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A P U B L I C AT I O N O F T H E N AT I O N A L A S S O C I AT I O N F O R B I L I N G U A L E D U C AT I O N
Perspectives
P L U S :
J A N UA RY - M A R C H 2014
P L U S : The Critical Issue of Girls’ Education in Pakistan: Challenges and Promises
Use of Asian & Asian-American Children’s Stories in ESL Classes
Reaching the Bilingual Bicultural Mind in the Science Classroom
Shaping Our Global Future
Advocating for Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Reach Thousands of Bilingual Education Professionals! Advertise in NABE’s Perspectives!Perspectives, a publication of the National Association of Bilingual Education, is read by nearly 20,000 educators and administrators. These readers possess significant purchasing power. Many are responsible for procuring the full range of educational materials, products, and services for use in linguistically and culturally diverse learning environments.
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Perspectives is published in four issues each year, according to the following schedule of publication/mailing date:Issue 1: January-MarchIssue 2: April-JuneIssue 3: July-SeptemberIssue 4: October-December
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Contributing to PerspectivesGUIDELINES FOR WRITERSNABE's Perspectives is published six times a year on a bimonthly basis. We welcome well written and well researched articles on subjects of interest to our readers. While con-tinuing to address issues facing NABE mem-bers, Perspectives aims to meet the growing demand for information about bilingual education programs and the children they serve. It is a magazine not only for veteran educators of Bilingual and English language learners but also for mainstream teachers, school administrators, elected officials, and interested members of the public.
Articles for Perspectives must be original, concise, and accessible, with minimal use of jargon or acronyms. References, charts, and tables are permissible, although these too should be kept to a minimum. Effective articles begin with a strong “lead” paragraph that entices the reader, rather than assuming interest in the subject. They develop a few themes clearly, without undue repetition or wandering off on tangents.
The Perspectives editors are eager to receive manuscripts on a wide range of topics related to Bilingual and English learner programs, including curriculum and instruction, effectiveness studies, professional development, school finance, parental involvement, and legislative agendas. We also wel-come personal narratives and reflective essays with which readers can identify on a human as well as a professional level.
Researchers are encouraged to describe their work and make it relevant to practitioners. Strictly academic articles, however, are not appropriate for Perspectives and should be sub-mitted instead to the Bilingual Research Journal. No commercial submissions will be accepted.
TYPES OF ARTICLESEach issue of Perspectives usually contains three or four feature articles of approximately 2,000 – 2,500 words, often related to a central theme.
Reviews are much shorter (500 – 750 words in length), describing and evaluating popular or professional books, curriculum guides,
textbooks, computer programs, plays, movies, and videos of interest to educators of English language learners. Manuscripts written or spon-sored by publishers of the work being reviewed are not accepted. Book reviews and articles should be emailed to:
Dr. José Agustín [email protected]
Columns are Asian and Pacific Islander Education and Indigenous Bilingual Education. (If you have other ideas for a regular column, please let us know.) These articles are somewhat shorter in length (1,000 – 1,500 words, and should be emailed to one of the editors below:
Asian and Pacific Islander Education Dr. Clara C. Park: [email protected]
Indigenous Bilingual EducationDr. Jon Allen ReyhneR: [email protected]
PREPARING ARTICLES FOR SUBMISSIONManuscripts to be considered for the September/October issue must be received by July 15. Manuscripts to be considered for the
November/December issue must be received by September 15. Reference style should con-form to Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Articles and reviews should be submitted electronically to NABE’s Editor, Dr. José Agustín Ruiz-Escalante at [email protected] in a Microsoft Word file, 11 point, Times New Roman, double-spaced. Be sure to include your name, affiliation, e-mail address, phone and fax numbers.
Photographs and artwork related to the manu-script are encouraged. Please include the name of the photographer or source, along with notes explaining the photos and artwork, and written permission to use them. Photographs should be submitted as separate TIFF, or JPEG/JPG files, not as images imported into Microsoft Word or any other layout format. Resolution of 300 dpi or higher at actual size preferred, a minimum pixel dimension of 1200 x 1800 is required. (Images copied from a web page browser display are only 72 dpi in resolution and are generally not accept-able.) When in doubt, clean hard-copy images may be mailed for scanning by our design staff.
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NAT IONAL OFF ICE :
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Silver Spring, MD. 20910
Telephone: (240) 450-3700
Fax: (240) 450-3799
www.nabe.orgJ A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 4 ● V O L U M E 3 6 , I S S U E 1
PerspectivesPublished by the National Association
for Bilingual Education
EDITOR
DR. JOSÉ AGUSTÍN RUIZ-ESCALANTE,THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS – PAN AMERICAN
CO-EDITOR
DR. MARÍA GUADALUPE ARREGUÍN-ANDERSON,THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT SAN ANTONIO
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
DR. EIRINI GOULETAGEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY
ASIAN AND PACIFIC ISLANDER COLUMN EDITOR
DR. CLARA C. PARK,CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY-NORTHRIDGE
INDIGENOUS BILINGUAL EDUCATION COLUMN EDITOR
DR. JON ALLAN REYHNER,NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY
DESIGN & LAYOUT:
WINKING FISH
PRINT AND EDITORIAL POLICYReaders are welcome to reprint
noncopyrighted articles that appear in Perspectives at no charge, provided proper credit is given both to the author(s) and to
Perspectives as the source publication.
All articles printed in Perspectives, unless written by an Association staff person or a member of the current NABE Executive Board of Directors, are solely the opinion
of the author or authors, and do not represent the official policy or position of the National Association for Bilingual
Education. Selection of articles for inclusion in Perspectives is not an official endorsement by NABE of the point(s) of
view expressed therein.
Contents■ Cover StoryShaping Our Global FutureAdvocating for Bilingualism and Multilingualismby Yee Wan, Ed.D., and Angelica Ramsey, Ed.D. ..............................................................5
■ Columns & Articles
The Critical Issue of Girls’ Education in PakistanChallenges and Promisesby Eirini Gouleta, George Mason University ..............................................9
Use of Asian & Asian-American Children’s Stories in ESL ClassesClara C. Park, California State University ............................................12
Reaching the Bilingual Bicultural Mind in the Science Classroom Roberto Petingi, White Plains School District, White Plains, NY ......................14
Review of Generating Transworld Pedagogy: Reimagining La Clase Mágica María E. Torres-Guzman, Teachers’ College, Columbia University ..............................17
When the Professional Gets PersonalCarrying the Torch of Bilingualism into Our HomesMary Amanda (Mandy) Stewart, Texas Woman’s University ..............................18
Review of Lado a LadoReviewed by twins Lina and Paola Casas, 7-year-old 1st graders, Vineyard Ranch, Elementary Dual Language Program, North East Independent School District and Ellen Riojas Clark, The University of Texas at San Antonio ........................21
Instructional Advocacy for English LearnersThe Role of a Teacher Leader in Breaking Down Traditional High School Silos Felice Atesoglu Russell, Kennesaw State University & Jill Weseman Klune, Highline Public Schools, Burien, WA ....................22
The Abandoned American Indian of the U.S. by Dale Schlundt ..................................26
■ DepartmentsContributing to Perspectives - Guidelines for Writers .......................................................2
Letter from the President ..............................................................................................4
NABE EXECUTIVE BOARD2 0 1 3 - 2 0 1 4
PRESIDENTLeo Gómez, Ph.D.
PO Box 420Edinburg, TX 78540H: (956)[email protected]
VICE PRESIDENTJulio Cruz, Ed.D.
9715 Woods Drive Apt. 1705Skokie, IL 60077
H: (773)-369-4810
TREASURERJosé Agustín Ruiz-Escalante, Ed.D.
UT Pan American3740 Frontier DriveEdinburg, TX 78539C: (956)[email protected]
SECRETARY
Mariella Espinoza-Herold, Ph.D.Northern Arizona University
P.O. Box 5774Flagstaff, AZ 86011W: (480)-897-2473
MEMBER-AT-LARGEMinh-Anh Hodge, Ed.D.Tacoma School District
P.O. Box 1357Tacoma, WA 98401W: (253)-571-1415F: (253)-571-1232
MEMBER-AT-LARGEYee Wan, Ed.D.
Director, Multilingual Education ServicesSanta Clara County Office of Education
1290 Ridder Park Drive, MC237San Jose, CA 95131-2304
W. (408)-453-6825F: (408)[email protected]
MEMBER-AT-LARGE
Eudes BudhaiWestbury Public School District
2 Hitchcock LaneOld Westbury, NY 11568
W: (516)-874-1833 F: (516)-874-1826
MEMBER-AT-LARGEMargarita P. Pinkos, Ed.D.
Executive DirectorDepartment of Multicultural Education
3388 Forest Hill Boulevard, Suite A 204West Palm Beach, FL 33411
W: (561)-434-8010F: (561)-434-8074
MEMBER-AT-LARGEJosie Tinajero, Ed.D.
Dean College of EducationThe University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, TX 79968W: (915)-747-5572F: (915)[email protected]
PARENT REPRESENTATIVE
Maria Angelica MeyerDirector, 2nd Language Acquisition
& Adult Learning CenterWestbury Public Schools
2 Hitchcock LaneOld Westbury, NY 11568
W: (516)-874-1833F: (516)-874-1826
EXECUTIVE DIRECTORSantiago V. Wood, Ed.D.
8701 Georgia Ave, Suite 700Silver Spring, MD 20910
W: (240)-450-3700F: (240)-450-3799
Letter from the President Dr. Leo Gómez
NABE Board President
Dear NABE Members,
NABE is on the move! NABE continues to engage in high-level meetings in Washington DC and collaborate with other national organizations to represent the interests of all Dual Language Learners (DLLs) and families at the national level. A successful meeting was held with the new Deputy Secretary of Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA), Dr. Libia Gil in December and NABE, and she joined us in the conference in San Diego.
There are several initiatives that will gain NABE notoriety and international attention as it continues to expand its horizon and service.
◗◗ NABE has established the NABE Corporate Advisory Council: NABE has begun the process of an “advisory council” made up of corporate business partners (ATT, Dell, etc.) whose purpose is to “partner” with NABE to fund critical NABE initiatives. More to come in later issues as this concept unfolds.
