BloodBloodBlood is a special fluids, moves through capillary of the organs and tissuesBlood is a special fluids, moves through capillary of the organs and tissues

Functions of the bloodFunctions of the bloodTransport Transport media;media;O2 from the lungs to the tissues and co2 from the tissues to the lungsO2 from the lungs to the tissues and co2 from the tissues to the lungsDigested absorbed foodDigested absorbed food . .Non volatile waste product e.g. lactic acids ,urea , creatinin Non volatile waste product e.g. lactic acids ,urea , creatinin Active substance as hormones & Vitamins.Active substance as hormones & Vitamins.

Defensive functionsDefensive functionsWhite blood cells attack the invading pathogenic microorganism and produce White blood cells attack the invading pathogenic microorganism and produce antibodies against them. antibodies against them.

Haemostatic functionsHaemostatic functions : IF Blood vessels is injury blood clot,,plateletes : IF Blood vessels is injury blood clot,,plateletes plug and vasoconstriction prevent blood loss.plug and vasoconstriction prevent blood loss.

Homeostatic functionsHomeostatic functionsBlood help to maintain the composition of tissue fluids constant. through Blood help to maintain the composition of tissue fluids constant. through physical and physiological mechanismphysical and physiological mechanism

Regulation of body temperature.Regulation of body temperature.

PlasmaPlasmaIT is the fluid portion of the blood .IT is the fluid portion of the blood .it consists ofit consists of approximately of 90% water ,0.9% approximately of 90% water ,0.9% inorganic constituents,,7.1% plasma proteins and2% nutrient materials and waste inorganic constituents,,7.1% plasma proteins and2% nutrient materials and waste productsproducts..The normal plasma volume is about 5%of the body weightThe normal plasma volume is about 5%of the body weight

The chief organic cation is sodium (average concentration 142 mEq/L ), IT contain The chief organic cation is sodium (average concentration 142 mEq/L ), IT contain small amount of K+,ca++ and mg++ the main anion of the plasma is chloride small amount of K+,ca++ and mg++ the main anion of the plasma is chloride average con is 104mEq/Laverage con is 104mEq/L..

Plasma clot on standing .it remain fluid only if an anticoagulant is added .if the whole Plasma clot on standing .it remain fluid only if an anticoagulant is added .if the whole blood is allowed to clot and the clot is removed ,the remaining fluid is called serumblood is allowed to clot and the clot is removed ,the remaining fluid is called serum..

Serum has the same composition of plasma except serum can not clot while plasma Serum has the same composition of plasma except serum can not clot while plasma can clotcan clot. . Serum lack of fibrinogen and factor 5 &8 because they are consuming during clottingSerum lack of fibrinogen and factor 5 &8 because they are consuming during clotting . .

Serotonin is more in serum due to platelets breakdownSerotonin is more in serum due to platelets breakdown..

The plasma proteinThe plasma protein 100100 c.c of plasma contain about 7.0 plasma protein s, c.c of plasma contain about 7.0 plasma protein s,

which are; which are; serum albumenserum albumen 4.0 gm and molecular 4.0 gm and molecular weight is 7o.oooweight is 7o.ooo

Serum globulinsSerum globulins; 2.7 gm and molecular weight is ; 2.7 gm and molecular weight is 150.000 They are divided into 150.000 They are divided into αα,ß & Gama globulins,ß & Gama globulins

Fibrinogen;Fibrinogen; 0.3gm and molecular weight 400.000 It 0.3gm and molecular weight 400.000 It give more viscosity of the bloodgive more viscosity of the blood

Albumin –Globulin ratio(A/G ratio):Albumin –Globulin ratio(A/G ratio):It is about It is about 1.2-1.6 this ratio decrease in two condition1.2-1.6 this ratio decrease in two condition: :

11 - -Liver failure : due to decrease formation of albuminLiver failure : due to decrease formation of albumin..

22--Renal disease: due to loss of albumin in urineRenal disease: due to loss of albumin in urine. .

