Upload
sgossett5757
View
8.151
Download
2
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 12Lecture
PowerPoint
2
2401Anatomy and Physiology I
Chapter 12
Susan [email protected]
Department of Biology
Paris Junior College
3
Hole’s Human Anatomyand Physiology
Twelfth Edition
Shier Butler Lewis
Chapter 12
Nervous System III: Senses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
4
12.1: Introduction
• General senses• Receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body• Skin, various organs and joints
• Special senses• Specialized receptors confined to structures in the head • Eyes, ears, nose and mouth
5
12.2: Receptors, Sensation, and Perception
• Sensory receptors• Specialized cells or multicellular structures that collect information from the environment
• Stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory (afferent) fibers to the brain
• Sensation• A feeling that occurs when brain becomes aware of sensory impulse
• Perception• A person’s view of the stimulus; the way the brain interprets the information
6
Pathways From Sensation to Perception (Example of an Apple)
7
Receptor Types• Chemoreceptors
• Respond to changes in chemical concentrations
• Pain receptors (nociceptors)• Respond to chemicals released during tissue damage
• Thermoreceptors• Respond to changes in temperature
• Mechanoreceptors• Respond to mechanical forces (touch, stretch, pressure)
• Photoreceptors• Respond to light
8
Sensory Impulses• Stimulation of receptor causes local change in its receptor potential
• A graded electrical current is generated that reflects intensity of stimulation
• If receptor is part of a neuron, the membrane potential may generate an action potential
• If receptor is not part of a neuron, the receptor potential must be transferred to a neuron to trigger an action potential
• Peripheral nerves transmit impulses to CNS where they are analyzed and interpreted in the brain
9
Sensations and Perception
• Projection• Process in which the brain projects the sensation back to the apparent source• It allows a person to pinpoint the region of stimulation
10
Sensory Adaptation• Ability to ignore unimportant stimuli
• Involves a decreased response to a particular stimulus from the receptors (peripheral adaptation) or along the CNS pathways leading to the cerebral cortex (central adaptation)
• Sensory impulses become less frequent and may cease
• Stronger stimulus is required to trigger impulses
11
12.3: General Senses
• Senses associated with skin, muscles, joints and viscera
• Three (3) groups:• Exteroceptive senses (exteroceptors)
• Senses associated with body surface such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
• Visceroceptive senses (interoceptors)• Senses associated with changes in the viscera such as blood pressure stretching blood vessels and ingestion of a meal
• Proprioceptive senses• Senses associated with changes in muscles and tendons such as at joints
12
Touch and Pressure Senses
Free nerve endings• Common in epithelial tissues• Simplest receptors• Sense itching
Tactile (Meissners) corpuscles• Abundant in hairless portions of skin and lips• Detect fine touch; distinguish between two points on the skin
Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles• Common in deeper subcutaneous tissues, tendons and ligaments• Detect heavy pressure and vibrations
13
Touch and Pressure Receptors
Epidermis
Dermis
(a)
(b)
(c)
Section ofskin
Free nerveendings
Epithelialcells
Sensory (afferent)nerve fiber
Epithelialcells
Tactile (Meissners) corpuscle(touch receptor)
Sensory (afferent) nerve fiber
Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscle(pressure receptor)Connective tissuecells
Sensory (afferent) nerve fiber
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ed Reschke
14
Temperature Senses• Warm receptors
• Sensitive to temperatures above 25oC (77o F)• Unresponsive to temperature above 45oC (113oF)
• Cold receptors• Sensitive to temperatures between 10oC (50oF) and 20oC (68oF)
• Pain receptors• Respond to temperatures below 10oC• Respond to temperatures above 45oC
15
Sense of Pain
• Free nerve endings
• Widely distributed
• Nervous tissue of brain lacks pain receptors
• Stimulated by tissue damage, chemical, mechanical forces, or extremes in temperature
• Adapt very little, if at all
16
