Chapter 3

Organizational Communication Structure

Basics of the Traditional Approach

• A system of pathways through which messages flow

• The patterns of interaction among people

• The network is a structure of perceived communication relationships

Formal CommunicationFormal communication refers to communication

through officially designated channels of message flow between organizational positions. Sometimes explicitly stated in policy manuals, regulations, etc., and other times implicit yet understood by the organizational members.

The concept of organizational hierarchy is so ingrained in organizational life that formal communication is usually described in terms of the three directions of message flow within a hierarchical system: downward, upward, and horizontal.

Downward Communication• Downward Communication• Katz and Kahn (1978) identified five types of

messages that are usually reflected in downward communication:

1. Job instructions

2.Job rationales

3.Procedures and practices information

4.Feedback

5. Indoctrination

Downward CommunicationProblems with downward communication:•Inadequacy of information•Inappropriate means of diffusing information•Filtering of information•Information overload•A general climate of dominance and submission that pervades downward communication

Downward Communication

• Means of Diffusing Information– Mediated (written, electronic)– Personal, face-to-face contact

Upward Communication

Appears limited in many organizations

It is often subject to filtering on the way up

Often takes the form of:• Suggestion systems• Systematic reporting methods• Grievance procedures• Attitude surveys• Employee meetings

Upward Communication• Transmission of messages from lower to

higher levels of the organization• Reporting functions concerning task-related

matters• Communicating between superiors and

subordinates to promote morale• Promote employee involvement in decision-

making, problem-solving, and development of policies and procedures

Effective Upward Communication

Barriers to Effective Upward Communication• Endorsing upward communication and then

ignoring it• Only telling superiors what they want to hear

(good news and support for their ideas)• Accuracy of upward communication occurs

when subordinates trust their superiors

Horizontal Communication(Fayol’s Bridge)

Horizontal Communication

• The flow of messages across functional areas

• Provides flexibility in dealing with emergencies and day-to-day contingencies

• Introduces flexibility in organizational structure

• Facilitates problem-solving and information sharing across different work groups and task coordination across departments

• May enhance morale and provide a means for resolving conflicts

Effective Horizontal Communication

• Territoriality and Rivalry

• Specialization and Language Barriers

• Motivation

How may these problems be overcome?

Definition of Diagonal Communication

• Communication that crosses both levels and functions or departments within the organization

Quality Circles

• Small groups of employees (5-15) who meet regularly to identify, discuss, and offer solutions to problems concerning product or service quality and productivity

• Usually includes employees from different departments and hierarchical levels

• Receive training in group process and problem-solving techniques

Quality Circle Effectiveness

• Solution effectiveness related to the number of different groups or departments in the organization to which the QC was linked (network range)

• QC effectiveness correlated with the number of relationships that QC members had with other employees in the organization (extended network) [Stohl,1987]

Lattice Design• Non-hierarchical organizations without bosses• Rather than departmental assignment, employees

find a team to join• Employees make commitment to achieve outcomes

as part of the team• Direct communication is encouraged; no approval

seeking• Natural leadership emerges through fellowship• Team members establish and commit to objectives

and make them happen• Sponsors rather than bosses

Heterarchies

• Self-organizing non-hierarchical systems characterized by lateral accountability and organizational heterogeneity

• Involves distributed intelligence and the organization of diversity (Stark,1992)

Effectiveness and Heterarchies

• Responsive to increasing uncertainty in organizational environments

• Uncertainty prompted by global competition makes innovation central to survival

• Heterarchies allow organizations to flexibly deploy resources to create a culture of innovation

• Creativity and change is everyone’s job

Information Distortion from the Traditional View

• Filtering Information

• Distortions due to different interpretations of messages

• Deliberate filtering to sustain power through withholding information

• Distortion increases as more people reproduce a message

Informal Communication

Informal communication involves episodes of interaction that do not reflect officially designed channels of communication.

Some form of informal communication is inevitable in any organization. Management efforts to stamp it out are misguided at best.

Some experts urge managers to control the informal system.

Informal Communication

• The terms informal system and grapevine are often viewed interchangeably

• Grapevine as a metaphor for a communication system began during the U.S. Civil War to describe telegraph lines that were strung through trees in a manner resembling grapevines

• The system was not very reliable so the term was soon applied to any unofficial communication

Grapevine Communication

• Function and Extent of Grapevine

• Participants in Grapevine

• Patterns and Media of Grapevine

• Volume, Speed, and Reliability of Information

• Role in Rumor Transmission

Communication Structure as a Network

Tichy (1981) says these networks can be understood by examining:

• Member Roles• Characteristics of Links• Structural Characteristics• Transactional Content

Communication Structure as a Network

An Analysis of Communication Networks

Among Tampa Bay Economic Development Organizations

Member Roles

• Group• Liaison• Bridge Link• Isolate

Characteristics of Network Links

• Reciprocity• Intensity• Multiplexity

Structural Characteristics

• Size• Density• Clustering• Stability• Conditions of Membership• Connectedness

Transactional Content

• Expressions of Affect

• Influence

• Information

• Goods and Services

Advantages of a Network Perspective

• Insight into coupling characteristics of communication

• Distinguishing between formal and informal communication

• Understanding the social construction of organizational communication structure

Uses of Network Analysis

• Provide a picture of the patterns of interaction that define organizational communication structure– Self-report surveys– Naturalistic observation– Constitutive ethnography– Non-directive interviews

Uses of Network Analysis

• Determine the degree to which emergent networks correspond with prescribed channels of communication

• Identify individuals in specific network roles (group members, liaisons, bridge, isolates)

• Reveal correlations between network characteristics and other variables such as performance and satisfaction

• Discovery of new or “hidden” network structures

Loose Versus Tight Coupling

• Loosely Coupled Systems– Coupled systems either have few common

ties or the ties that join them are very weak

• Tightly Coupled Systems– Highly interdependent organizational

subsystems

Loose Versus Tight Coupling

Impact of Loose and Tight Coupling

• Organizational Change– Tight Coupling: changes in one subsystem

quickly ripple through others– Loose Coupling: the ripple effect of change

is limited, dampened, or gradual

Advantages and Disadvantages of Loose Coupling

Advantages• Localized Adaptation• Individuals have more autonomy and

discretion

Disadvantages• Reduces the benefits of standardization• Promotes diversity rather than selectivity in

organizational values and practices

Interpretive Approaches to Communication Structure

• Muddled Distinctions– Formal and Informal Communication

• Structure as Social Construction– Conversations about structure influence how we understand

structure– Semantic Networks

• Relationship between Structure and Culture– Structure impacts culture (hierarchy versus heterarchy)

• Information Distortion– Distortion of information may prevent building of shared

meanings

Critical Approaches to Communication Structure

• Structure and Control– Different structures support specific rule systems

that control employee behavior (hierarchy versus heterarchy)

• Structure and Oppression– Reifying the idea of specific structures

• Information Distortion– Distorting information to sustain power

relationships