concept is that the

higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus once all the needs that are lower down in the

pyramid are mainly or entirely satisfied.

Physiological needs

Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are

not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Physiological needs

are thought to be the most important; they should be met first.

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans.

Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. While maintaining an

adequate birth rate shapes the intensity of the human sexual instinct, sexual competition may also

shape said instinct.

Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and

dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family

violence, childhood abuse, etc. – people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress

disorder or trans generational trauma. In the absence of economic safety – due to economic crisis

and lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a

preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral

authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, etc. This

level is more likely to be found in children because they generally have a greater need to feel

safe.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts


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Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal

and involves feelings of belongingness. This need is especially strong in childhood and can

override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies

within this level of Maslow's hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. –

can impact the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in

general, such as:

Friendship Intimacy Family

According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among their

social groups, regardless if these groups are large or small. For example, some large social

groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams,

and gangs. Some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate

partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually

and non-sexually – by others.[2] Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety,

and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need for belonging

may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer

pressure.

Esteem

All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-

respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People

often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a

sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from

imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem often need respect

from others; they may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help

the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally. Psychological

imbalances such as depression can hinder the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem

or self-respect.


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Self-actualization

"What a man can be, he must be." This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-

actualization. This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of

that potential. Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to

become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very

specifically. For example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent.

In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings,

pictures, or inventions. As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to understand this level

of need, the person must not only achieve the previous needs, but master them.

Herzberg's Two Factor Theory:

The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual-factor

theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a

separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by Frederick Herzberg,

a psychologist, who theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of

each other.

Two-factor theory fundamentals: Attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are

related to Maslow's theory of motivation. His findings have had a considerable theoretical, as

well as a practical, influence on attitudes toward administration. According to Herzberg,

individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example, those

associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather,

individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological needs having to do with

achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. So far,

this appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need hierarchy. However, Herzberg added a new

dimension to this theory by proposing a two-factor model of motivation, based on the notion that

the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives leads to worker satisfaction at work,

while another and separate set of job characteristics leads to dissatisfaction at work. Thus,

satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other

diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job attitudes

and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not

assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to decrease in un pleasurable dissatisfaction.


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The two-factor, or motivation-hygiene theory, developed from data collected by Herzberg from

interviews with a large number of engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From

analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does —

that is, to the nature of the work one performs — apparently have the capacity to gratify such

needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self-realization, thus making him

happy and satisfied. However, the absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear

to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable

assessments of such job-related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems,

salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions.

Thus, if management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the

nature of the work itself — the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming

responsibility, and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to

reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment — policies, procedures,

supervision, and working conditions.[1] If management is equally concerned with both, (as is

usually the case), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors. The theory was

based around interviews with 203 American accountants and engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen

because of their professions' growing importance in the business world. The subjects were asked

to relate times when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any previous

job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of events giving rise to that

positive or negative feeling.

Here is the description of this interview analysis:

Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when they were exceedingly

happy and unhappy with their jobs. Each respondent gave as many "sequences of events" as he

could that met certain criteria—including a marked change in feeling, a beginning and an end,

and contained some substantive description other than feelings and interpretations...

The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction

(achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly

unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis-satisfiers

(company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working

conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job satisfaction.


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Two-factor theory distinguishes between:

1. Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that give positive satisfaction,

arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or

personal growth, and

Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions) that do

not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are

extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory

practices, or wages/salary.

Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation

factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance. Herzberg also further

classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related

action because you have to then that is classed as "movement", but if you perform a work related

action because you want to then that is classed as "motivation".

Alderfer ERG Theory

To bring Maslow’s need hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronization with empirical

research, Clayton Alderfer redefined it in his own terms. His rework is called as ERG theory of

motivation. Here categorized Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three simpler and broader classes

of needs:

Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes

an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.

Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individual’s have for maintaining

significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting

public fame and recognition. Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem

needs fall under this class of need.

Growth needs- These include need for self-development and personal growth and

advancement. Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs

fall under this category of need.


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Difference between Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Theory

ERG Theory states that at a given point of time, more than one need may be operational.

ERG Theory also shows that if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is subdued, there is an

increase in desire for satisfying a lower-level need.

According to Maslow, an individual remains at a particular need level until that need is

satisfied. While according to ERG theory, if a higher- level need aggravates, an individual

may revert to increase the satisfaction of a lower- level need. This is called frustration-

regression aspect of ERG theory. For instance- when growth need aggravates, then an

individual might be motivated to accomplish the relatedness need and if there are issues in

accomplishing relatedness needs, then he might be motivated by the existence needs. Thus,

frustration/aggravation can result in regression to a lower-level need.



While Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is rigid as it assumes that the needs follow a specific

and orderly hierarchy and unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot proceed

to the higher-level need; ERG Theory of motivation is very flexible as he perceived the needs

as a range/variety rather than perceiving them as a hierarchy. According to Alderfer, an

individual can work on growth needs even if his existence or relatedness needs remain

unsatisfied. Thus, he gives explanation to the issue of “starving artist” who can struggle for

growth even if he is hungry.

Implications of the ERG Theory

Managers must understand that an employee has various needs that must be satisfied at the same

time. According to the ERG theory, if the manager concentrates solely on one need at a time, this

will not effectively motivate the employee. Also, the frustration- regression aspect of ERG

Theory has an added effect on workplace motivation. For instance- if an employee is not

provided with growth and advancement opportunities in an organization, he might revert to the

relatedness need such as socializing needs and to meet those socializing needs, if the

environment or circumstances do not permit, he might revert to the need for money to fulfill

those socializing needs. The sooner the manager realizes and discovers this, the more immediate

steps they will take to fulfill those needs which are frustrated until such time that the employee

can again pursue growth.