◗◗ NABE has established a NABE Legislative Liaison (pro-bono) to keep the Board apprised of ongoing activity in federal and state legislatures. We want to recognize Dr. Arnhild Badia, Florida for serving in this capacity and for her commitment to NABE. This will better prepare NABE to act quickly in legislative matters.
◗◗ NABE has established the NABE/Rourke Educational Media Partnership that affords NABE the opportunity to expand its outreach for high quality professional development focused on enriched instructional practices and dual immersion programs together with culturally relevant and rich learning materials.
◗◗ NABE is exploring the idea of offering National Certification in Bilingual/Dual Language Enrichment Education. NABE recognizes that need and opportunities for certification in many parts of the country that do not provide this through the respective state or region.
NABE continues to lead educational reform focused on children receiving an education in two languages through Dual Language Enrichment (DLE) programs versus traditional remedial programs. This paradigm shift recognizes that DLE is the most effective instruc-tional model for educating DLLs. NABE is also leading the effort to promote and approve state-level Seals of Biliteracy in all states highlighting the value of biliteracy for all children! To date, six states have approved such measures: California, Texas, Ilinois, and New York, Washington, and New Mexio
Finally, NABE is proud to announce Las Vegas, Nevada as its 2015 conference site and Chicago, Illinois as its 2016 site! NABE is getting stronger and we are there to serve you!
Sincerely,
Dr. Leo GómezNABE President
N AB E PERSPECT IVES ★ J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 44
Smart phones, tablets, MP3 Players, Facebook and Twitter are among popu-lar mobile devices and social media that young learners in countries all over the world use on a daily basis. In this era of globalization, the use of advanced tech-nology has dramatically shifted the way people communicate. People can access information and communicate with oth-ers around the world instantly, regard-less of geographic location or common culture, thus changing their outlook on what is possible in life. People are real-izing that bilingualism and multilingual-ism are communication and diplomatic assets in social, economic and global markets. As young learners interact daily with others on the Internet, they are very likely to encounter others who do not necessarily speak their language. To encourage young people to explore the world more fully and to prepare our students for the global future, it is important to support bilingual and multilingual skills, which are essential to their success.
Educating for Global Competence: Creating Opportunities for All StudentsThe benefits of knowing a second or third language go beyond the personal conve-niences of being able to communicate with family members, traveling to different parts of the world and finding jobs. Bilingual and multilingual citizens make greater
contributions to society in general. When someone learns to speak another language, their learning goes beyond grammatical rules. They develop cultural appreciation and understanding of the new language, while continuing to deepen awareness of their own language and culture. In the 21st century, being bilingual or multilingual is essential to becom-ing a globally competent citizen. The
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO, 2002) Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity encourages “the learning of several languages from the earliest age” (p.6). As recently as March 2013, language and international study advocate William P. Rivers stated that “Language is the oil of the 21st century,” (Morones, 2013, p.1). Yet statistics show that U.S. citizens have fallen behind in com-parison to citizens of other nations in their pursuit of foreign language study and in confidence using a second language. The 2006 European Commission study, Europeans and Their Languages, reported that 54% of the people age 15 or older in
If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to
his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.
— Nelson Mandela
Shaping Our Global Future: Advocating for Bilingualism and Multilingualismby Yee Wan and Angelica Ramsey
Benefits of Second Language Learning
Academic Achievement
◗z Academic achievement in other subjects increased
◗z Higher academic levels on standardized tests achieved
◗z Skills from one language to another transferred
◗z Chances of college acceptance, achievement and attainment improved
Cognitive Ability
◗z Flexibility in thinking and problem solving ability enhanced
◗z Reasoning, multi-tasking and memory skills improved
◗z Age related mental decline such as Alzheimer’s and dementia delayed
Language and Cultural Understanding
◗z Cultural awareness and competency enhanced
◗z Empathy for other groups across the world developed
◗z A more positive attitude toward the target second language and/or the speakers of that language developed
◗z One’s world view and cross cultural understanding expanded
◗z Stronger understanding of one’s native culture and language skills increased
Career Opportunities
◗z Career opportunities enhanced
Source: Adapted from Regarding World Language Education (NEA Research).
J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 4 ★ N AB E P ERSPECT I VES 5
the 25 European Union nations asserted that they could speak at least one language in addition to their “native tongue” at the conversational level. In contrast, only 10% of native born U.S. citizens feel comfort-able conversing in a language other than English (U.S. Census, 2010). The European Commission (2012) stated that, “Europeans have very positive attitudes towards mul-tilingualism, and 88% of them think that knowing languages other than their mother tongue is very useful. Almost every European (98%) considers mastering for-eign languages useful for the future of their children” (European Commission, 2012, p.141). In the United States, most states do not require foreign language study. New Jersey and the District of Columbia are the only two systems that require all K-12 students to take a world language (Wang, et al, 2010). In fact, American public schools offering foreign language instruction have decreased at the elementary level from 24 to 15% and middle school level from 75 to 58% between 1997 and 2008 (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 2011). Twenty-four industrialized coun-tries participated in a national survey of language study that asked if students were required to study at least one additional language. Twenty-one countries responded that the study of an additional language was
compulsory. The United States is one of a few countries that did not require students to study a foreign language. “Our national language gap,” Arne Duncan said, amounts to a “high-stakes issue” (Schmid, 2013).
Efforts that Promote Bilingualism and MultilingualismWhile some educators have expressed chal-lenges in establishing bilingual programs or foreign language courses in schools, there are several exemplary state and local initiatives that actively promote students in developing bilingual and multilingual skills.
State and Local Seal of Biliteracy Awards Californians Together is the non-profit orga-nization that initiated the Seal of Biliteracy movement, resulting in California being the first state in the nation to pass legisla-tion recognizing graduating seniors who are proficient in English and one or more additional languages. On October 8, 2011, Governor Jerry Brown signed AB 815 (Brownley) into law, creating the State Seal of Biliteracy program. Californians Together has been working with school districts across the state to create Seal of Biliteracy pro-grams since 2009. For more information on how to start the Seal of Biliteracy program, please visit http://www.californianstogether.org/reports/. The National Association
for Bilingual Education (NABE) formally endorsed the Seal of Biliteracy initiative in 2012. The NABE commendation states that “The Seal of Biliteracy recognition was initiated by Californians Together and it fully aligns with NABE’s commitment to excellence in bilingualism and biliteracy education through programs, professional development, and advocacy that value native language, respect cultural and linguistic diversity, and lead to academic success” (NABE, 2012). To date, more than 170 school dis-tricts and county offices of education have adopted the Seal of Biliteracy program. In the 2012-13 school year, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction awarded more than 20,000 Seals of Biliteracy to graduating seniors. New York and Illinois have since passed legislation for their own state Seal of Biliteracy programs. These states are to be commended for their leadership, and for advocating for and pro-viding opportunities for our students to receive a world-class education.
Utah Dual Language Immersion ProgramIn 2008, Utah’s legislators passed the Critical Language Program. This legislation created a series of initiatives that lead to the expansion of dual language immersion programs starting at the elementary level. In fact, the state also developed the Utah Language Roadmap for the 21st Century, a comprehensive education plan that will pre-pare generations of Utah’s students to enter a changing global economy. As he toured Park City Dual Immersion Program, Dr. Larry K. Shumway, Utah State Superintendent of Public Instruction, stated that “With Dual Immersion, we have a way forward to ensure that Utah students are acquiring the skills, knowledge and dispositions necessary to be competi-tive in the world marketplace” (Utah State Office of Education Video, 2011). Utah’s Dual Language Immersion program offers a rich bilingual experience for young learners when their minds are develop-mentally best able to acquire a second language. Instruction is divided between two high-quality, creative classrooms: one in English and the other in the second language (Chinese, French, Portuguese or Spanish). In the current school year, there
“We should have EVERY CHILD speaking
MORE THAN one language!”
—President Barack Obama
N AB E PERSPECT IVES ★ J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 46
are 98 Dual Language Immersion schools that offer second language opportunities for elementary school students. Utah’s governor set a goal that “by 2015, there will be 100 schools impacting 30,000 students” (Utah State Office of Education Video, 2011). For more information on the Utah Dual Immersion Program, please visit http://www.schools.utah.gov/curr/dualimmersion/.
Biliteracy and World Languages Communications ToolkitThe Santa Clara County Office of Education has created a communications toolkit aimed at promoting and support-ing equitable access to high quality educa-tion for all students. This initiative actively promotes the value of multilingualism and supports districts as they establish biliteracy pathway award programs. The toolkit includes a variety of resources. Included are: (a) a publica-tion addressing frequently asked questions including, “Why should students learn a second language?” and “What are Pathway Awards?” (b) video clips containing testi-monials of students, parents, researchers, superintendents and school board members, (c) PowerPoint files to use in presenting awareness sessions for various audiences, and (d) a webpage with current online resources. These resources are designed for interested individuals who want to learn more about the benefits of bilingualism and multilin-gualism, establishing awards programs and expanding second language learning oppor-tunities for all students. The toolkit initia-tive has the potential to move us forward in closing the achievement gap for traditionally
underserved students. All students, regardless of their language background, can succeed in learning another language and culture. In addition, this initiative cre-ates possibilities for building awareness regarding the value of biliteracy and multilingual-ism in the community, encour-aging maintenance of home language and the study of additional languages, highlighting the importance of language in developing global compe-tence and increasing world language learn-ing opportunities. More information about the toolkit can be found at http://mes.sccoe.org/bwlct/home/Pages/default.aspx.