Visceral Pain• Pain receptors are the only receptors in viscera whose stimulation produces sensations• Pain receptors respond differently to stimulation• Pain receptors are not well localized• Pain receptors may feel as if coming from some other part of the body• Known as referred pain…
17
Referred Pain• May occur due to sensory impulses from two regions following a common nerve pathway to brain
Appendix
Ureter
Lung and diaphragm
Heart
Stomach
Pancreas
Colon
Kidney
Urinary bladder
Liver andgallbladder
Smallintestine
Ovary(female)
Liver andgallbladder
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
18
Pain Nerve Pathways• Acute pain fibers
• A-delta fibers • Thin, myelinated• Conduct impulses rapidly• Associated with sharp pain• Well localized
• Chronic pain fibers• C fibers • Thin, unmyelinated• Conduct impulses more slowly• Associated with dull, aching pain• Difficult to pinpoint• Blocked by narcotics (controlled substances)• CCC (Chronic, C fibers, Controlled substances)
19
Regulation of Pain Impulses
• Thalamus • Allows person to be aware of pain
• Cerebral cortex • Judges intensity of pain • Locates source of pain• Produces emotional and motor responses to pain
• Pain inhibiting substances:• Enkephalins• Serotonin• Endorphins
20
12.1 Clinical Application
Treating Pain
21
Proprioception• Mechanoreceptors
• Send information to spinal cord and CNS about body position and length, and tension of muscles
• Main kinds of proprioceptors:• Pacinian corpuscles – in joints• Muscle spindles – in skeletal muscles*• Golgi tendon organs – in tendons*
*considered to be stretch receptors
22
Stretch Receptors
(a)
Muscle spindle Skeletal muscle fiber
Golgi tendon organ
Tendon
(b)
Sensory (afferent)nerve fiber
Sensory nerve endings
Sensory (afferent)nerve fiber
Connectivetissue sheath
Intrafusalfiber
Skeletal musclefiber
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
23
Visceral Senses
• Receptors in internal organs
• Convey information that includes the sense of fullness after eating a meal as well as the discomfort of intestinal gas and the pain that signals a heart attack
24
Summary of Receptors of the General Senses
25
12.4: Special Senses• Sensory receptors are within large, complex sensory organs in the head
• Smell in olfactory organs
• Taste in taste buds
• Hearing and equilibrium in ears
• Sight in eyes
26
Sense of Smell
• Olfactory receptors• Chemoreceptors• Respond to chemicals dissolved in liquids
• Olfactory organs• Contain olfactory receptors and supporting epithelial cells• Cover parts of nasal cavity, superior nasal conchae, and a portion of the nasal septum
27
Olfactory ReceptorsCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Nasal cavityCilia
(b)(a)
CribriformplateOlfactory area ofnasal cavity
Superior nasalconcha
Olfactorybulb
Olfactorytract
Nerve fibers withinthe olfactory bulb
Olfactoryreceptor cells
Columnarepithelial cells
Cribriformplate
28
Olfactory Nerve Pathways
• Once olfactory receptors are stimulated, nerve impulses travel through• Olfactory nerves olfactory bulbs olfactory tracts limbic system (for emotions) and olfactory cortex (for interpretation)
29
Olfactory Stimulation
• Olfactory code• Hypothesis • Odor that is stimulated by a distinct set of receptor cells and its associated receptor proteins
• Olfactory organs located high in the nasal cavity above the usual pathway of inhaled air• Olfactory receptors undergo sensory adaptation rapidly• Sense of smell drops by 50% within a second after stimulation
30
12.2 Clinical Application
Mixed-Up Senses: Synesthesia
31
Sense of Taste• Taste buds
• Organs of taste• Located on papillae of tongue, roof of mouth, linings of cheeks and walls of pharynx
• Taste receptors• Chemoreceptors• Taste cells – modified epithelial cells that function as receptors• Taste hairs –microvilli that protrude from taste cells; sensitive parts of taste cells
32
Taste Receptors
Papillae
(a)
(b)
ConnectivetissueSensory (afferent)nerve fibers
Epitheliumof tongue
Supportingcell
Tastepore
Taste hair
Taste cell
Taste buds
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
33
Taste Sensations
• Four primary taste sensations• Sweet – stimulated by carbohydrates• Sour – stimulated by acids• Salty – stimulated by salts• Bitter – stimulated by many organic compounds
• Spicy foods activate pain receptors
34
Taste Nerve Pathways
• Sensory impulses from taste receptors travel along:• Cranial nerves VII, IX, and X to… • Medulla oblongata to…• Thalamus to… • Gustatory cortex (for interpretation)