Douglas McGregor Theory X a n d T h e o r y Y

Douglas McGregor (1906 - 1964) is one of the forefathers of management theory and one of the

top business thinkers of all time. He was a social psychologist who became the President of

Antioch College. He later became a professor of management at Massachusetts Institute of

Technology. His book The Human Side of Enterprise (1960) had a profound influence on the

management field, largely due to his Theory X and Theory Y.

McGregor developed a philosophical view of humankind with his Theory X and Theory Y in

1960. His work is based upon Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, in that he grouped the hierarchy

into lower-order needs (Theory X) and higher-order needs (Theory Y). He suggested that


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management could use either set of needs to motivate employees, but better results would be

gained by the use of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. These two opposing perceptions theorized

how people view human behavior at work and organizational life:

T h e o r y X

With Theory X assumptions, management's role is to coerce and control employees.

People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible.

People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to

get them to achieve the organizational objectives.

People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition.

People seek security above all else.

T h e o r y Y

With Theory Y assumptions, management's role is to develop the potential in employees and

help them to release that potential towards common goals.

Work is as natural as play and rest.

People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives (they are

NOT lazy).

Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their

achievement.

People learn to accept and seek responsibility.

Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population.

People are capable of using these abilities to solve an organizational problem.

People have potential.

Comparing Theory X and Theory Y

1. Motivation: Theory X assumes that people dislike work; they want to avoid it and do not

want to take responsibility. Theory Y assumes that people are self-motivated, and thrive

on responsibility.



2. Management Style and Control: In a Theory X organization, management is

authoritarian, and centralized control is retained, whilst in Theory Y, the management

style is participative: Management involves employees in decision making, but retains

power to implement decisions.

3. Work Organization: Theory X employees tends to have specialized and often repetitive

work. In Theory Y, the work tends to be organized around wider areas of skill or

knowledge; Employees are also encouraged to develop expertise and make suggestions

and improvements.

4. Rewards and Appraisals: Theory X organizations work on a ‘carrot and stick’ basis and

performance appraisal is part of the overall mechanisms of control and remuneration. In

Theory Y organizations, appraisal is also regular and important, but is usually a separate

mechanism from organizational controls. Theory Y organizations also give employees

frequent opportunities for promotion.

5. Application: Although Theory X management style is widely accepted as inferior to

others, it has its place in large scale production operation and unskilled production-line

work. Many of the principles of Theory Y are widely adopted by types of organization

that value and encourage participation. Theory Y-style management is suited to

knowledge work and professional services. Professional service organizations naturally

evolve Theory Y-type practices by the nature of their work; even highly structure

knowledge work, such as call center operations, can benefits from Theory Y principles to

encourage knowledge sharing and continuous improvement.

Leadership

Introductiion:

Leadership has been described as "a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task", although there are alternative definitions of leadership. For example, some understand a leader simply as somebody whom people follow, or as somebody who guides or directs others, while others define leadership as "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal.

Definition:


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The Collins English dictionary defines leadership as “the leader(s) of a party or group.” Yet true

leadership is much more than that. A leader can be the CEO of an organization, or a first year

employee who leads his or her team to success behind the scenes. A leader might lead through

official authority and power, yet just as often great leaders lead through inspiration, persuasion

and personal connections.

“Leadership is the art of leading others to deliberately create a result that wouldn’t have

happened otherwise.”

Leadership Characteristics

2. Proactive vs. Reactive: The exceptional leader is always thinking three steps ahead.

Working to master his/her own environment with the goal of avoiding problems before

they arise.

3. Flexible/Adaptable: How do you handle yourself in unexpected or uncomfortable

situations? An effective leader will adapt to new surroundings and situations, doing

his/her best to adjust.

4. A Good Communicator: As a leader, one must listen...a lot! You must be willing to

work to understand the needs and desires of others. A good leader asks many questions,

considers all options, and leads in the right direction.

5. Respectful: Treating others with respect will ultimately earn respect.

6. Quiet Confidence: Be sure of yourself with humble intentions.

7. Enthusiastic: Excitement is contagious. When a leader is motivated and excited about

the cause people will be more inclined to follow.

8. Open-Minded: Work to consider all options when making decisions. A strong leader

will evaluate the input from all interested parties and work for the betterment of the

whole.

9. Resourceful: Utilize the resources available to you. If you don't know the answer to

something find out by asking questions. A leader must create access to information.

10. Rewarding: An exceptional leader will recognize the efforts of others and reinforce those

actions. We all enjoy being recognized for our actions!



11. Well Educated: Knowledge is power. Work to be well educated on community policies,

procedures, organizational norms, etc. Further, your knowledge of issues and information

will only increase your success in leading others.

12. Open to Change: A leader will take into account all points of view and will be willing to

change a policy, program, cultural tradition that is out-dated, or no longer beneficial to

the group as a whole.

13. Interested in Feedback: How do people feel about your leadership skill set? How can

you improve? These are important questions that a leader needs to constantly ask the

chapter. View feedback as a gift to improve.

14. Evaluative: Evaluation of events and programs is essential for an organization/group to

improve and progress. An exceptional leader will constantly evaluate and change

programs and policies that are not working.

15. Organized: Are you prepared for meetings, presentations, events and confident that

people around you are prepared and organized as well?

16. Consistent: Confidence and respect cannot be attained without your leadership being

consistent. People must have confidence that their opinions and thoughts will be heard

and taken into consideration.

17. Delegator: An exceptional leader realizes that he/she cannot accomplish everything on his own. A leader will know the talents and interests of people around him/her, thus delegating tasks accordingly.