Recommendations for District Administrators and School Board MembersDistrict administrators and school board members can support students in attain-ing bilingual and multilingual skills by establishing: ◗◗ board policy for award programs that
encourage students to learn second and/or third languages;
◗◗ board policy for foreign language require-ments;
◗◗ bilingual programs and world language offerings;
◗◗ outreach programs that communicate the benefits of bilingualism and multilingual-ism and the course pathways for students, parents, teachers, counselors and commu-nity members;
1. Determine purpose of and commitment to award program
2. Survey stakeholders
3. Inform parents and community members of the benefits of learning multiple languages through meetings and newsletters
4. Establish a representative/advisory committee
◗z clarify purpose and rationale of the recognition
◗z determine awards and their achievement levels
◗z define award criteria
◗z draft board policy or resolution
5. Seek input on drafts of criteria and board policy/resolution from stakeholder groups
6. Present resolution for school board approval
7. Develop evaluation rubrics and process to determine the award criteria
8. Create the processes for identifying eligible students and identifying district staff for implementing the award programs
9. Establish budget to include testing and personnel costs, materials, monitoring costs, certificates and awards
10. Establish an outreach plan about the award program
11. Design and present awards
Suggested steps for district administrators and school board members for establishing biliteracy award programs in districts:
J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 4 ★ N AB E P ERSPECT I VES 7
◗◗ pathway courses that lead students to attain bilingualism when they graduate from high school; and
◗◗ policies to ensure that instructional mate-rials are available in other languages.
Recommendations for TeachersTeachers might emphasize these areas through daily instruction:◗◗ show interest in learning another lan-
guage and culture;◗◗ make reference to the benefits of learning
a different language and culture when appropriate;
◗◗ use primary language resources whenever available;
◗◗ ensure that materials in multiple languag-es are available in the classroom; and
◗◗ ask students to share practices from their cultures or teach classmates words in their primary language when appropriate.
Recommendations for ParentsParents are highly encouraged to share these ideas with their child at home:◗◗ show interest in learning another lan-
guage and culture;◗◗ attend community or family cultural
events together;◗◗ discuss the benefits of knowing more
than one language with their child; and◗◗ check out library books in the second
target language that their child is learning.
Next StepsFor today’s young learners skilled in using mobile devices and social media, it is crucial they possess bilingual and cross-cultural communication skills for the 21st century global market. To be a leader in the global-ized world, the United States must invest in educating students to achieve the skills found in globally competent individuals who are innovative and collaborative critical
thinkers. A pillar for building our students’ global competencies is the development of bilingual and multilingual skills, as language is a major vehicle for learning academic content and demonstrating learning. There is urgency for schools to offer world lan-guage instruction to produce 21st century learning outcomes. Our world is globally, multiculturally, multilingually and digitally connected. We have the obligation to ensure that our students receive a world-class edu-cation so they may possess effective cross-cultural communication skills and the ability to understand different perspectives, appre-ciating other cultures and laying a strong foundation for world peace and a stronger global future. ★
AcknowledgmentsSpecial thanks to these individuals who have provided valuable feedback in the research and writing of this article: Rhonda Beasley, Ken Blackstone, Melissa Christie, Denise Giacomini, Sylvia Solis, Carol Tanton, Lorena Tariba, Erin Vidal, Janet Welch, Donna Wheelehan and Rachel Zlotziver.
Yee Wan, Ed.D., is the Project Lead of the Biliteracy and Communications Toolkit and A Look at Learning Project, an award winning comprehensive professional development sys-tem for supporting English learners’ achieve-ment. She is Director of Multilingual Programs at the Santa Clara County Office of Education. She is also a NABE executive board member.
Angelica M. Ramsey, Ed.D., began her career teaching English Learners on the Texas-México border. She currently leads the Education Services Branch at the Santa Clara County Office of Education as the Chief Academic Officer. She also serves as the English Learner liaison for the California County Superintendents Educational Services Association’s Curriculum and Instruction Steering Committee.
ReferencesAmerican Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.
(2011). Foreign language enrollments in K-12 public schools: Are students prepared for a global society. Retrieved from
http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. What does the research show about the benefits of language learning? Retrieved from http://www.actfl.org/advocacy/discover-languages/what-the-research-shows
European Commission. (2012). Europeans and their languages: Special Eurobarometer 386. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf
Morones, A. (2013, October). Advocates seek more focus on learning foreign languages. Education Week, (33)7, 7.
National Association for Bilingual Education. (2012). The National Association for Bilingual Education formally endorses California’s Seal of Biliteracy. Retrieved fromhttp://www.californianstogether.org/reports/
National Education Association, Regarding World Language Education. (2007). The benefits of second language study. Retrieved from http://www.sde.ct.gov/sde/lib/sde/PDF/Curriculum/Curriculum_Root_Web_Folder/BenefitsofSecondLanguage.pdf
Schmid, J. (2013, October 28). Manpower tries to help businesses bridge language gap. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved from http://www.jsonline.com/business/manpower-tries-to-help-businesses-bridge-language-gap-b99127023z1-229602521.html
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2002). Universal declaration on cultural diversity. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001271/127162e.pdf
Utah State Office of Education. (2013). Critical languages: Dual language immersion education appropriations report. Retrieved from http://www.schools.utah.gov/legislativematerials/2013/Critical_Language_Dual_Immersion_Legislative_Repor.aspx
Utah State Office of Education (Producer). (2011). Utah dual immersion [Video]. Available from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTG0YFU8vWA
Utah State Office of Education, (2009). Utah language roadmap for the 21st century. Retrieved from http://www.schools.utah.gov/CURR/dualimmersion/Home/Utah-Language-Road-for-the-21st-Century.aspx
Wang, S. C., Jackson, F. H., Mana, M., Liau, R., & Evans, B. (2010). Resource guide to developing linguistic and cultural competency in the United States. College Park, MD: National Foreign Language Center at the University of Maryland. Retrieved from http://www.nflc.org/publications/the_teachers_we_need_Resource_Guide.pdf
For today’s young learners skilled in using mobile devices and social media,
it is crucial they possess bilingual and cross-cultural communication skills for
the 21st century global market.
N AB E PERSPECT IVES ★ J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 48
BackgroundAlthough evidence in the past 15 years indi-cates that girls’ education in the developing world “has been a story of progress” (Lloyd, 2011b), globally 39 million primary school age girls (70% from most disadvantaged communities), have never been to school (Lewis and Lockhead, 2007). Girls’ education is particularly chal-lenging in South Asian countries and the progress to date is uneven: in Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan enrol-ment of girls has remained problematic indicating great gender disparities. In Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, although gender parity in enrolment has been achieved, other forms of exclusion of girls still exist including in vocational and higher education. Provision of education for girls is not universally available, poverty and socio-cultural factors remain barriers, and national budgets are not sufficient to pro-vide good quality education for all girls in the region (Chitrakar, 2009). In Afghanistan, girls’ education still faces massive challenges especially in the rural and remote areas. Lack of female teachers and infrastructure, and safety are key obstacles. Special measures and incentives including for higher education are needed to bring more girls to school and narrow the gender gap (Chitrakar, 2009). In Bangladesh, the government and civil society organizations have improved girls’ education significantly. Access for both boys and girls is no longer an issue but quality of
education and low achievement especially by girls, must now be addressed (Chitrakar, 2009). The girls’ stipend program, for example, now extended up to secondary and higher secondary education has been controversial as it has been found success-ful in some areas but counterproductive in rural areas of the country (Baulch, 2010; Chitrakar, 2009; Raynor, 2006). In Bhutan, almost an equal number of boys and girls attend primary education. Girls’ participation in vocational and techni-cal education is still very low (only 33%) and less than 1% of teachers are female. Girls’ social roles remain subordinate of those of boys. The country needs to invest more in promoting quality girls’ education (Chitrakar, 2009). In India, although great gains have been achieved, inequality still remains especially among the marginalized, the rural, and the poor. Enrollment rates are high but the qual-ity of learning is very low. There is a great need for policies and practices to promote active learning pedagogy (Chitrakar, 2009). In Maldives, universal primary education and attainment of adult literacy have been achieved. The challenge remains for girls’ participation in post-primary education as some rural areas and islands do not offer secondary school. The same is the case with higher education. Although the Maldives has almost the highest ratio of female-headed households in the world, supportive policies for women and girls still lag behind (Chitrakar, 2009).
In Nepal, the education system is guided by decentralization. School Management Committees are authorized to achieve their educational goals through the design and implementation of a School Improvement Plan (SIP). Although basic education is viewed as a fundamental right of every child, gender is often ignored by SIPs. More work needs to be done especially in supporting poor parents to send their girls to school and by provid-ing second chance opportunities for illiterate adults and drop-outs to participate in literacy and vocational programs (Chitrakar, 2009). Girls’ Education in PakistanPakistan, a federal parliamentary republic consisted of four provinces and four federal territories with a population of over 176 million is a very diverse country ethnically, culturally, linguistically, educationally and socioeconomically. It is one of the countries where girls are disadvantaged compared to boys in both primary and secondary educa-tion. With female enrolment 16 % below that of males, Pakistan is the third country (following India and Nigeria) with the larg-est number of out of primary school girls—about 4.2 million (UIS, 2010). The past several years, the Government of Pakistan developed favorable policies (the National Education Policy of 2009, the Education Sector Reforms, the National Education for All (EFA) Plan 2000-2015, and the insertion of Article 25a in the Constitution) and has initiated efforts to improve the education of children and, in
The Critical Issue of Girls’ Education in Pakistan: Challenges and Promisesby Eirini Gouleta, Associate Professor of International Education and ESL, George Mason University, Fairfax Virginia
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particular, the participation of girls in pri-mary school. And there has been a signifi-cant incremental improvement over the years in bringing and keeping more girls in school. However, in Pakistan the allocated bud-get to education is well below the average of South Asian countries. The Gender Equality Education Index (GEEI) is the lowest in the region. Government education spending can be more effective in reducing the gender gap in education by improving targeting the poor while addressing the constraints that prevent under-privileged girls accessing available ser-vices (Chitrakar, 2009; Sabir, 2002). The problem still remains huge, espe-cially in rural, remote, and in the northern areas of the country. For example, an analy-sis of social barriers for rural girls in Pakistan reveals a substantial decrease in primary school enrolment rates for girls who have to cross hamlet boundaries to attend, irrespec-tive of school distance, a school located in a neighborhood with high-caste households (this is not the case for boys). Low caste girls benefit from improved school access only when the school is also caste-concordant (Hanan and Ghazala, 2011). The most disadvantaged group in get-ting equal opportunities to enroll to and complete school falls in the intersection between gender and marginalization: being girl, being poor, being disable, belonging to a linguistic, religious, or cultural minority, and living in a rural area. Although in Pakistan about 61-72 dif-ferent languages are spoken, the language of instruction in schools is Urdu or English fol-lowed by Sindhi and Pashto leaving 91-95% of the country’s children without opportu-nity to receive education in their mother tongue (Coleman, 2010). This presents a great disadvantage for poor language minor-ity children and especially for girls and nearly 20% of children (52% girls) aged 3-16 years are out-of-school in rural areas. The majority of these children have never been to school (ASER, 2011).