Site of formation of plasma proteinsSite of formation of plasma proteins;;

11 - -Albumin ,fibrinogen& prothrombin;Albumin ,fibrinogen& prothrombin; They are formed only They are formed only in the liverin the liver

Globulin;Globulin; They are formed by the cells of the reticulo-endothelial They are formed by the cells of the reticulo-endothelial system which are present in the lymph nodes ,bone marrow, and system which are present in the lymph nodes ,bone marrow, and spleenspleen..

Sources of plasma proteinsSources of plasma proteins11 - -Diet proteins;Diet proteins; proteins of food with high biological value proteins of food with high biological value..

22--Tissue proteinsTissue proteins; Which are three types ;; Which are three types ; labile labile proteinsproteins ; ; immediately after hemorrhage .within one hour .these proteins immediately after hemorrhage .within one hour .these proteins moves from liver and tissues to plasmamoves from liver and tissues to plasma. .

--Reserve proteins;Reserve proteins; These are present in liver and tissues .and These are present in liver and tissues .and slowly change to plasma protein within a few daysslowly change to plasma protein within a few days..

--FIXED Cell protein ;FIXED Cell protein ; They form a part of cell protoplasm and can They form a part of cell protoplasm and can not be changed into plasma proteins at allnot be changed into plasma proteins at all..

Function of plasma proteinsFunction of plasma proteins11 - -Blood ClottingBlood Clotting ; Fibrinogen and prothrombin are ; Fibrinogen and prothrombin are

essential for blood clotting .plasminogen removes the essential for blood clotting .plasminogen removes the old blood clotsold blood clots..

22 - -Regulation of blood volume:Regulation of blood volume: the colloidal the colloidal osmotic pressure of plasma proteins is about 25 osmotic pressure of plasma proteins is about 25 mmhg through their colloidal osmotic pressure they mmhg through their colloidal osmotic pressure they tend to absorb fluids into blood against the filtrating tend to absorb fluids into blood against the filtrating force of capillary blood pressure 10-40 mmhg which force of capillary blood pressure 10-40 mmhg which has the opposite effect. Therefore they regulate the has the opposite effect. Therefore they regulate the exchange of fluids between the plasma and tissue exchange of fluids between the plasma and tissue

fluidsfluids. . 33 - -Defensive functionDefensive function::

Gamma globulin contains the immune bodies Gamma globulin contains the immune bodies (antibodies) they protect the body against (antibodies) they protect the body against microorganism and toxinsmicroorganism and toxins

44--Viscosity of the blood ;Viscosity of the blood ; Fibrinogen are responsible for Fibrinogen are responsible for viscosity of the plasma ,this viscosity helps in keeping viscosity of the plasma ,this viscosity helps in keeping

normal arterial blood pressurenormal arterial blood pressure. . Buffering action;This important in regulation of ph of the bloodBuffering action;This important in regulation of ph of the blood

55 - -Maintenance of normal capillary ;Maintenance of normal capillary ; the protein the protein partially blocks the pore of cement substance which leads to partially blocks the pore of cement substance which leads to stabilization of intracellular cement substancestabilization of intracellular cement substance..

66 - -Diet reserve;Diet reserve; the plasma proteins are dynamic the plasma proteins are dynamic structure ,they are constantly utilized by the tissues specially structure ,they are constantly utilized by the tissues specially

during starvationduring starvation. .

77--Carries;Carries; SO prevents loss of such important substances in SO prevents loss of such important substances in urine as hormones ,vitamins metalsurine as hormones ,vitamins metals. .

88 - -Regulation of erytherocytic sedimentation rateRegulation of erytherocytic sedimentation rate

Red blood cells( Erythrocytes)Red blood cells( Erythrocytes)Red blood cells are circular biconcave discs, non –nucleated and contain a Red blood cells are circular biconcave discs, non –nucleated and contain a high percentage of hemoglobin , which is an important respiratory pigmenthigh percentage of hemoglobin , which is an important respiratory pigment..