18. Initiative: A leader should work to be the motivator, an initiator. He/she must be a key element in the planning and implementing of new ideas, programs, policies, events, etc.

Needs and importance of leader ship

1. Guiding people: The first and foremost job of leader is to guide and direct the group. he act as a friend, philosopher to his followers and takes the lead in all activities

2. Developing team work: A leader act as the captain of his team in order to win the confidence and cooperation of his followers .he convince people about the goals and policies of the group .A leader secures cooperation and coordination by setting good example through one conduct.

3. Maintaining Discipline: Discipline is the force that prompts individuals to observe rules and regulations and procedures which are necessary for the attainment of objectives.

A leader depends more on consistency of behavior and impartial treatment to discipline



4. Building morale; in order to develop high morale among people the leader governs his own action he strives to build unflinching loyalty and devotion to the group good leadership is a strong motivating force an organization.

5. Representing the group: a leader is the true representative of his followers both to those working for the group as well as outside world. According to Rensis likert, leaders act as linking pins between the work group and forces outside it.

6. Leadership vs Management7. Quite often leading managing considered as synonymous terms really speaking there act

several different between leadership and management

8. Relationship: management implies superior –subordinate relationship. this relationship arises within organizational context .on the other hand leadership can occur anywhere within .for example a mob can be have a leader but not a manager. Informal groups haves leaders but not managers they may be leader peers associate and even seniors

9. Source of influence: a manager is appointed and he obtains authority from his position. he makes a formal authority to influence the bheavior of his subordinate .a leader makes use of this power to influence the attitudes and behavior of his followers.

10. Sanction: A manager has command over the allocation and distribution of rewards (position sanction), example promotion and punishment (negative sanction) example demotion. while management is concerned more with the goals of the organizational leadership is concerned with the goals of the following

11. Basis of following: both manager and leader have followers but the people follow them in different reasons. people follow a manager because they required to follow by there job description supported by a system of rewards and penalties. A manager can continue in office so long as his performance is considered satisfactory whereas a leader can survive as long as followers accept him

12. Accountability: a manager is accountable for his own behavior as well as for the job behavior of his subordinates .a manager seeks to achieve organizational goals but a leader is more concerned with a group goals and members satisfaction.

13. Functions: a manager performed all the functions of planning ,organizing ,staffing, directing ,and controlling .all management needs leadership but leader ship may be exist without management. management formulates action for achieving the objectives

Different between leadership and management

Basic of Difference Leadership Management



Definition

Leadership means "the ability of an

individual to influence, motivate, and enable

others to contribute toward the effectiveness

and success of the organizations of which

they are members."

Management comprises directing and

controlling a group of one or more people or

entities for the purpose of coordinating and

harmonizing that group towards

accomplishing a goal.

Personality Styles

Are often called brilliant and mercurial,

with great charisma. Yet, they are also often

seen as loners and private people. They are

comfortable taking risks, sometimes

seemingly wild and crazy risks. Almost all

leaders have high levels of imagination

Tend to be rational, under control problem

solvers. They often focus on goals,

structures, personnel, and availability of

resources. Managers’ personalities lean

toward persistence, strong will, analysis, and

intelligence.

Focus Leading people Managing work

Outcomes Achievements Results

Approach to tasks

Simply look at problems and devise new,

creative solutions. Using their charisma and

commitment, they excite, motivate, and

focus others to solve problems and excel.

Create strategies, policies, and methods to

create teams and ideas that combine to

operate smoothly. They empower people by

soliciting their views, values, and principles.

They believe that this combination reduces

inherent risk and generates success

Approach to risk Risk-taking Risk-averse

Role in decision-making Facilitative Involved

StylesTransformational, Consultative &

Participative

Dictatorial, Authoritative, Transactional,

Autocratic, Consultative and Democratic

Power through Charisma & Influence Formal authority & Position



Organization Leaders have followers Manager have subordinates

Appeal to Heart Head

Leadership styles

The behaviour pattern exhibited by a leader while influencing the followers is known as leadership style on the basis of how leaders use their power, leadership style can be classified into three broad categories-autocratic , democratic and free-rein

1.Autocratic (or)authoritarian leadership: An autocratic leader exercises complete control over the subordinates he centralizes power and himself and takes all decision without consulting the subordinates he uses rewards and hold threat of penalties to direct the subordinates he does not delegate authority.

Advantages

1. Autocratic leadership style permits quick decision –making2. It provides strong motivation and satisfaction to the leader who direct terms3. Less competent subordinates are needed are at lower level4. This style is may yield positive results when grate speed in required

Disadvantages

1. Autocratic style leads to frustration low morale and conflict among subordinates2. Subordinates tend to shirk responsibility and initiative.3. Full potential of subordinates get no opportunity for development4. Organizational of subordinates is threatened in the absence of the leader because get no

opportunity for development5. Autocratic leadership style may be appropriate when subordinate are uneducated

unskilled and submissive .this style may also be desirable when the company end ores fear punishment as accepted decision disciplinary technique.

2. Democratic (or) participative leadership: A consultative leader or democratic leader takes decision in consultation and participation with the subordinates .he keeps the follow informed about matter affecting them .a democratic provides freedom of thinking and expression he listens to the suggestions grievances and opinions of the subordinates



3. Free –rein (or) laissez leadership: Free –rein leadership involves complete delegation of authority. He sees only as a contact to bring the information and resources needed by the subordinates

Disadvantages

1) Subordinates do not get the guidance and support of the leader2) It ignores the leader contribution just as autocratic style ignore the contribution of the

subordinates3) Subordinates may move in different directions and may work at cross purposes which

may degenerate into chaos4) Free-rein style may move in different when the subordinates are well-trained highly

knowledge self motivation and ready to assume responsibility



4. Bureaucratic Leadership: Bureaucratic leaders follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their

people follow procedures precisely. This leadership style is appropriate for work involving

serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous

heights), or with large sums of money. Bureaucratic leadership is also useful for managing

employees who perform routine tasks.