Efforts to Improve Girls’ Education in Pakistan’s ProvincesWith the devolution of power to the prov-inces, the implementation of educational reforms has become the responsibility of the provincial governments which often do not have the organizational and technical capac-ity to successfully deliver results. However,
all provincial governments have taken some action so far to improve the education of girls. They have initiated projects to increase girls’ enrolment, attendance, and perfor-mance but a systematic review to determine what has worked well and identify optimal levels of incentives for girls and parents needs to be undertaken (Shakil, 2004). The government of Punjab has initiated stipends for girls’ lower secondary schools, free textbooks for all primary school chil-dren, improvement of facilities, facility-based contract teachers, and promotion of public private partnerships through the Punjab Education Foundation (PEF). The govern-ment of Sindh has been providing free text-books to primary school children and schol-arships to girls in lower secondary school. The government of Baluchistan has focused on improving the delivery of social services, increasing budgetary allocations to education, improving teaching qualities by strengthening teacher training programs, reducing rural urban and gender disparities, mobilizing communities, developing public private partnerships, and improving school management. There are many organizations engaged in girls’ education and networking and coordination amongst them is crucial. For example, fellowship community schools programs in Baluchistan in the 1990’s were a success story; about 1,400 community man-aged schools were integrated into the public system. Similar programs were developed around the same time and in the northern areas and community based programs run today in most of the provinces. Especially in remote areas and scattered communities such innovative strategies can make a difference and meet a great need (Shakil, 2004). In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan’s Northern Frontier Province, girls remain one of the most disadvantaged student groups in the country as conflict and insurgency, prevailing poverty, high rural population, gender and cultural practices, reliance on girls’ labor for household and other chores, and the lower number of girls’ schools and female teachers present a great challenge for both access and quality of education. Some of the reasons for low girl enrolment and high drop-out rates as they are documented in KP’s Education Sector Plan (ESP, 2012) are: (1) social access as many parents are still unwilling to send their girls to school due to gender biases and safety concerns; (2) physi-cal access as the climatic and geographical
Community
mobilization,
working with the
elders, developing
role models
and following a
community-based
type of approach
are critical.
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variations make it hard for many girls to get to and stay in school, including lack of universal access for disabled children and the absence of secondary schools in remote areas; (3) gender bias as discrimination on the basis of gender and even perceptions of the in-educability of some children, such as those with disabilities and indigenous girls; (4) economic access as about three quarters of the people in KP belong to the poor-est households in Pakistan, depend almost solely on agriculture, and have been afflicted enormously by the devastating floods of the summer of 2010; (5) Parent Teacher Councils (PTCs) have remained disorga-nized and highly ineffective in mobilizing schools and the community to support the enrolment and retention of girls. The KP government emphasizing the educational rights of girls and women has initiated several policies and interventions to improve school access and gender parity in the province. Some of the provisions include exemption of tuition fees in government pri-mary and secondary schools, free textbooks in the primary school, first to girls and then to boys, and basic facilities in a large number of girls’ schools such as boundary walls, latrines, water supply, and additional classrooms (Bari and Sultana, 2011). The ESP emphasizes the need to improve the quality of education through the availability of qualified teachers and the provision of teacher professional development, the mobi-lization of the communities, support for Girls Community Schools (GCS) and wom-en’s Community Learning Centers (CLC), the training of private school teachers and strengthening of the Elementary Education Foundation (EEF). In addition to the measures taken by the provincial governments, donor countries, development agencies, NGOs, civil, religious, and community organizations have devel-oped programs to improve girls’ education in Pakistan. Strategies that have been used include provision of financial incentives to girls and families such as stipends and cash transfers, engagement of communities and religious leaders, recruitment of female teach-ers, improved curricula, instructional and assessment practices, development of literacy centers for women and drop-outs, construc-tion of classrooms and neighborhood schools, separate sanitation facilities and boundary walls, and safety programs for girls. Despite these efforts, however, the need for schools,
classrooms, materials, trained teachers, and textbooks is still grave and in supporting girls’ education financial incentives are necessary but not sufficient. Community mobiliza-tion, working with the elders, developing role models and following a community-based type of approach are critical.
ConclusionProgression in girls’ education is dependent on good governance and on the recognition of the socio-cultural, political, and economic rights of girls in the society (Ramzan, 2011). Assessment of how information flows within and between different levels of government involved in the planning and delivery of edu-cation services is necessary to inform policy makers and implementers (Shakil, 2004). The solution to gender inequality in education goes beyond the education sec-tor requiring a multi-sectoral strategy that addresses education, health, law, agriculture, and infrastructure (The World Bank 2008, p. 5). Data must be collected and disag-gregated by age, opportunities to attend secondary school must be expanded and communities, families, men, and boys must be mobilized to support girls’ education (Levine, et al., 2009). Especially, continuing education during adolescence helps girls overcome a history of disadvantage both at the work place and in the community making the shift from dependence to self-sufficiency and self-deter-mination (Lloyd, 2011b). However, while the benefits of educating adolescent girls during their course of study may be prevalent, they fade or disappear during adulthood in areas where women’s traditional roles are deeply rooted in the society (Lloyd, 2011a). Furthermore, in Pakistan interventions in girls’ education must extend beyond the school walls, be multiple and involve entire communities. Incentive schemes to promote girls’ participation in primary and secondary education, community based approaches, awareness through mass media and private radio stations present a great opportunity for dissemination of information relating to girls education and keeping the debate on the issue alive (Shakil, 2004). The benefits of girls’ schooling are long term and affect positively fertility, nutrition, maternal, new-born and child health, literacy practices at home, getting and keeping more children in school, women’s empowerment, and impact families, communities and across
generations. Tackling the issue of girls’ education in Pakistan is critical for national unity, peaceful coexistence, progress, pros-perity and for world peace. ★
ReferencesBari, F. & Sultana, N. (2011). Governance Issues in Girls
Education. FOSI-Pakistan
Baulch, B. (2010). The Medium-Term Impact of the Primary Education Stipend in Rural Bangladesh. International Food Policy research Institute
Chitrakar, R. (2009). Overcoming barriers to Girls’ Education in South Asia: Deepening the Analysis. United Nations Children’s Fund, regional Office for South Asia (UNICEF ROSA)
Coleman, H. (2010). Teaching and learning in Pakistan: The role of language in education. The British Council. British High Commission: Islamabad, Pakistan
Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (2012). Education Sector Plan
Hanan, J. G. & Mansuri, G. (2011). Crossing Boundaries: Gender, Caste, and Schooling in Rural Pakistan. The World Bank.
Levine, R., Lloyd, C. Greene, M., & Grown, C. (2009). Girls Count; A Global Investment and Action Agenda. A Girls Count Report on Adolescent Girls. The Center for Global Development
Lewis, M. & Lockhead, M. (2007, March). Inexcusable Absence: Why 60 million Girls Aren’t in School and What to Do about It. Center for Global Development
Lloyd, C. (2011a, February). Girls schooling in developing countries: Highlights from Population Council research. Promoting Healthy, Safe, and Productive Transitions to Adulthood Series. Population Council. Brief No. 24
Lloyd, C. (2011b, February). Summary of New Lessons: The Power of Educating Adolescent Girls. Promoting Healthy, Safe, and Productive Transitions to Adulthood Series. Population Council. Brief No. 33
Ministry of Education (MOE) (2007). Financing of Girls Secondary, Higher Secondary, and College Education in Sindh. MOE: Policy and Planning Wing, Government of Pakistan.
Ramzan, S. (2011). Governance Issues of Girls’ Education in Pakistan: Key Concerns, Challenges and a Way Forward. Journal of Education and Practice, Vol. 2, No 4, pp. 41-47
Sabir, M. (2002, Winter). Gender and Public Spending on Education in Pakistan: A Case Study of Disaggregated Benefit Incidence. The Pakistan Development Review, 42:4, Part II
Shakil, S. (2004, December). The State of Girls Education in Pakistan: A Situational Analysis. Social Development Direct and DFIDP
The World Bank (2008). Girls’ Education in the 21st Century: Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth.
UIS (2010). Global Education Digest 2010 UNESCO Institute of Statistics
Dr. Eirini Gouleta is associate professor of international education and academic program coordinator of the Multilingual Multicultural Education programs at the Graduate School of Education, George Mason University, in Fairfax, Virginia. She has work and research experience in educa-tion development and in Pakistan, where she served as a senior education adviser and team leader for the provincial delivery of education for the U.K. Department for International Development.
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Teachers are encouraged to use Asian and Asian-American stories in ESL classes where English language learners
(ELLs) of Asian backgrounds are concen-trated. It is a) to build on the entry charac-teristics of Asian ELLs; b) to validate Asian ELLs’ cultural identity; c) to establish the home-school connection of Asian ELLs; d) to affirm diversity and develop multicultural competence in all ELL students represented in ESL classes, and e) to enrich and expand school curriculum. It is important to integrate Asian and Asian-American children’s stories into school curriculum, especially into ESL curriculum rather than using them as an addendum. Currently, 5% (2,457,341) of total U.S. student population (49,402,385) in nation’s public schools is Asian and Pacific Islanders (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2014a), which is five times increase since 1987-1988. Nationwide, 9.8% of total student population is English learners. California has 28.9% of the nation’s total ELL population (NCES, 2014b). Roughly 12% (728, 413) of total California student population (6,220,993) is Asian and Pacific Islanders (California Dept. of Education [CDE], 2014a). And 22.3% (1,387,665) of total California student population is ELLs. Among them, 8.9% (123,468) is Asian and Pacific Islanders (CDE, 2014b). Thus, the number of Asian American students is rapidly increasing at an unprecedented pace nationwide, and especially In California. However, the inclusion of Asian and Asian-American children’s stories in public school curriculum is minimal at best. This needs to be changed given the increasing number of ELLs of Asian backgrounds and that of English- speaking Asian and Asian-American students in nation’s schools.