35
12.3 Clinical Application
Smell and Taste Disorders
36
Sense of Hearing
• Ear• Organ of hearing
• Three (3) sections:• External ear• Middle ear• Inner ear
37
External Ear• Auricle
• Collects sounds waves
• External auditory meatus• Lined with ceruminous glands• Carries sound to tympanic membrane• Terminates with tympanic membrane
• Tympanic membrane • Vibrates in response to sound waves
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Round window
PharynxAuditory tube
Auricle
Oval window(under stapes)
CochleaMalleus
Incus Stapes
External acousticmeatus
Semicircularcanals
Vestibulocochlearnerve
Tympanic cavity
Tympanicmembrane
38
Middle Ear
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Round window
PharynxAuditory tube
Auricle
Oval window(under stapes)
CochleaMalleus
Incus Stapes
External acousticmeatus
Semicircularcanals
Vestibulocochlearnerve
Tympanic cavity
Tympanicmembrane
• Tympanic cavity• Air-filled space intemporal bone
• Auditory ossicles• Vibrate in response to tympanic membrane• Malleus, incus and stapes• Hammer, anvil and stirrup
• Oval window • Opening in wall of tympanic cavity• Stapes vibrates against it to move fluids in inner ear
39
Auditory Tube
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Round window
PharynxAuditory tube
Auricle
Oval window(under stapes)
CochleaMalleus
Incus Stapes
External acousticmeatus
Semicircularcanals
Vestibulocochlearnerve
Tympanic cavity
Tympanicmembrane
• Also known as the Eustachian tube • Connects middle ear to throat• Helps maintain equal pressure on both sides of tympanic membrane• Usually closed by valve-like flaps in throat
Inner Ear
• Complex system of labyrinths
• Osseous labyrinth • Bony canal in temporal bone• Filled with perilymph
• Membranous labyrinth• Tube within osseous labyrinth• Filled with endolymph
Cochlear nerve
Maculae
Utricle
(a)Cochlea
Saccule
Ampullae
Endolymph
PerilymphMembranous labyrinth
Bony labyrinth
Vestibular nerve
Scalavestibuli (cut)Scalatympani (cut)Cochlearduct (cut)containingendolymph
VestibuleOvalwindow
Roundwindow
Semicircularcanals
Bony labyrinth(contains perilymph)
Membranous labyrinth(contains endolymph)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
40
Inner Ear
Cochlear nerve
Maculae
Utricle
(a)Cochlea
Saccule
Ampullae
Endolymph
PerilymphMembranous labyrinth
Bony labyrinth
Vestibular nerve
Scalavestibuli (cut)Scalatympani (cut)Cochlearduct (cut)containingendolymph
VestibuleOvalwindow
Roundwindow
Semicircularcanals
Bony labyrinth(contains perilymph)
Membranous labyrinth(contains endolymph)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
41
• Three (3) parts of labyrinths:• Cochlea
• Functions in hearing• Semicircular canals
• Functions in equilibrium
• Vestibule• Functions in equilibrium
42
Cochlea
• Scala vestibuli• Upper compartment• Leads from oval window to apex of spiral• Part of bony labyrinth
• Scala tympani• Lower compartment• Extends from apex of the cochlea to round window• Part of bony labyrinth
Stapes vibrating inoval window
Scala vestibulifilled with perilymph
Vestibularmembrane
BasilarmembraneScala tympanifilled withperilymph
Round window
Helicotrema
Membranouslabyrinth
Cochlear ductfilled with endolymph
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
43
Cochlea
• Cochlear duct• Portion of membranous labyrinth in cochlea
• Vestibular membrane• Separates cochlear duct from scala vestibuli
• Basilar membrane• Separates cochlear duct from scala tympani
Spiral organ (organ of Corti)
Basilar membrane
(a)
Scala vestibuli(contains perilymph)Vestibular membrane
Cochlear duct(contains endolymph)
Scala tympani(contains perilymph)
Branch ofcochlearnerve
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
44
12.4 Clinical Application
Getting a Cochlear Implant
45
Organ of Corti
• Group of hearing receptor cells (hair cells)• On upper surface of basilar membrane• Different frequencies of vibration move different parts of basilar membrane• Particular sound frequencies cause hairs of receptor cells to bend• Nerve impulse generated
Spiral organ (organ of Corti)
Hair cells
Basilar membrane
(a)
(b)
Scala vestibuli(contains perilymph)
Cochlear duct(contains endolymph)
Scala tympani(contains perilymph)
Branch ofcochlearnerve
Tectorialmembrane
Basilarmembrane
Supportingcells
Nervefibers
Branch ofcochlear nerve
Vestibular membrane
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