5. Charismatic Leadership: A charismatic leadership style resembles transformational

leadership: both types of leaders inspire and motivate their team members. The difference lies in

their intent. Transformational leaders want to transform their teams and organizations, while

leaders who rely on charisma often focus on themselves and their own ambitions, and they may

not want to change anything. Charismatic leaders might believe that they can do no wrong, even

when others warn them about the path that they're on. This feeling of invincibility can severely

damage a team or an organization, as was shown in the 2008 financial crisis.

6. Servant Leadership: A "servant leader" is someone, regardless of level, who leads simply by

meeting the needs of the team. The term sometimes describes a person without formal

recognition as a leader. These people often lead by example. They have high integrity and lead

with generosity . Their approach can create a positive corporate culture, and it can lead to high

morale among team members.

7. Transactional Leadership: This leadership style starts with the idea that team members agree

to obey their leader when they accept a job. The "transaction" usually involves the organization

paying team members in return for their effort and compliance on a short-term task. The leader

has a right to "punish" team members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard.

8.Consultative: Manager under this system set goals and issue order after discussing them with the subordinates .that takes major decisions .there is two way communication in this organization managers trust subordinates to carry out their tasks .greater emphasis is placed on rewards then on penalties to motivate the subordinates

Advantages

1) Consultative leadership improves the jobs satisfaction and moral of subordinates

2) It cultivates the decision making ability of subordinates


http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_55.htm

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_55.htm

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/integrity.htm


3) Leader multiplies his abilities through the contribution of his followers.

4) It developed positive attitude and red use resistance to change

5) The quality of decision is improved

6) Labour absenteeism and labor turnover are reduced

Disadvantages

Democratically style is time consuming and may be result in delays the decision making It may not yield positive result when subordinate prefer minimum interaction with the

leader Over the period of time subordinate may developed the habit of expecting to be

consulted on every issue they may feel frustrated when they are not consulted It may be used as a means of passing the buck to others and of abdicating responsibility It requires considerable communication and persuasive skill on the part of the leader

Leadership in Cross Cultural Environment

Introduction: Cross-cultural psychology attempts to understand how individuals of different cultures interact with each other. Along these lines, cross-cultural leadership has developed as a way to understand leaders who work in the newly globalized market. Today’s international organizations require leaders who can adjust to different environments quickly and work with partners and employees of other cultures. It cannot be assumed that a manager who is successful in one country will be successful in another.

Organizational leadership and culture:

In the leadership literature, there is a lack of consensus over how to define and refer to cross-cultural leadership. In the GLOBE study, researchers don’t specifically define cross-cultural leadership; rather they outline it in two components; organizational leadership and culture. The authors describe organizational leadership as “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members”. The authors note that there is no universal definition for culture, but GLOBE’s definition includes “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are transmitted across age generations”


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology


International executive: Another term for a cross-cultural leader, as used by Spreitzer, McCall

Jr., and Mahoney, is international executive. They define an international executive as “an executive who is in a job with some international scope, whether in an expatriate assignment or in a job dealing with international issues more generally”

Implicit Leadership Theory: The Implicit Leadership Theory (ILT) asserts that people’s underlying assumptions, stereotypes, beliefs and schemas influence the extent to which they view someone as a good leader. Since people across cultures tend to hold different implicit beliefs, schemas and stereotypes, it would seem only natural that their underlying beliefs in what makes a good leader differ across cultures

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions: One of the most prominent and influential studies to date regarding leadership in a globalized world is the Hofstede dimensions of culture. The study reveals similarities as well as differences across cultures and emphasizes the need to be open-minded to understand the differences in other cultures. Hofstede utilize five dimensions of culture to compare cultures to give leaders an understanding of how to adjust their leadership styles accordingly. These dimensions include Individualism/Collectivism, Feminine/Masculine, Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long Term/ Short Term orientation.

Global Leadership: Osland, Bird, Mendenhall, and Osland, define global leadership as “a process of influencing the thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors of a global community to work together synergistically toward a common vision and common goals”. These authors conducted another study which found six core dimensions of competencies of a global leader: cross-cultural relationship skills, traits and values, cognitive orientation, global business expertise, global organizing expertise and visioning.

Leadership Styles across Cultures: Leadership is a universal phenomenon. That is, wherever there are people, there are leaders. The question here is not whether leadership exists across cultures, but do various leadership styles (paternalistic leadership, transformational leadership, transactional leadership) translate across cultures?

Paternalistic Leadership: Paternalistic leadership “combines strong discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence and moral integrity couched in a ‘personalistic’ atmosphere”. Paternalistic leadership is composed of three main elements: authoritarianism, benevolence, and moral leadership (Farh & Cheng). At its roots, paternalistic leadership refers to a hierarchical relationship in which the leader takes personal interest in the workers’ professional and personal lives in a manner resembling a parent, and expects loyalty and respect in return.

Transformational & Transactional Leadership: In addition to paternalistic leadership, other well-known leadership styles include transformational leadership and transactional leadership. Transformational leadership is loosely defined as a charismatic leadership style that rallies subordinates around a common goal with enthusiasm and support. Transactional leadership is characterized by a give and take relationship using rewards as an incentive. These concepts were introduced by Bass and have been updated and studied throughout the years, claiming the


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_leadership

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_leadership

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternalistic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_dimensions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype


transferability of these types of leadership styles across cultures. In fact, Bass and Avolio went as far as to give an optimal leadership profile for leaders around the world.