Normal valueNormal value::55 million per cubic mm in an adult male.& 4.5 million per cubic million per cubic mm in an adult male.& 4.5 million per cubic

mm in an adult femalemm in an adult female..It is higher in infants and lower in growing children and old It is higher in infants and lower in growing children and old personspersonsIt is increased in athletes and at high altitudesIt is increased in athletes and at high altitudes..

Shape:Shape: Circular biconcave ,Thus large surface area in relation to Circular biconcave ,Thus large surface area in relation to volume which helps O2 & Co2 diffusion across red blood cellsvolume which helps O2 & Co2 diffusion across red blood cells

Structure of the red blood cell:Structure of the red blood cell:

Red blood cell contain 60% Red blood cell contain 60% water,34%HB.and 6% stoma and inorganic water,34%HB.and 6% stoma and inorganic substances. substances. ,They also contain carbonic anhydrase ,They also contain carbonic anhydrase enzymes and k+,mg+ ,na+ and cl- ions.enzymes and k+,mg+ ,na+ and cl- ions.WallWall: is semi permeable membrane, which : is semi permeable membrane, which is plastic it can be momentarily deformed is plastic it can be momentarily deformed when squeezed in the narrow capillaries.when squeezed in the narrow capillaries.

The stoma consists of protein, phospholipids and The stoma consists of protein, phospholipids and cholesterol. It also contains the specific agglutinogen cholesterol. It also contains the specific agglutinogen for blood grouping and the enzyme ATP-ase for the for blood grouping and the enzyme ATP-ase for the electrolyte pump.electrolyte pump.

Inorganic substance present in RBC are mainly Inorganic substance present in RBC are mainly potassium & chloride .However ,small amount of potassium & chloride .However ,small amount of sodium ,magnesium and HCO3 are present.. ,sodium ,magnesium and HCO3 are present.. ,

Osmotic fragilityOsmotic fragility::

When RBC are placed in hypotonic solutions, they When RBC are placed in hypotonic solutions, they osmotically withdraw water , swell and become osmotically withdraw water , swell and become spherical ,then they burst and the HB is set free. This spherical ,then they burst and the HB is set free. This is called hemolysis.is called hemolysis.

In normal blood hemolysis start at a nacl In normal blood hemolysis start at a nacl concenteration of 0.44% and is completed at a concenteration of 0.44% and is completed at a concentration 0.26%concentration 0.26%

Functions of the RBCsFunctions of the RBCs: :

Function of the RBC MemberaneFunction of the RBC Memberane;;11 - -It allow the RBC to pass through the narrowest It allow the RBC to pass through the narrowest

capillary due to its plasticitycapillary due to its plasticity. . 22--The biconcavity of the membrane give the RBC a The biconcavity of the membrane give the RBC a

large surface area which helps the exchange of gases large surface area which helps the exchange of gases (O2 & CO2)(O2 & CO2)

33 - -It Keeps the enzyme carbonic anhydrase inside the It Keeps the enzyme carbonic anhydrase inside the RBC otherwise it would be lost in urine.this enzyme RBC otherwise it would be lost in urine.this enzyme

is important in co2 carriageis important in co2 carriage. . 44 - -It isIt is semipermiable semipermiable so it regulate the distribution of so it regulate the distribution of

anions- (HB,CL,HCO3) and cations+ ( NA+ ,K+) inside anions- (HB,CL,HCO3) and cations+ ( NA+ ,K+) inside & outside the RBC .& outside the RBC .It is not permeable toIt is not permeable to K K+,HB and +,HB and na+ so k+ kept inside ,na+ outside the RBCna+ so k+ kept inside ,na+ outside the RBC .IT is .IT is permeable to Hpermeable to H ,CL and HCO3.This,CL and HCO3.This is important for is important for keeping the reaction of the blood constant when co2 is keeping the reaction of the blood constant when co2 is added by the tissuesadded by the tissues..