46
Organ of Corti
Cochlear duct
Scala tympani Hair cells
(a)
(b)
Basilarmembrane
Tectorial membrane
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: © John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited
47
Auditory Nerve Pathways
Midbrain
Pons
Thalamus
Auditory cortex(temporal lobe)
Medial geniculatebody of thalamus
Superiorolivarynucleus
Medullaoblongata
Vestibulocochlearnerve
Cochlearnuclei
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
48
12.5 Clinical Application
Hearing Loss
49
Summary of the Generation of Sensory Impulses from the Ear
50
Sense of Equilibrium
• Static equilibrium• Vestibule• Senses position of head when body is not moving
• Dynamic Equilibrium• Semicircular canals• Senses rotation and movement of head and body
51
Vestibule• Utricle
• Communicates with saccule and membranous portion of semicircular canals
• Saccule• Communicates with cochlear duct
• Macula• Hair cells of utricle and saccule
Saccule
UtricleCochlea
Maculae
Ampullae ofsemicircularcanals
Vestibulocochlearnerve
Cochlearduct
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Vestibule
Macula• Responds to changes in head position• Bending of hairs results in generation of nerve impulse
Hair cells
Sensory (afferent) nerve fiber Supporting cells
Otoliths
(a) Head upright (b) Head bent forward
Maculaof utricle
Hairs ofhair cells bend
Gelatinousmaterial sags
Gravitationalforce
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
52
53
Semicircular Canals• Three (3) canals at right angles• Ampulla
• Swelling of membranous labyrinth that communicates with the vestibule
• Crista ampullaris• Sensory organ of ampulla• Hair cells and supporting cells• Rapid turns of head or body stimulate hair cells
Saccule
Utricle Cochlea
Maculae
Ampullae ofsemicircularcanals
Vestibulocochlearnerve
Cochlearduct
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Vestibule
54
Crista Ampullaris
Hair cell
Supporting cells
Sensory (afferent) nerve fibers
Hairs
Cupula Cristaampullaris
(a) Head in still position
(b) Head rotating
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(c)
Crista ampullaris
Semicircular canal
Endolymph
Ampulla
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
55
Sense of Sight
• Visual accessory organs• Eyelids• Lacrimal apparatus• Extrinsic eye muscles
Eyelid• Palpebra• Composed of four (4) layers:
• Skin• Muscle • Connective tissue• Conjunctiva
• Orbicularis oculi – closes eyelid• Levator palpebrae superioris – opens eyelid• Tarsal glands – secrete oil onto eyelashes• Conjunctiva – mucous membrane; lines eyelid and covers portion of eyeball
Eyelash
Cornea
Conjunctiva
Eyelid
Tendon of levatorpalpebrae superioris
Superiorrectus
Orbicularisoculi
Inferiorrectus
Tarsal glands
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
56
Lacrimal Apparatus• Lacrimal gland
• Lateral to eye• Secretes tears
• Canaliculi• Collect tears
• Lacrimal sac• Collects from canaliculi
• Nasolacrimal duct• Collects from lacrimal sac• Empties tears into nasal cavity
Lacrimal gland
Lacrimal sac
Superior andinferior canaliculi
Nasolacrimalduct
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
57
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Inferior rectus Inferior oblique
Medialrectus
Superiorrectus
Superioroblique
Lateralrectus(cut)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Superior rectus• Rotates eye up and medially
• Inferior rectus• Rotates eye down and medially
• Medial rectus• Rotates eye medially
58
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Inferior rectus Inferior oblique
Medialrectus
Superiorrectus
Superioroblique
Lateralrectus(cut)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Lateral rectus• Rotates eye laterally
• Superior oblique• Rotates eye down and laterally
• Inferior oblique• Rotates eye up and laterally
59
60
Structure of the Eye
• Hollow• Spherical• Wall has three (3) layers:
• Outer fibrous tunic• Middle vascular tunic• Inner nervous tunic
Ciliary bodyRetinaChoroid coatSclera
Fovea centralis
Optic nerve
LensIris
PupilCornea
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Optic discPosterior cavity
Vitreous humor
Posteriorchamber
Anteriorchamber
Aqueoushumor
Suspensoryligaments
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Anteriorcavity
61
Outer Tunic
Ciliary bodyRetinaChoroid coatSclera
Fovea centralis
Optic nerve
LensIris
PupilCornea