Successful cross-cultural Leadership

Actively build cross-cultural relationships themselves: They start themselves engaging with people from the other culture and build relationships. They use this as an example to their teams and they convince others to follow the example: ‘if I can, so can you’.

Get outside their comfort zones: They show an active will to learn from the other culture and to change their thinking and behavior. They show openness and vulnerability. They create an environment of learning from each other.

Embrace diversity and explore its potential: They see cross-cultural differences as potential for enrichment and improvement, not as issues. They create an atmosphere in which differences and frictions are ok. They focus on possibilities to reconcile the differences, not on eliminating them.

Act ourselves towards relatedness: They take time to discuss cross-cultural differences in-depth with each other. They stimulate open dialogue. But they also set out clear actions. They understand it is vital to build mutual awareness and understanding through dialogue, but that the acting together in small steps towards common goals eventually creates the real trust.

Persistence: They realize that mutual trust is not built overnight and that in the rush of our daily business people sometimes fall back into old thinking and behavior, which will revive old prejudices about each other. They create specific moments to monitor and evaluate together the progress, the positive things and the areas for improvement. They consider creating mutual trust to be a specific objective for themselves and their teams.

Women and Corporate Leadership

Introduction

India is a country of great leaders, both men and women. The women leaders in India are diverse

in terms of their personality, and their contribution to education, politics, women empowerment

and social welfare is neither limited nor forgettable. The names of few such women leaders

whose intelligence, efforts and deeds have made India proud are Pandita Ramabai (1858 -1922),

Swarnakumari devi (1856-1932), Sarala Debi Chaudhurani (1872 – 1946), Kamaladevi

Chattopadhyay (1903-1990), Aruna Asaf Ali (1906-1995). These are the forgotten women

leaders of India, but there are certain names which we have not forgotten yet and some of them



are Queen Elizabeth, Indira Gandhi, Margaret Thatcher, Benazir Bhutto and recent Pratibha Tai

Patil.

Today women are not just restricted to household work and cooking for her family. Today, it’s

all about empowerment of women. A woman is the flag bearer of a society. It is she who gives

birth to the future of the world. She is responsible for rearing her children and giving them an

opportunity to grow up in a healthy and positive environment. Women are doing leadership role

throughout their lives. When it comes to leadership does gender matters? Twenty-five years after

women first started driving into the labor force and trying to be more like men in every way,

from wearing power suits to picking up golf clubs.

When women, who have traditionally been denied a voice in decision-making, come to power,

they transform the development agenda toward the human component - focusing on health,

nutrition, education, water, sanitation and better family income. They tackle long-ignored

problems such as domestic violence, alcoholism and corruption.

According to a survey done by Economic times, there are only16 women on the board of

directors of the 30 sensex companies, or only 4.8% of the 335 people who hold directorship

positions. In the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) 100 companies, which throws up 923 directors,

only 50 (or 5.4%) are women, while companies in the BSE 500 index have only 192 women (or

5.3%) out of 3650 persons holding directorship positions. According to Poonam Barua, founder

chairperson of the Forum for women in Leadership, India’s 500 million strong female

populations does not find representation in even 10% of the managerial posts across companies.

Facts about the women employees at Leadership role

Companies in the Asia Pacific Region are clueless about giving their women employees more

leadership roles, a new Mercer survey on Women’s Leadership Development shows, about 15%

of the respondents were from Indian organizations. Clearly, it’s not enough to have the

wherewithal; companies must adopt a philosophy encouraging talented women to lead from

front.



Companies don’t have a strategy for developing women in leadership roles.

Do not offer activities targeted to the needs of women leaders.

Less concentration on planning to add programmes and activities for women’s

Retaining women in leadership role.

No identification and work-life programmes to attract female talent.

No encouragement to help women develop the full range of skills for senior leadership

roles.

Following Are the Key Strengths of Indian Women As Leaders

Ability to network with colleagues

Ability to perceive and understand situations

Strong sense of dedication, loyalty and commitment to their organizations

Ability to multitask

Collaborative work style—solicit input from others, with respect for ideas

Crisis management skills

Willingness to share information (interactive leadership style)

Sensitivity in relationships (e.g., compassionate, empathetic, understanding)

Behaving in a gender-neutral manner

Women and Corporate Leadership Roles

Women's Contribution to the Economy: Although most women in India work and

contribute to the economy in one form or another, much of their work is not documented or

accounted for in official statistics. Women cultivate fields and harvest crops while working on

farms, women weave and make handicrafts while working in household industries, women sell

food and gather wood while working in the informal sector. Additionally, women are

traditionally responsible for the daily household chores

(e.g., cooking, fetching water, and looking after children). Since Indian culture hinders women's

access to jobs in stores, factories and the public sector, the informal sector is particularly

important for women. There are estimates that over 90 percent of workingwomen are involved in

the informal sector.



Women have now not only found their place in work places but are alsoparty to governance. In

recent years there have been explicit moves to increase women's corporate and political

participation. Women have been given representation in the Panchayati Raj system as a sign of

political empowerment. There are many elected women representatives at the village council

level. At the central and state levels too women are progressively making a difference. Today we

have women Chief Ministers in five large states of India. The Women's reservation policy bill is

slated to further strengthen political participation.

Status of women in leadership positions globally: While there is a considerable

amount of information available on women in political leadership positions, much less is known

about the representation of women as decision-makers in other public and private sector

institutions. This online discussion sought to gain an overview of women in leadership positions

in different domains and countries; understand the factors that hinder and facilitate the role of

women in leadership at the national and regional levels; share good practices and strategies for

promoting women in leadership; and discuss what is being done at the country level to measure

women’s impact in leadership positions.