5- The most important functions is keeping HB 5- The most important functions is keeping HB inside the RBC inside the RBC .This is useful because if .This is useful because if HB .IS set free in plasme it:HB .IS set free in plasme it: May be precipitated in the kidney tubules as acid May be precipitated in the kidney tubules as acid heamatin blocking them and produce anuria heamatin blocking them and produce anuria ( stopping of urine formation)( stopping of urine formation)

Cause shift to the left means the HB Give o2 Cause shift to the left means the HB Give o2 with difficulty to the tissues .with difficulty to the tissues .Would be filtrated in bowman capsule and lost in Would be filtrated in bowman capsule and lost in urine .urine .

Origin,life span and fateOrigin,life span and fate In the early embryo;In the early embryo; blood formation take place in the mesoderm of the yolk blood formation take place in the mesoderm of the yolk

sac.sac.

After the third month of the fetal life:After the third month of the fetal life: , spleen & liver act as a blood , spleen & liver act as a blood forming organ.forming organ.

About the middle third and after birth bone marrow become the main sites.About the middle third and after birth bone marrow become the main sites.

However, in adultHowever, in adult,:,: erytheropoiesis take place in the flat bones of the skull, erytheropoiesis take place in the flat bones of the skull, vertebrae,ribs,sternum, proximal ends of the long bone.vertebrae,ribs,sternum, proximal ends of the long bone.

Factor promoting Erytheropoiesis:Factor promoting Erytheropoiesis:

Hypoxia;Hypoxia; Oxygen lack, when sufficiently sever, stimulate red cell formation Oxygen lack, when sufficiently sever, stimulate red cell formation

in the bone marrow and produces erytheropoiesis.in the bone marrow and produces erytheropoiesis.Hypoxia does not stimulate directly the bone marrow but through Hypoxia does not stimulate directly the bone marrow but through

stimulation the erytheropoietin hormonestimulation the erytheropoietin hormone

About 90% of erytheropoietin is formed in the kidney and the About 90% of erytheropoietin is formed in the kidney and the remaining 10% is formed in the liver.remaining 10% is formed in the liver.

Dietary factorsDietary factors::

1-Dietary proteins1-Dietary proteins;;

Protein of high biological value are necessary for Protein of high biological value are necessary for formation of globins part of hem globulin .animal formation of globins part of hem globulin .animal protein presents in the liverprotein presents in the liver , , kidney and meat are kidney and meat are more effective than other protein. also protein of high biological valuemore effective than other protein. also protein of high biological value

2-Iron 2-Iron ;;Iron is important for , myoglobulin in the muscle and other substance.adequate amount of Iron is important for , myoglobulin in the muscle and other substance.adequate amount of

iron present in mixed diet formation of HBiron present in mixed diet formation of HB

3-3-copper and coblt:copper and coblt:Copper is essentialCopper is essential for hemoglobin synthesis in mammals. for hemoglobin synthesis in mammals.CobaltCobalt is essential for sheep and cattle . is essential for sheep and cattle .

4-vitamins;4-vitamins;Vitamin B12:Vitamin B12:This vitamin is called the erytherocyte maturation factor .it needed for the formation of the This vitamin is called the erytherocyte maturation factor .it needed for the formation of the

nucleus of the early RBCnucleus of the early RBC

44 - -Folic acidsFolic acids: : Folate are essential in DNA synthesis and normal cell proliferation .folates are found in many vegetable and in the Folate are essential in DNA synthesis and normal cell proliferation .folates are found in many vegetable and in the

liverliver..

HormonesHormones::Androgens ,thyroxineAndrogens ,thyroxine, it is non specific, it is non specific Specific hormones like erythropoietin hormoneSpecific hormones like erythropoietin hormone..Bone marrowBone marrow::It is the only site in adults for normal erytheropoiesis . When it is destroyed by x rays atomic irradiaion It is the only site in adults for normal erytheropoiesis . When it is destroyed by x rays atomic irradiaion

or toxins .all types of blood cells are not formed ( Aplastic Anaemia)or toxins .all types of blood cells are not formed ( Aplastic Anaemia)..

Liver Liver : Healthy liver is essential for normal erytheropoiesis because it helps : Healthy liver is essential for normal erytheropoiesis because it helps in the manufacture of globin of Hb. In diseases of the liver anemia occuresin the manufacture of globin of Hb. In diseases of the liver anemia occures