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Optic discPosterior cavity
Vitreous humor
Posteriorchamber
Anteriorchamber
Aqueoushumor
Suspensoryligaments
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Anteriorcavity
• Cornea• Anterior portion• Transparent• Light transmission• Light refraction
• Sclera• Posterior portion• Opaque• Protection
62
Middle Tunic
Ciliary bodyRetinaChoroid coatSclera
Fovea centralis
Optic nerve
LensIris
PupilCornea
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Optic discPosterior cavity
Vitreous humor
Posteriorchamber
Anteriorchamber
Aqueoushumor
Suspensoryligaments
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Anteriorcavity
• Iris • Anterior portion• Pigmented• Controls light intensity
• Ciliary body• Anterior portion• Pigmented• Holds lens• Moves lens for focusing
• Choroid coat• Provides blood supply• Pigments absorb extra light
63
Anterior Portion of Eye• Filled with aqueous humor
Conjunctiva
Iris
Lens
Ciliary processCiliary muscles
Sclera
Cornea Anterior chamber
Vitreoushumor
Suspensoryligaments
Posteriorchamber
Ciliarybody
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
64
Lens
Conjunctiva
Iris
Lens
Ciliary processCiliary muscles
Sclera
Cornea Anterior chamber
Vitreoushumor
Suspensoryligaments
Posteriorchamber
Ciliarybody
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Transparent, Biconvex , Lies behind iris, Composed of lens fibers, Elastic, Held in place by suspensory ligaments of ciliary body
65
Ciliary Body• Forms internal ring around the front of the eye• Ciliary processes – radiating folds• Ciliary muscles – contract and relax to move lens
RetinaChoroid coat
Sclera
Lens
Ciliary processesof ciliary bodySuspensoryligaments
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
66
Accommodation• Changing of lens shape to view objects
(a)
Lens thick
Lens thin
(b)
Ciliary musclefibers contractedSuspensoryligaments relaxed
Ciliary musclefibers relaxed
Suspensoryligaments taut
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
67
Iris
Sympatheticmotor nervefiber
In dim light
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Radially arrangedSmooth muscle fibersof the irisCircularly arrangedsmooth muscle fibersof the iris
Pupil
In normal light In bright light
Parasympatheticganglion
Parasympatheticmotor nerve fiber
• Composed of connective tissue and smooth muscle• Pupil is hole in iris• Dim light stimulates radial muscles and pupil dilates• Bright light stimulates circular muscles and pupil constricts
68
Aqueous Humor• Fluid in anterior cavity of eye• Secreted by epithelium on inner surface of the ciliary body• Provides nutrients• Maintains shape of anterior portion of eye• Leaves cavity through Canal of Schlemm
Sclera
Iris
Lens
Aqueous humor
Cornea
Vitreous humor
Ciliary processCiliary muscles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Posteriorchamber
Ciliarybody
Scleral venous sinus(canal of Schlemm)
Anteriorchamber
69
Inner Tunic
• Retina• Contains visual receptors• Continuous with optic nerve• Ends just behind margin of the ciliary body• Composed of several layers• Macula lutea – yellowish spot in retina• Fovea centralis – center of macula lutea; produces sharpest vision• Optic disc – blind spot; contains no visual receptors• Vitreous humor – thick gel that holds retina flat against choroid coat
70
Posterior Cavity• Contains vitreous humor – thick gel that holds retina flat against choroid coat
Ciliary bodyRetinaChoroid coatSclera
Fovea centralis
Optic nerve
LensIris
Pupil
Cornea
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Optic discPosterior cavity
Vitreous humor
Posteriorchamber
Anteriorchamber
Aqueoushumor
Suspensoryligaments
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Anteriorcavity
71
Major Groups of Retinal Neurons
• Receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells - provide pathway for impulses triggered by photoreceptors to reach the optic nerve• Horizontal cells and amacrine cells – modify impulses
Sclera
Receptor cellsRodCone
RetinaBipolar neuron
Ganglion cell
Nerve fibers
Horizontal cell
Amacrine cell
Light waves
Retinal pigmentepithelium
Pigmentedchoroidcoat
Impulsesto opticnerve
Vitreous humor
Layer ofconnectingneurons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
72
Layers of the Eye
73
Light Refraction• Refraction
• Bending of light• Occurs when light waves pass at an oblique angle into mediums of different densities