Representation of women in trade unions: Trade unions wield considerable power as

they determine the terms of labour conditions with employers. With women increasingly

participating in the formal labour force, incorporation of women’s perspectives in trade unions is

important to ensure that their interests are represented 17in labour markets. Participants’

responses indicated that for the most part, women are invisible as leaders in trade unions.

Abiodun Baiyewu from Nigeria noted that while progress has been made in women’s

representation in several areas of public life, “in particular, their participation in trade unions still

leaves much to be desired.

Representation of women in academia: Participants’ responses indicated that women

were making inroads as faculty members and within the administration in academia, in countries

in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Their numbers are lower, however, in the higher ranking

decision-making roles such as chancellors, presidents, deans, and heads of departments at

colleges and universities. For example, Kizitos



Okisai from Kenya stated, “It is incredible that Kenya is one of the few countries in Africa with a

female Vice Chancellor in one of its public universities.”

Representation of women in the media: Several participants mentioned the importance

of the media in counteracting gender stereotypes and creating more positive female role models.

Even though the numbers of women in the industry are increasing, participants’ comments from

several countries indicated the difficulties women have in breaking into the top-tier positions in

media outlets. Dr. Mercia from India noted, “Media is seeing a lot of women leaders in India.

Among the [most] highly paid CEOs of India are two women media CEOs. There are women

directors and CEOs in the media sector in India. Some of the [most] powerful women of India

are in the media sector.”

Representation of women in the public sector: Dianne Lockwood from Australia

noted that, as a result of government policy, women make up 35 per cent of senior executive

positions in the public service and hold 34.3 per cent of all seats on government-controlled

boards and bodies.

Representation of women in the judiciary: Representation of women in the judiciary is

critical for promoting greater equality, improving the status of women and ensuring a more

gender-sensitive administration of justice. The forum did not receive specific data on the

numbers of women in the judiciary but anecdotal responses indicated that the number of women

judges may have increased over the years. In a positive example, Mallica Vajrathon from

Thailand observed that the country is making ‘good use’ of more than 30 per cent of women as

judges to further gender-specific interests. She noted

“There is no doubt in my mind of the effectiveness of these female judges in bringing justice to

children, women and men in the community.” The positive results may be due to the fact that

there is a critical mass of women judges who can effect change within the legal system.

Representation of women in the private sector: Across the world, very few women

lead large companies or corporations, including multinational and transnational corporations and

banks. In the United States, research shows that “despite years of progress by women in the

workforce (they now occupy more than 40 per cent of all managerial positions in the United



States), within the [group of chief executives] they remain as rare as hens’ teeth. Consider the

most highly paid executives of Fortune 500 companies—those with titles such as chairman,

president, chief executive officer and chief operating officer. Of this group, only 6 per cent are

women. Most notably, only two per cent of the CEOs are women, and only 15 per cent of the

seats on the boards of directors are held by women. The situation is not much different in other

industrialized countries. In the 50 largest publicly traded corporations in each nation of the

European Union, women make up, on average, 11 per cent of the top executives and 4 per cent

of the CEOs and heads of boards. Just seven companies or one per cent of Fortune magazine’s

Global 500 have female CEOs

Cross-cutting constraints and barriers to women’s leadership

Participants from various countries, including Cameroon, Guinea, India, Kenya, Nigeria,

Pakistan, and Syria, identified a wide range of cross-cutting constraints and barriers to women’s

leadership. Much of the input underscored the fact that issues of women’s leadership could not

be addressed without tackling broader-based systemic social and economic constraints that

continue to affect women, particularly in developing countries. Some of the challenges identified

were inequalities in education, health and employment; discriminatory practices; the

feminization of poverty; as well as the effects of armed conflict, and HIV/AIDS—all of which

affect women disproportionately. The constraints participants identified at the level of: a) the

country/society; b) the institution; and c) the individual, are presented below.

GROUP DYNAMICS

Introduction

Group dynamics refers to the study of forces operating within a group. It is concerned with

interactions and forces between group members in a social situation. In this way man in a social

animal so need to interact with one or more groups. In this some groups will participate active

way he must inter act with groups or groups. In this groups having their own characters. So

individual should join any group for to satisfying his needs and wants.



Meaning: Group dynamic means it is basically two terms group and dynamic. Group is basically

a collectivity of two or more persons. Dynamic it is a word from Greek. It means force.

Definitions:

Group dynamic is defined "The social forces by which people interact face to face in small

groups".

Before you call it is a group it should satisfy the following conditions.

People must interact with one to another.

They are psychologically aware of one to another.

They should be perceive themselves groups.

Two or more people needed to form or constitute a group.

Group can produce bad and good things.

It should have separate behavior in socity

Characteristics of groups:

A group is a collection of people.

Two or more persons are formed .

It improves interaction among the members through communication.

Group facilitates members realize their goals.

Group peoples are independent and interacting with in the group.

Every group is having common goals.

It is collective identity.

Types of groups: The groups are mainly classified in to two main groups one is formal and

second one is informal.

Formal groups: Formal group is a combination of two are more people interpedently and

interacting for a shared purpose . In this people are continued interaction among the group

members.



Characteristics of formal group:

Goals roles and responsibilities are clearly defined.

It is having clear structure and activities also systematic.

They are large in size.

They are relatively permanent and provide continues interaction.

They regulate behavior by a well defined set of rules and regulations.

The focus in functions to be performed rather than internal reaction. Committees, plural

executives, work groups etc...are example of a formal groups.