Because it is very likely that many ESL teachers who grew up in this country were not read to Asian and Asian-American stories at home by their parents or grand-parents nor did they read or study them in schools because their parents, grandparents, or their teachers did not have such experi-ences themselves. Therefore, for the next several columns, I plan to introduce some of them in this column starting with Chinese and Chinese-American children’s stories to help ESL and bilingual teachers use these stories in their ESL, bilingual, or social stud-ies classes. Yes-Shen: A Cinderella Story from China (retold in English, 1982) is an excellent choice to use in an ESL class, because ESL students from different countries can read-ily relate to the story theme, and practically every country in the world has a similar story in which the good deeds of a daughter are rewarded while the bad deeds of her stepmother and stepsister are punished. Actually, this Chinese Cinderella story pre-dates the familiar European Cinderella story by at least 1,000 years and set in old China. This can be taught with Korean Cinderella: KongJi(콩쥐) and PatJi (팥쥐)(retold bilin-gually in English and Korean, 1984), an ancient Vietnamese Cinderella story, Tam and Cam (Retold bilingually in English and Vietnamese, 2006), an Indian Cinderella story, The Enchanted Anklet (retold in English, 1985), Ankra: The Cambodian Cinderella (retold in English, 1998), Abadeha: The Philippine Cinderalla (2001), and Jouanah: A Hmong Cinderella (retold in English, 1996). All these Cinderella stories have similar themes although the details may differ slightly. These Asian Cinderella stories can be effectively taught by using three or four circle Venn diagrams to com-pare and contrast among them and story
boards reflective of the story lines. Students may work in cooperative groups of 3 - 4 to complete the Venn diagrams on easel pads, write a letter to Cinderella or other charac-ters in the story, and post them on the walls. Then, the teacher may have students do a gallery walk. These Asian Cinderella stories can be taught with Domitila: a Mexican Cinderella story (retold in English, 2000). China Tells How the World Began! (retold, 2001) is a collection of two folktales from China. The first one explains how the world began, while the second explains how the Chinese zodiac, with its twelve animals, came to be. Children are likely to find this book fun and easy to read, since the writing style has been directed to its child audience.The Luminous Pearl: A Chinese Folktale (retold in English, 1990) is a Chinese folktale about the beautiful daughter of the Dragon King and her search for the perfect suitor. She asks the king’s counselors to find her a man, who is honest and brave, and there is one such man living by the river bend, but he must pass a test first. The book is beauti-fully illustrated by Carol Inouye and would be enjoyed by children. The Ballad of Mulan (retold in English, 1998) is a well-known ballad which has been translated into English for a great story about the brave Mulan, who took her father’s place in battle and won honor and respect for her skill and courage. Illustrated with amazing pictures that capture the beauty of China and its culture, this is a great book to share with children. Made in China (1996) is a look at ancient China, offering only a small glimpse into the vast history and culture of the Chinese. The people, inventions, stories, and other parts of this culture are explained in the pages of this book. This is a great introduction to the history of China.
Use of Asian & Asian-American Children’s Stories in ESL ClassesClara C. Park, California State University, Northridge
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Red Land, Yellow River (2005) is an autobiographical book about life as a teen-ager during Mao’s Cultural Revolution. Complemented by amazing illustrations, photographs, and memorabilia from the author’s own collection, this book is a great way to introduce this lesser known period of Chinese history, to older children. The Great Voyages of Zheng He (2005) is a story about Zheng He, the great com-mander of a fleet in China, during the 15th century. With voyages far out into the Indian Ocean, he was one of the first great explorers, before the more well-known European explorers. This book is a dense, but quick history of his accomplishments. Other Chinese folktales and nursery rhymes that teachers may use are Gung Hay Fat Choy (1982), The Mouse Bride (retold, 1994), Seven Magic Brothers (retold, 1994), Count Your Way through China (1987), Dragon Kite of the Autumn Moon (1991), and Chinese Mother Goose Rhymes (1968). Stories of Chinese American experiences that teachers may use are as follows. Many Chinese and other immigrant children in ESL classes will be able to relate to these stories rather easily. In Coolies (2001), a young boy is told about the history of his ancestors, the Chinese laborers who came to America, frantic for work, and helped to build the transcontinental railroad. They were called “Coolies,” lowly workers, and suffered harsh and dangerous conditions as they worked hard to complete the railroad. Beautifully illustrated by Chris Soentpiet, this story should be shared with all children, as a reminder of this forgotten piece of American history. Kai’s Journey to Gold Mountain: an Angel Island Story (2005) takes place in the 1930’s during the time of the Chinese Exclusion Act. It is a story about a young boy immi-grating to America to join his father who is already living in San Francisco. The story is a collaboration of the real experience of Albert “Kai” Wong, a Chinese-American still living in San Francisco, and the experiences of other Chinese-Americans who came to America through Angel Island. It would be a great story to supplement the history of the more commonly known immigration stories of Ellis Island. The author does a good job of putting the reader in the mind of Kai as he goes through the experience of coming to a new place with people and things he has never seen before; it is as though we are
experiencing those same things for the first time as well. Uncle Peter’s Amazing Chinese Wedding (2006). Jenny is Uncle Peter’s “special girl,” so when he decides to get married, she does not feel the happiness that the rest of the family is feeling. As Jenny is rushed from one event to another, we are given a glimpse of the traditions and customs surrounding a Chinese wedding. With colorful and fun illustrations, this book would be enjoyed by young children. In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson (1984) is an excellent book that gives a voice to the common, yet sometimes unrecognized story of immigrant children. This book would be a great addition to all classrooms. Written by Bette Bao Lord, the wife of a former Chinese ambassador to the U.S., and illustrated by Marc Simont, we read about a little girl named Sixth Cousin who moves from Chungking, China to Brooklyn, New York in 1947, the year of the boar. She changes her name to Shirley Temple Wong, imitating Shirley Temple, a famous child movie star back then, in an attempt to be more American, but even her name betrays her immigrant root. Perhaps nothing else is more American than baseball. And 1947 was not only the year of the boar, but also the year Jackie Robinson rose to fame in that sport. Shirley, along with the rest of America, becomes infatuated by him, and eagerly lis-tens to every radio broadcast of his games. It becomes her way into the new world, a place where a mutual love and understanding exist, without the barrier of a new language or dif-ferent customs. As Jackie Robinson becomes not only a part of baseball, but a celebrated hero in it, Shirley sees hope for the endless possibilities that America has to offer. Thus, teachers are urged to continuously search for Asian and Asian American chil-dren’s stories to infuse in ESL, bilingual, and social studies classes and to diversify and expand their instructional repertoire. ★
ReferencesBehrens, J. (1982). Gung Hay Fat Choy. Chicago: Children’s
Press.
California Department of Education, 2014a. http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/SpringData/StudentsByLangauge.aspx?Level=State&TheYear
California Department of Education, 2014b. English Learner Students by Language-DataQuest. http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/SpringData/StudentsByLanguage.aspx?Level=State&TheYear...
Chang, M. (retold) (1994). The Mouse Bride. Taiwan: Yuan-Liou Publishing.
Coburn, J. R. (1998). Angkra: The Cambodian Cinderella. Fremont, CA: Shen’s Books.
Coburn, J. R. (2000). Domotila: A Cinderella Tale from the Mexican Tradition. Fremont, CA: Shen’s Books.
Coburn, J. R. (1996). Jouanah: A Hmong Cinderella. Fremont, CA: Shen’s Books.
Currier, K.S. (2005). Kai’s Journey to Gold Mountain: an Angel Island Story. Tiburon, CA: Angel Island Association.
Hao, K-T. (retold) (1994). Seven Magic Brothers. Taiwan: Yuan-Liou Publishing.
Haskins, J. (1987). Count Your Way through China. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Carolrhoda Books, Inc.
Lee, M. (2006). Landed. New York, NY: Frances Foster Books.
Look, L. (2006). Uncle Peter’s Amazing Chinese Wedding. New York, NY: Atheneum Books.
Lord, B. B. (1984). In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Louie, A. L. (1982). Yeh-Shen: A Cinderella Story from China. New York: The Philomel Books, a division of Putnam & Gosset Group.
Mehta, L. (retold, 1985). The enchanted anklet: A Cinderella story from India. Toronto, Canada: Lilmur Publishing.
National Center for Educational Statistics, 2014a. Public school student membership and percentage distribution of public school student enrollment. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/snf201011/taqbles/table_02.asp?referrer=report.
National Center for Educational Statistics, 2014b. Number and percentage of public school students participating in programs for English language learners. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/dt12_047.asp
Quoc, M. (Bilingually retold in English and Vietnamese, 2000). Tam and Cam. Gardena, CA: East West Discovery Press.
Reddix, V. (1991). Dragon Kite of the Autumn Moon. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books.
Sur, K. C. (Bilingually retold in English and Korean, 1984). Korean Cinderella: Kongji(콩쥐) and Patji(팥쥐).
Seoul, Korea: Samsung Publishing Co., Ltd.
Torre, B. L. (retold) (1990). The Luminous Pearl: A Chinese Folktale. New York: Orchard Books, a division of Franklin Watts, Inc.
Williams, S. (1996). Made in China. Berkeley, CA: Pacific View Press.
Wyndham, R. (selected & edited)(1968). Chinese Mother Goose Rhymes. New York: The Philomel Books, a division of Putnam & Gosset Group.
Zhang, A. (2005). Red Land, Yellow River. Toronto, Ontario: Groundwood Books.
Zhang, S. N. and Zhang, H.Y. (2005). The Great Voyages of Zheng He. Union City, CA: Pan Asian Publications Inc.
Clara C. Park is Professor of ESL and Bilingual/Multicultural Education at the College of
Education, California State University, Northridge. She co-authored and co-edited the first
comprehensive book in Asian-American education, Asian-American education: Prospects and
challenges (1999); and six volumes of research anthology in Asian American education including
Research on the education of Asian and Pacific Americans (2001); Asian American identities, fami-
lies, and schooling (2003), and New perspectives on Asian American parents, students, and teacher
recruitment (2009). She can be reached at [email protected].