Light wave
Perpendicular line
Air
Glass
Refractedlight wave
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
74
Types of Lenses• Convex lenses cause light waves to converge
• Concave lenses cause light waves to diverge
Air
Glass
(a) (b)
Diverginglight waves
Convexsurface
Lightwave
Converginglight waves
Concavesurface
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
75
Focusing On Retina• As light enters eye, it is refracted by:
• Convex surface of cornea• Convex surface of lens
• Image focused on retina is upside down and reversed from left to right
Light waves
Object Cornea
Image
Retina
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
76
Visual Receptors• Rods
• Long, thin projections• Contain light sensitive pigment called rhodopsin• Hundred times more sensitive to light than cones• Provide vision in dim light• Produce colorless vision• Produce outlines of objects
• Cones• Short, blunt projections• Contain light sensitive pigments called erythrolabe, chlorolabe, and cyanolabe• Provide vision in bright light• Produce sharp images• Produce color vision
77
Rods and Cones
ConesRods
Rod
Cone
(c)
Many sensory (afferent)nerve fibers(b)
Single sensory (afferent) nerve fiber(a)
Retinal pigmentepithelium
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
c: © Frank S. Werblin, PhD.
78
12.6 Clinical ApplicationRefraction Disorders
• Concave lens corrects nearsightedness
• Convex lens corrects farsightedness
Light waves
Light waves
Light waves
CorneaLens
Retina
(a) Eye too long (myopia)
(b) Normal eye
(c) Eye too short (hyperopia)
Pointof focus
Pointof focus
Pointof focus
Light waves
Concave lens
Convex lens
(a)
(b)
Uncorrectedpoint of focus
Correctedpoint of focus
Uncorrectedpoint of focus
Correctedpoint of focus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
79
Visual Pigments
• Rhodopsin• Light-sensitive pigment in rods• Decomposes in presence of light• Triggers a complex series of reactions that initiate nerve impulses• Impulses travel along optic nerve
• Pigments on cones• Each set contains different light-sensitive pigment• Each set is sensitive to different wavelengths• Color perceived depends on which sets of cones are stimulated• Erythrolabe – responds to red• Chlorolabe – responds to green• Cyanolabe – responds to blue
80
Rod Cells
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Discs ofmembranewithin cell
Synapticending
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
81
Stereoscopic Vision• Provides perception of distance and depth• Results from formation of two slightly different retinal images
Lightwaves
Right eyeLeft eye
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
82
Visual Nerve Pathway
Optic tract
Eye
Fibers fromnasal (medial) halfof each retinacrossing over
Visual cortex ofoccipital lobe
Lateralgeniculatebody ofthalamus
Opticchiasma
Opticnerve
Opticradiations
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
83
12.5: Lifespan Changes• Age related hearing loss due to:
• Damage of hair cells in organ of Corti• Degeneration of nerve pathways to the brain• Tinnitus
• Age-related visual problems include:• Dry eyes• Floaters (crystals in vitreous humor)• Loss of elasticity of lens• Glaucoma• Cataracts• Macular degeneration
84
Important Points in Chapter 12:Outcomes to be Assessed
12.1: Introduction
Explain the difference between general senses and special senses.
12.2: Receptors, Sensation, and Perception
Name the five types of receptors and state the function of each.
Explain how receptors stimulate sensory impulses.
Explain how a sensation is produced.
12.3: General Senses
Distinguish between general and special senses.
Describe the differences among receptors associated with the senses of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Describe how the sensation of pain is produced.
85
Important Points in Chapter 12:Outcomes to be Assessed
Explain the importance of stretch receptors in muscles and tendons.
12.4: Special Senses
Explain the relationship between the senses of smell and taste.
Name the parts of the ear and the function of each part.
Distinguish between static and dynamic equilibrium.
Name the parts of the eye and the function of each part.
Explain how the eye refracts light.
Explain how the brain perceives depth and distance.
Draw a diagram of the visual nerve pathways.
86
Quiz 12Complete Quiz 12 now!
Read Chapter 13.