Informal groups: Informal groups are formed by the individuals of the group rather than by

management. An informal work group is group of two or more employees formed by mutual

attraction. They are formed spontaneously for achieving short term goals and mostly to provide

social satisfaction.

Characteristics of in formal groups:

These are formed voluntarily and spontaneously.

They required social satisfaction.

Goals are not well defined.

Structure is not defined clearly and the nature of group is dynamic.

Group norms values and beliefs regulated the behavior of group members.

Leadership is informal.

Communication is also constructed.

Rewards are non financial. They are in terms of regulations praises and esteem.

Controls the based on group goals.

A part from formal and informal groups, a number of other groups are found in organizations.

They are as under

1. Primary and secondary groups: A primary group is characterized by intimate face to

face association and co operation. The members of such as a group is small and is basic on

intimate relationship.



A secondary group is more formal , general and remote. The members of the secondary group

may not have any interest in the problems and pleasures of others.

2. Membership and reference groups: It is group which person is really belongs to join

in one of group. In this persons are always try to join that group members.

A reference group is a collection of persons, which enables an individual to take it as a standard

for self evolution and source of development of personal values and attitudes.

3. Command and task groups: A command group is composed of the subordinates who

report directly to a common superior. This type of group is determined by organization chart.

A task group is composed of the employees who work together to complete a particular task or

project.

4. In-Groups and out-groups: In groups are represents a clustering of individuals holding

prevailing in a society or at least having a dominant place in social functions.

The out-group is the conglomerate looked up as subordinate or marginal in the society.

Dynamics of group formation: Group is "one of the important things in society. Every

individual need to join in any group for to achieve his goals and objectives. so how a group is

forming in the society as following things are contributed.

1. Goal realization: Groups assist members in the realization of goals. Group will give a

strong suppose for to achieving the individual goals.

2. Authority and power: Groups provide an opportunity for use of authority and

power. Individual strength is enhanced in groups. When a person join in certain group that

person can get good power in the society.

3. Satisfaction of social and security needs: Group is a source for understanding

companionship, interacting and creating social relationship. Group is always satisfying the

individual needs and it will give a security to the personalities.



4. Identity: One of the most in essential desires of an individual in recognition and identity as

human being. Group recognizes the individual as members. it also helps individual to identify

themselves to get security and esteem.

5. Espirit de crops: As the saying goes united we stand and divided we fail. Groups help

individuals to unite together in order to solve many organizational problems. They help in

protecting the individual interests in the work place.

6. Safety value: Groups act as safety value to release daily tensions, worries and stress. For

ex: it an employees who face disgrace of the superior develops tensions, he will try to share his

experience with the other members of the group. Thus his tension released.

Groups are source to satisfy a variety of needs. Hence these factors can also be advanced as

reasons for formation of groups. They are

1. External conditions: A group is not an independent identity but is created by an

organization to perform certain specified work. A group has to work within the frame work

provided by the organization. Organizational factors that impose conditions for group working

are organizations strategy its resources, rules and regulations, authority structure, performance

evaluations and reward systems, physical work settings and culture.

2. Group member resource: A group's potential performance depends to a great extent,

on the resources that its individual members to the group. These resources may be classified

into two groups. Knowledge, skills and abilities and personality characteristics. If the knowledge

skills and abilities of group members match with group requirements, group performance is

likely to be better.

3. Group structure: A group is not an unorganized model of few individuals but a conscious

and purposive creation. There for a group must have structure just like an organization has

structure have group size norms, roles and responsibilities. E.g.: Lions and comity club.

4. Group process: A group is always working for something. So here group always doing the

works, which for that group framed.



5. Group performance: Group is formed for a certain work. Every individual person

should perform in the group. Here when all the persons involve or perform well in the group that

group will success. So total group performance is depends upon the all individual persons.

Frame work of group behavior: Group is one of the important in the society. so every

where one group will help to the group people and their working conditions are determined. It

happens that some groups perform well and generate synergy where as some groups do not

perform well and result into social learning. This happens because there are several factors both

within group and outside group. These groups performance is depending upon the following

factors.

The above figure will explain the factors of a group behavior.

Group assists members in meeting objectives.

They work as a source of information.

They facilitate increasing economic benefits.

They help in forming right perception and attitudes.

They help in preparation of cultural values.

They provide relief from psychological fatigue.

They facilitate learning easy.


Group member resources

External conditions

Group process Group performan

Group structure


Organizational Conflict

Introduction:

Conflict exists in all organization. It is all inevitable features of organizational life. Conflict may be within an individual, between individuals or groups. Conflicts is an inescapable aspect of social interactions, an inevitable consequence of the interactions and interdependencies between org. participants conflict has considerable influence on employee behavior, performance and satisfaction. It is also effects an organization effectiveness conflict may mean disagreement, hostility, incompatibility between individuals or groups in the organization

Meaning: Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over the goals to attain or the methods to be used to accomplish those goals

Definition: According to Robbins “conflict is a process in which an effort is purposefully made by one person or unit to block another that results in frustrating the attainment of others goals or the furthering of his or her Interests”

Nature & Characteristics:

1) Two or more parties are involved 2) It refers to deliberate behavior 3) It can be exist at the latent or overt levels 4) There is no co-operation between the both parties5) It is different from one organization to another organization 6) It is a dynamic process7) It is task oriented 8) It is the relationship oriented 9) It may be functional and dysfunctional

Consequences of conflict in organizations: Conflict can yield both positive and negative consequences for an organization. In other words functional and dysfunctional. The following are some of the consequences of conflict

1. Change stimulant: Conflict is integral to the process of change. It serves as a stimulus for change in the systems which are not conducive to the proper functioning of the organization. Conflict spotlights problems that require change, forces clarification of their nature and sources and channels organization efforts towards problem- solving

2. Conflict fosters creativity and innovation: When a group is faced with a conflict, its members display creativity in identifying various alternatives. They think through and come



out with imaginative solutions to tackle the problem. The thinking process generated by conflict may lead to innovation in policies and procedures.