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Reaching the Bilingual Bicultural Mind in the Science ClassroomRoberto Petingi,White Plains School District, White Plains, NY
Recent Latino immigrants of low-income families often face greater obstacles than their mainstream counterparts in achieving academic success within the American edu-cational system (Waggoner, 1999; Noguera, 2006). This is particularly visible in the science subject areas, which demand that students understand and apply concepts to which many young immigrants have not been previously exposed in their native school system. The need to move from memorization to concept application, adjust to new assessment styles, and overcome lan-guage barriers all require these students to adapt to their new school environment. Far from a homogenous group, Latino immigrants bring with them a great diversity of cultures, value systems, and schooling experiences. Recognition and thorough understanding of this heterogeneity is criti-cal if the cultures of these students are to be incorporated in the science classroom (Perez & Torres-Guzman, 2002). Bilingual/multi-cultural science classrooms include students with a broad range of academic language skills, from students with a relatively low academic proficiency in their native lan-guage to those whose academic abilities sur-pass the mainstream average but who simply cannot read or speak English at the level needed to succeed. As science teachers, we must con-stantly strive to help this population meet the science curricular requirements while simultaneously addressing that heterogene-ity and facilitating their integration into their new society. In response to this chal-lenge I discuss approaches developed over the past twenty-seven years of educational practice with mostly low income bilingual-bicultural students in New York City and the White Plains School District. I have implemented a dynamic interactive group
method that has enabled English Language Learners (ELLs) to succeed on state assess-ments. This approach to teaching ELLs is congruent with theoretical perspectives advanced by Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1978, 1982, 1986; Jim Cummins, 2005), and Paulo Freire (1970, 1992; see also Freire & Macedo, 1987). It is based on the use of students’ native language instruction and cognates to convey concepts, the purposeful development of critical thinking skills, stu-dent interaction, and parental involvement. In 1987, my immediate supervisor at Martin Luther King, Jr. High School in Manhattan asked me to prepare ELLs, most of whom were Latinos of Dominican back-ground, to take the New York State Regents Biology and Chemistry assessments. At that time, all Regents examinations in New York were offered solely in English and passing rates were abysmally low. To assist students, I knew I needed to use a multitude of pedagogical approaches and move from the boundaries of traditional educational practices into the dominion of creativity and discovery. The results surprised many as second-ary school Spanish-speaking science stu-dents who were in this country for less than two years achieved an average high passing rate in the Regents Biology (87%) and Chemistry (75%) exams, significantly surpassing the mainstream average at the same school. The impressive passing rate of my students was achieved through the implementation of research into bilingual methodology and science education, com-bined with a group interactive dynamic in which content and instruction were adapted to each student’s learning style and aca-demic level. This differentiated approach was largely determined by the immense diversity in background and academic level of students.
Native Language Instruction and the use of Cognates to Convey ConceptsMeeting the requirements of the old Biology and Chemistry Regents courses demanded that students be able to handle a sophisticated use of language to con-vey conceptual depth. According to Jim Cummins’ research (2005), systematic attention to cognates provides students with comprehensible input, which Krashen and Biber (1988) and Krashen (2003) found to be critical in connecting the familiar with the unfamiliar. Based on these two linguists’ research, I adapted the following strategy to assist students in acquiring the English language within the context of science conceptual develop-ment. This strategy requires that the main concepts be explained initially in Spanish to maintain high conceptual levels in the native language. Lecture and group discus-sions are consistently delivered in students’ first language, allowing students to enter into a scientific depth that could not be attained if conducted solely in English. The concept is then written on the board in English, placing emphasis on those key words that correlate to the topic being taught. Among the key words—though certainly not all—are cognates that facilitate the transfer of concepts from the native language to English. Thus, I use words that are spelled nearly the same and often share the same meaning [i.e. diffu-sion/difusión, photosynthesis/fotosíntesis] as an essential approach in my bilingual biology classroom. The same approach can be applied in chemistry. In this process, however, I keep languages clearly separated to avoid confusion that might hinder sci-ence concept development.
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Development of Critical Thinking SkillsAnother element embedded in this approach is rooted in Paulo Freire’s educational phi-losophy (1970, 1992; see also Freire & Macedo, 1987) which I experienced in my high school education in Uruguay. From Freire I derived an approach that empowers students to develop critical thinking skills by recognizing and validating their own values, background knowledge, and cultural experiences. In applying this approach, the coverage of many concepts discussed in class begins with the students’ descriptions of experiences encountered in their native countries. For example, when discussing earthquakes, every student is given the chance to share his or her personal experi-ences and/or knowledge of seismic activ-ity. Each student shares these experiences with a classmate; then, they describe the experiences of their peers to other students. I listen and intentionally write down the student-generated key words critical to the concepts that I will introduce later in the lesson/unit. In doing so, I am facilitating the acquisition of concepts by connecting their experiences to learning. These experiences are used as resources to develop deeper forms of critical think-ing. For example, students discussed why socioeconomic status might affect one’s experience of a natural disaster, and possible organizational solutions for a community affected by any adversity. Additionally, and after learning about photosynthesis and plant development, students used the sci-entific concepts to organize a community garden with the purpose of feeding indi-viduals in need. As Antonia Darder (1991, 2013) points out, particular emphasis must be placed on the mutual learning process of both student and teacher, and the impor-tance of utilizing a dialogic method. This method also creates the social context that promotes the development of higher- level mental functions.
Student Interactions Are The Bridge Between Subject and KnowledgeIn my bilingual classes, outcomes are important but are regarded as a reflection of the process from which they originate. Following Vygotsky (1978, 1982, 1986, 1998), outcomes are analyzed within the
framework of social interactions, that is, interactions through which higher and lower performing students freely exchange knowl-edge, apply concepts and solve problems. Higher level mental functions that are a requisite for academic learning are devel-oped and have their foundation in these daily interactions aiding students advance within the “zone of proximal development” (ZDP) (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Based on Vygotsky’s theory, after assessing first and second language proficiency, as well as stu-dents’ conceptual capability, the careful and deliberate placement of the student into a heterogeneous interactive group becomes the main means of concept and critical thinking development. Particular significance is given to individual learning within the interactive group by requiring students to assume the responsibility of explaining classroom topics to their peers. The formation of interactive groups requires an assessment of academic /concep-tual capacity, English language proficiency, affective factors such as self- esteem, self expectations and specific sub-cultural milieu associated with their country/region of origin, and length of exposure to the new culture. The wide range of academic per-formances and English language proficiency that is typically present in the classroom is considered in the formation of each interactive group. Students with a higher English proficiency level may acquire new knowledge and skills from interacting with students who have greater conceptual abil-ity yet who possess insufficient knowledge of the English language to be immediately successful on their own. Regardless of their comparative academic level, these students gain in self-esteem through the role of translating information from academic English. In fact, one result that emerges out of this type of group interaction is higher self-expectations. By contributing to the group, students validate and reinforce their knowledge, become motivated and collec-tively raise everyone’s achievement level, as illustrated by my students’ history of success in Regents exams. English linguistic proficiency does not necessarily equate with conceptual capabil-ity and vice-versa. Thus, students may easily appear to have an extensive vocabulary with-out deep conceptual understanding. That is, memorization is often used as a compensa-tory tool to navigate the basics of English
language, enabling them to pass an exam that exclusively measures language form, without requiring deep conceptual thinking needed in scientific analysis. In the absence of a carefully organized interactive bilingual group setting in the early stages, students performing at higher English proficiency can lose their academic advantage, particularly when faced with tests that measure higher order thinking. Unlike tracking, which constrains inter-group relations (Oakes & Wells, 1988) and can negatively affect ELL students (Harklau, 1999), de-tracking, that is the formation of flexible heterogeneous groups, constitutes a potent mix of skills and is crucial to creating dynamic learning environments that benefit all students.
Integration of ParentsAnother crucial factor in the academic success of the bilingual student is the integration of parents/guardians, and the understanding of family dynamics and its impact on the learning process. Congruent with Vygotsky’s view on the importance of designing social contexts and affective processes within the classroom in order to acquire higher intellectual development, the incorporation of parents is a critical exten-sion in my general approach to the develop-ment of higher mental functions. I contend that parents play a critical role promoting and in increasing student motivation and engagement in learning. Latino parents care about their children’s education, yet as a group they often demonstrate a low level of involvement in their children’s schooling (Ferrer, 2007). This apparent contradic-tion may relate to the fact that most Latino parents feel intimidated by the school set-ting, due to both the language barrier and to their relative unfamiliarity with the U.S. educational system and practices. Moreover, many immigrant parents work several jobs at multiple sites to support their families, and spend hours devoted to working and commuting leaving little time and energy for other parenting activities. Other cultural factors also contribute to determine parents’ level of involvement. Hispanic parents often view school admin-istrators and teachers as the unquestion-able experts (Chavkin & Gonzalez, 1995), and thus often feel that such a person’s guidance is sufficient to provide for their
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children’s needs. There is also a percep-tion that with active involvement they might overstep their parental boundaries (Sosa, 1997). Yet such factors may well be overcome through outreach, as noted by researchers such as Dauber and Epstein (1993, 2000, 2001). These researchers have found that communicating to par-ents about their children’s education is an important predictor of parental involve-ment. This is also clear from my experi-ence as a bilingual public school teacher at White Plains High School, NY, where strong lines of parental communication are developed through the combined effort of the Manhattanville Hispanic Outreach Center in conjunction with school staff. Unlike other districts which lack edu-cational support for their immigrant populations, the Manhattanville Hispanic Outreach Center at White Plains High School provides tutoring services by college students, primarily for recently arrived stu-dents, and constantly communicates with the parents regarding their performance. Moreover, a bilingual aide/liaison further strengthens the connection between school, parents, as well as the community at large. The promotion of parental involvement ensures that students receive encourage-ment, develop desired behaviors, and have closely monitored homework assignments. Within the context of these services, meet-ings are organized between administrator, counselor, ELL staff and parents at a White Plains community organization known as Centro Hispano as well as at White Plains High School. A meeting is set later in the school year to involve the parents in the success of our students on the New York Regents examinations. Once informed regarding the steps that are necessary for Regents success, parents are asked to orga-nize and supervise the home review, in the weeks prior to the New York Regents exams. Moreover, parents reinforce the stu-dents’ attendance at review sessions deliv-ered before and after school hours. The fact that 98% of my students attend those ses-sions is a strong indication of the benefits of parental influence to promote student involvement in after school and weekend tutorial sessions. The efforts described above represent only the tip of the iceberg in terms of the potential for eliciting and benefiting from
parental contributions to the education of immigrant students. As noted, a commu-nicative process is crucial to realizing this goal and situating learning in the students’ cultures. Such frequent communication between school and parents also contributes to the adaptation of immigrant parents to their children’s new educational require-ments, such as the New York State Regents exams. It can ultimately aid entire families to adapt and thrive in their new cultural context.
ConclusionMy experience shows that educators can suc-ceed in helping recent immigrant students attain proficiency in science knowledge through the use of a methodology that empowers them, respects them, and is inclu-sionary of those individuals most important in the student’s lives, namely, their parents. Interactive methodology enables educators to place themselves within the act of learn-ing, understanding students’ reality and developing strategies to respond to the needs of those students. Currently, Regents exams in the State of New York are offered in the students’ native language for some high incidence language groups. However, unlike Regents exams offered before 1999, these exams now require students to provide solutions to problems and apply concepts in essay form. Therefore, a greater level of language proficiency is required to pass these exams. In recent years, bilingual/bicultural students at White Plains High School have passed these Regents exams in Living Environment and Earth Science by overwhelming majori-ties. After taking these two courses, most students are placed in mainstream 11th and 12th grade courses in chemistry, physics and forensics. The successful integration of most of the Latino ELL population into mainstream science courses is the result of the com-bined efforts of a highly dedicated group of ESL teachers, the Manhattanville Hispanic Outreach Program, community organiza-tions, as well as parental involvement. This multi-dimensional effort illustrates the importance of creating the psychosocial conditions that promote learning in order to achieve successful results in bilingual set-tings. ★
REFERENCESChavkin, N. F., & Gonzalez, D. L. (1995). Forging partnerships
between Mexican American parents and the schools. West Virginia: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED388489).
Cummins, J. (2005, September). Teaching for cross-language transfer in dual language education: Possibilities and pitfalls. Paper presented at the 2005 TESOL Symposium on Dual Language Education: Teaching and Learning Two Languages in the EFL Setting, Istanbul, Turkey.
Darder, A. (1991). Culture and power in the classroom: A critical foundation for bicultural education. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey.
Darder, A. (2013). Critical leadership for social justice and community empowerment. Social policy, education, and curriculum research unit. North Dartmouth: Centre for Policy Analysis/UMass Dartmouth.
Dauber, S. L., & Epstein, J. L. (1993). Parents’ attitudes and practices of involvement in inner city elementary and middle schools. In N. F. Chavkin (Ed.), Families and schools in a pluralistic society. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Epstein, J. L., & Sanders, M. G. (2000). Connecting home, school, and community: New directions for social research. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology of education (pp. 285–306). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.
Freire, P., & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word and the world. South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey.
Freire, P. (1992). Education for critical consciousness. New York: The Continuum.
Harklau, L. (1999). The ESL learning environment in secondary school. In C. J. Faltis & P. Wolfe (Eds.), So much to say: Adolescents, bilingualism and ESL in the secondary school. (pp 42-60). New York: Teachers College Press.
Krashen, S., & Biber, D. (1988). On course: Bilingual education’s success in California. Sacramento, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use: The Taipei lectures. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Noguera, P. (2006). Latino youth: Immigration, education, and the future. Journal of Latino Studies, 4(3), 313-320.
Oakes, J., & Wells, A. (1998, March). Detracking for high student achievement. Educational Leadership.
Perez, B., & Torres-Guzman, M. E. (2002). Learning in two worlds: An integrated Spanish/English biliteracy approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Sosa, A. S. (1997). Involving Hispanic parents in educational activities through collaborative relationships. Bilingual Research Journal, 21(2), 1-8.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In M. Cole, V. John-Teiner, S. Scribner, & E. Soubberman (Eds.), Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (pp. 79-91). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1982). Pensamiento y language. En Obras Escogidas. Madrid, Spain: Machado libros.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
Waggoner, D. (1999). Who are secondary newcomers and linguistically different youth? In C. Faltis & P. Wolfe (Eds.), So much to say: Adolescents, bilingualism, and ESL in the secondary school (pp. 13-41). New York: Teachers College Press.
I would like to express my thanks and deepest appre-ciation to my dear friend, Ana Martinez, for her unwavering support and in adding her crucial sociological perspective to this endeavor. I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to my colleagues: Karin Cabral, whose knowledge of language and dedication to the education of immigrant students plays an important role in our institution; and Peter Wood for his critical insights to this paper.
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R E V I E W O F Generating Transworld Pedagogy: Reimagining La Clase MágicaMaría E. Torres-Guzman, Teachers’ College, Columbia University
Generating Transworld Pedagogy: Reimagining La Clase Mágica
Edited by: Belinda Bustos Flores, Olga A. Vásquez, Ellen Riojas Clark
Publisher: Lexington Books, subsidiary of Rowman &Littlefield Publishers
The book Generating Transworld Pedagogy: Reimagining La Clase Mágica by Belinda Bustos Flores, Olga Vasquez, and Ellen Riojas Clark is a fresh look at how, through a tool and space like La Clase Mágica, one can theorize a dynamic system of thinking, being, and acting that is necessary for children who are, or are aspiring to be, bi/multilinguals and who are preparing to undertake the tasks of a society that requires sci-entific, mathematical, and technologically based knowledges. In thinking about how teachers and teacher candidates accom-plish this, the authors integrate the critical role of acknowl-edging the knowings of science in ancient societies and of considering the current conditions of rapid change occurring under the umbrella of globalization in order to consider future possibilities – the authors urge teachers to consider not just what the children bring with them, nor what teachers can pro-vide them, but what can spark the social imagination of what could be rather than what is. The book amasses, through La Clase Mágica, the different theoretical and methodological angles, the variety of foci, and the variety of examples and illustrations. The group of scholars seriously consider their own episte-mologies as sources for theorizing and, in doing so, are able to contribute to a whole, which they call Transworld Pedagogy, that goes beyond any one of the examples to a broader under-standing of our social educational tasks in the 21st century. It is a book I highly recommend for all general education, spe-cialized teachers, and teacher educators as through the pages of this book they will learn not just pieces of the whole but will also understand what Engeström and Sannino (2010) term the “germ cell,” the kernel of the ideas that are needed for creating a model of a better educational future and world for all children. ★
ReferenceEngeström, Y. and Sannino, A. (2010). Studies of Expansive Learning: Foundations,
findings and future challenges. Educational Research Review, 5: 1-24. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2009.12.002
Dr. María E. Torres-Guzman is professor of bilingual/bicultural education at Teachers College at Columbia University.
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When the Professional Gets PersonalCarrying the Torch of Bilingualism into Our HomesMary Amanda (Mandy) Stewart, Assistant Professor of Bilingual and ESL Education, Texas Woman’s University
As bilingual educators, we are champions for other people’s children to become multilin-gual, multiliterate, and multicultural world citizens, but it becomes more difficult at home, especially if our children are not con-sidered English learners. This is the journey I am currently on as a bilingual educator and parent: my questions, struggles, mis-takes, and small successes. Perhaps like me, you wear or have worn the hats of maestra, professor, presenter, and the most important of all, Mama. If you can relate to any of those titles in any way, I invite you to join me on a journey to bring our professional lives home in order to give all children the benefits of bilingualism-even those that are our very own. My journey begins as a young adult who fell in love with languages and cul-tures which led to a career teaching English learners, and now my current profession as a bilingual teacher educator. I always knew I wanted to give my own children the many benefits of bilingualism. After all, I teach my teacher education students about the superiority of dual language programs. I strive to show expertise as I explain the many theories of bilingualism and second language acquisition. I spend many days every year attending conferences where I hear the experts discuss multilingualism and learn new teaching strategies for developing
bilingualism in children. Surely it should be a piece of cake for me, then, to raise my own children not just bi-, but multilin-gually, speaking in no fewer than three lan-guages by the age of 10 and possessing the multicultural skills of any seasoned globe trotter. That’s what I thought, until I actu-ally had these children. (Feel free to laugh out loud at my ignorant pre-parenthood naivety. I also thought my kids would never watch TV!) What I did not realize was that I had an uphill climb before me, rocked with ques-tions that were not explicitly answered in the journals I read and textbooks I taught from. My children are not English learners. They do not even have an obvious heritage language other than English. Although I speak Spanish, my husband does not. Everyone in our family is a monolingual English-speaker as well as most of the people in our community. Our world is primarily English-speaking. So when my son, Nathan, was born, I set out to intervene in the status quo English-only trajectory of multiple genera-tions past, and raise a multilingual child. He had books in different languages, watched Spanish cartoons (Dora only speaks Spanish in my house!), and, with the assistance of Baby Einstein products, had toys that taught English, Spanish, French, and Chinese! I
sent him to a Spanish immersion pre-school three years before Kindergarten. Whereas this was a great opportunity for him to learn basic vocabulary, songs (Thank you Jose-Luis Orozco!), and elements of the Latino culture, he was still reluctant to speak Spanish. Spanish was the language of instruction and what he used when he needed to answer the teacher, but English was the language of social communication with his friends in the class. Although I was proud he could read simple sentences and recite poetry in Spanish, he could not carry on a basic conversation. When it came time to enter Kindergarten, I learned he could not attend the two-way dual language school because we did not live in that attendance zone. He could not enter the one-way program in our neighborhood school because only students classified as English learners were allowed. I felt he was being punished for speaking English. Relentlessly, I spent10 months working through my options to find a bilingual learning environment for him. I transferred him to a school in our district, but not our attendance zone, that had a one-way program. I was thrilled the school was willing to take him despite the warnings from many people that the program was for English learners, and not for him. Overall, despite a few hiccoughs, I think a one-way dual language model has been the perfect match for developing my son’s bilingualism and giving him what I cannot alone. Each parent must make an educated decision for his or her child, so below I discuss the ben-efits and drawbacks of a one-way program for mine.