3. Group cohesiveness: Group cohesiveness implies commitment to group goals and the degree of co-operation among group members. To work together when a group faces threat from inside in the form of inter-group conflict, it tends to become more cohesive group unity is stressed. Members of the group co-operate to meet the pressure of conflict situation

4. Release of tension: Conflict provides an opportunity for releasing tension which may otherwise remain suppressed. People can express their tension and frustrations by means of conflict

5. Test of capabilities: Conflict is a test of the ability of people to learn and develop. It provides a challenge to them. If they are able to meet the challenges to them. If they are able to meet the challenges successfully, they will feel satisfied and highly motivated

Issues involved in conflict:

1. Facts: - Conflicts may occur because of disagreement that the persons have over the (definitions) of a problem, relevant facts related to the problem, or their authority and power.

2. Goals:- Sometimes, there may be disagreement over the goals which two parties want to achieve the relationship between goals of the parties may be viewed as incompatible which the result that one party may achieve the goals at the cost of the other

3. Methods:- Even if goal are perceived to be the same, there may be different over the methods – procedures strategies, tactics, etc. – Through which goals may be achieved

4. Values: -There may be differences over the values- ethical standards. Considerations of fairness, justice, etc. These differences are of more intrinsic nature in persons and may affect the choice of goals or methods of achieving them

Process:-

1. Latent conflict:-Each conflict episode begins with latent conflict. This is the stage in which the conflict has not taken a shape; therefore, it is not apparent. It may occur in sub-conscious mind. Some of the antecedents that establish conditions from which conflict may occur are

a. Competition for scarce resources

b. Communication barriers causing in adequate and distorted information

c. Divergence among sub unit goals and methods of work.



d. Role, ambiguities.

2. Perceived conflict: - Parties to the conflict may perceive about incompatibility of the antecedents of conflict though, sometimes, this perception may be wrong. Perceived conflict occurs because of the misunderstanding the parties, caused particularly by the lack of communication.

3. Felt conflict: - Felt conflict differs from perceived conflict. A person may have serious difference with another we some issues but this may not make him tense or anxious. It is the personalization or internalization of differences that causes conflict

4. Manifest conflict:-this is the stage when two parties to the conflict show a variety of by conflictful behavior such as open aggression, sabotage, apathy, with drawl, work to rule, etc. depending on the issues involved in the conflict and the stand that the parties. May take.

5. Conflict aftermath: -At this stage, attempts are made to resolve the conflict through conflict resolution mechanism.

Diagram

Types (or) levels of conflict:-There are four levels of conflict in organizational life

1) Intra- individual conflict. 2) Inter – individual.3) Intra- group conflict. 4) Inter –group conflict

The above four levels can be represented by the following diagram


Latent conflict Perceived

conflictconfFelt conflict Manifest conflict Aftermath conflict


3. Intra-group conflict:-Intra group conflict refers to disputes among some or all of a group’s members, which often affect the group’s performance as happened in the opening case

Changes within the group

1. Group co-hesiveness increase 2. Loyalty to the group becomes more important 3. It becomes more task oriented 4. Leadership in the group becomes more automatic and directive 5. Organizational structure becomes more rigid.

4. Inter-Group conflict:-It is also called oral conflict; it refers to the conflict between groups departments. Or sections in an organization conflict between groups are frequent and highly visible. The reasons for inter- Group conflict may

a. Task- inter- dependence b. Task ambiguity c. Goal incompatibility d. Completion for limited resources e. Completion reward system f. Line and staff g. Intra-personal and interpersonal conflict

Changes between groups:



a) Groups become more antagonistic towards each other b) There are distortions of perception, both about one’s own group and about the other

group c) Interaction and communication between groups decreased) Groups apply double standards, perceiving every act of the other group as bad, while

remaining oblivious to one’s own misdeeds

Functional and Dysfunctional conflict

Functional conflict refer to conformation between two ideas, goals and parties that improve employee and organization’s performance well managed conflict helps workers anticipate and solve problems, fell confident, strengthen their relationships, and be committed to the organization

Dysfunctional conflict: -This conflict is also way for change the organization. It will not help to the organization. It is always disturb the functions of the organization

Conflict resolution:-

1. Problem solving: - The problem solving technique is considered to be the most positive technique available for conflict resolution because it emphasizes the attaining of the common interests of both conflicting parties. When both parties having the commitment, we can easily solving the problem

2. Avoidance: - Another method of overcoming is its avoidance, that is, parties to the conflict may either withdrawal from the conflict or conceal the incompatibility. With drawl may be observe when one party leaves the field of conflict so that other party may win by being in sole possession of the goal in dispute

3. Smoothing:-Smoothing can be defined as the process of playing down differences that exist between individuals or groups while emphasizing common interests differences are suppressed and similarities are accentuated in smoothing process

4. Compromise:-Compromise is a well- accepted technique for resolving conflict, yielding nether a definite loser nor a distinct or third- party interventions, plus internal compromise between conflicting parties through both total group and representative and voting. So one should compromise for conflict

5. Confrontation: -The various actions enumerated above may not bring resolution of conflict between parties if they take very rigid stand. In such a case, the parties are left to confrontation to settle the conflict themselves. This strategy may result into win-lose situation. The parties concerned may settle their score by applying their strength against each other. Conformation may be used for organization development and increasing organizational effectiveness.


Education

Components of Motivation