BenefitsIn the Spanish immersion preschool Nathan was immersed in the language for three years, but he did not need to speak it socially. However, in the one-way program he needs Spanish to communicate with his friends which not only happens in the classroom, but also on the playground and in the lunchroom. The first time I came to eat lunch with him he proudly announced to his friends: “Es mi hermanita, Carolina, y tiene un año.” (She is my little sister, Caroline, and she is one-year-old.) My daughter’s name is Caroline, but he natu-rally realized he should translate it into the Spanish, Carolina, when introducing her to his friends. At the end of that year
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when I attended his kindergarten party I had tears in my eyes, not because he won the Prinicpal’s Award for academic achieve-ment, but because I realized he had really become bilingual. As I served the Power Rangers cupcakes, I heard him seamlessly join in the conversation among the kids about what kind of birthday party they were going to have. With red icing smeared across his face, he listened, understood, and jumped into the conversation in Spanish, contending that an Iron Man bounce house party was definitely the best, without any trepidation. He was a part of their language community. At Christmas time, he told me he would write his letter to Santa in Spanish because that was a much easier language to write in. Of course Santa speaks Spanish! The shal-low orthography (the letters say the same sound most of the time) of Spanish made writing more natural than in English and facilitated his emergent literacy. Although he has not received school-based literacy instruction in English, he reads well above grade level in both languages. This concurs with other studies (Berens, Kovelman, & Petitto, 2013; Collier & Thomas, 2009) which show an early reading advantage for English-dominant students who are in a dual language (Spanish/English) school environment. His test scores show that his English reading surpasses his Spanish read-ing, which I believe is due to his larger vocabulary in his native language. Even though I also focus more on Spanish literacy (using thematic units) in my reading with him, his English literacy continues to soar without the direct instruction. (I have reluc-tantly conceded to let my 1st grader read Captain Underpants.)
DrawbacksOf course any parent putting her child in a program that is not necessarily designed for him needs to be aware of potential drawbacks. Some of the problems that have arisen from putting Nathan in a one-way dual language program stem from the fact that the program was not developed for him. Every other student in the class is an English learner. Therefore, these children qualify for services he does not such as the district’s summer school program. At the end of the year, the mothers were asking me if I was sending Nathan to summer school and I told them he was not allowed
to go because we spoke English at home. Of course they thought that it was funny because they viewed him as a Spanish-speaking student, just like their own chil-dren. I also sometimes question if the class is as rigorous as an English class is the same school district. Math is the only instruction the class receives in English, and I worry that he is not advancing quickly enough in math since all other children are learning math in their second language. Additionally, Nathan has different experiences based on his culture than the other children. He was really upset when he realized we were not going to Mexico over Christmas like his friends. We were going to Ohio. He got over the disappointment when he went sledding, something we don’t do a lot of in Texas! And he still cannot get used to the chili powder-flavored candy all of his friends give him, but perhaps that is
an acquired taste. I just try to send plenty of “American” candy for school parties. Admittedly, I have had a few moments of ridiculous freak-out when I’m spelling a word in English for him with the letter “e” and he writes “i” because he is thinking of the letter name in Spanish. I nonsensi-cally worry that English-speaking people will think he doesn’t “know his letters” when he does it outside of the bilingual classroom. He often writes letters to family starting with the word “dir”. He is sound-ing out “dear” and “dir” is how it would be written in Spanish. I don’t want to over correct him in English, but do want to help him improve. One way I’ve done this
is by giving him an email address to regu-larly write family members in English. I’m also hopeful more self-selected (even if it Captain Underpants) reading in English will iron out this problem. Another issue has been that his ethnicity is different than all of the other students. This first manifested itself when the stu-dents were spelling their last names. For all of the other children with Spanish sur-names, this was a task that was relatively easy since they had learned all of the sounds of the Spanish alphabet. However, Nathan was upset that “Stewart” did not follow the language rules. Some of the kids tried to change his last name, which he did not like. The most significant issue occurred when students in the class began telling him they couldn’t be his friend anymore because of his skin color. Fortunately, he had been learning about Martin Luther King Jr. and
said he knew you were not supposed to treat people differently based on their skin color. The teasing went on for a few weeks and at one point, seeing tears in his eyes, I asked him if he wanted to change to an English class. He thought about it, and said no, he wanted to learn in Spanish so he could be bilingual. His wonderful teacher addressed the issue in class, and eventually, the teasing stopped. I know he and the other students realize he is different, and as a mother, I want to be proactive in protecting him from any harm, but there are great lessons to be learned through adversity. Most importantly, he has friends in his class and has overcome this episode.
Overall, despite a few hiccoughs, I think a one-way dual language model has been the perfect match for developing my son’s bilingualism and giving him what I cannot alone.
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The DecisionUltimately, I stand by my decision to place my son in the one-way program and plan to do the same for my daughter. Whether our children are in one-way, two-way, or immersion programs, or even if they receive most of their bilingual instruction in the home, we are doing the best for them when we help them become bilingual at an early age. With every college class I teach about bilingualism, I am overwhelmed with the many social, cognitive, and even health benefits of bilingualism that are docu-mented in research (Espinosa, 2013). Even though there are certainly drawbacks of the one-way program for him, the benefits out-weigh them. I’ve been reading Bilingual is Better (Flores & Soto, 2012) which is about the journey of two Latina mothers to raise bilingual children in the U.S. Even though, unlike me, they speak Spanish as a first language, they realize that there is so much pressure in America to conform to monolin-gual English norms. That is why they sug-gest all parents seeking to raise their children to be bilingual write down their top three reasons. Writing it down serves to remind me why I make the counterintuitive or even controversial decisions I do and helps ease the doubts when they arise. These are my reasons:
People: Speaking more languages and being com-petent to engage in more than one culture opens the door to more intimately know and be known by others. Bilingualism gives us more human experiences and I believe we are richer by the diverse people we know. I want my children to know as many of the unique people we share this world with as possible!
Brain: Research is replete with the many cognitive benefits of bilingualism. Additive bilingual-ism makes you smarter. I also believe that by helping my children become bilingual early on, the stage is set for optimal language learning later in life. I sincerely hope that they will want to acquire additional lan-guages. Spanish today sets the pathways for Korean tomorrow.
Opportunities: In the 21st century there is no doubt that being bilingual is more than just a benefit, but a growing necessity. Nathan wants to be a garbage collector, then, once he is 35, the President of the United States. If he chooses to pursue a career in politics, having the ability to communicate with more people and understand multiple perspectives is an advantage, if not a non-negotiable. Even if he pursues a career in waste management and gets to hang off of trucks all day (some-thing I never let him do on the grocery carts now), being able to communicate with other people he works with and for is an advantage. Caroline’s current career path of choice is a princess, requiring much linguis-tic prowess!
I think that even if I had a two-way program available for Nathan today, I would still choose one-way because it facilitates the pathway to bilingualism, giving him what I could not give him on my own. That is why Aguirre-Baez’s (2001) words, although about English learners, resonate with me and my journey to raise bilingual children. She writes: “To deny the benefits of being bilingual is to deny the existence of a global economy….to deny the United States the chance to enrich its culture” (p. 170). There is no doubt that we need bilingual citizens, our students and our children, but it is often an uphill climb. I fought the school district to get my son into a dual language program and I am prepared to do the same for my daughter. To deny them bilingualism, bilit-eracy, and biculturalism is not something I accept. If you are a bilingual educator who has fought persistently for the opportunity for your students to reap the full benefits of bilingualism, do not be afraid to do the same for your own children. Bilingualism is for everyone—even our own children, grandchildren, nieces, and nephews. ★
ReferencesAguirre-Baeza, L. (2001). Creating two-way dual language
schools through effective leadership. Educational Horizons, 79(4), 167-170.
Berens, M. S., Kovelman, I., & Petitto, L.-A. (2013). Should bilingual children learn reading in two languages at the same time or in sequence? Bilingual Research Journal, 36(1), 35-60.
Collier, V. P., & Thomas, W. P. (2009). Educating English learners for a transformed world. Albuquerque, NM: Dual Language Education of New Mexico/Fuente Press.
Espinosa, L. M. (2013). PreK-3rd: Challenging common myths about dual language learners. PreK-3rd Policy to Action Brief No. 10. New York: Foundation for Child Development.
Flores, A. L., & Soto, R. A. (2012). Bilingual is better: Two Latina moms on how the bilingual parenting revolution is changing the face of America. U. S. A.: Bilingual Readers.
Bilingualism is for everyone—even our own children, grandchildren, nieces, and nephews.
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R E V I E W O FSide by Side/Lado a Lado: The Story of Dolores Huerta and Cesar Chavez/ La Historia de Dolores Huerta y Cesar ChavezMonica Brown, author • Joe Cepeda, illustrator
Reviewed by twins Lina and Paola Casas, 7-year-old 1st graders, Vineyard Ranch Elementary Dual Language program and Ellen Riojas Clark, University of Texas at San Antonio
Dr. Clark: Girls, I am so glad that you could read Side by Side/Lado a Lado a story about Dolores Huerta and Cesar Chavez and for you to share your thoughts with other school children. What stands out for each of you in regards to Cesar Chavez?
Lina: That he does not want people to be treated wrong. He did not want the farmworkers to get sick and die and suffer like his family. He wanted everyone to live happy and without being scared and sick.
Paola: He fought for the farmworkers, to keep their spirits and rights. He wanted them to be treated like citizens, nice, and fair.
Dr. Clark: Wonderful comments. So what did you like about the characters?
Lina: I like that he was brave like a hero, better than Superman! Because he (Cesar Chavez) is a real person. I like that he was proud and brown, that he spoke Spanish, and he loved being Mexican. He loved his family—and did not liked to see them sad. He did not like to hear his mom cry. He did not like it when they treated them bad.
Paola: I liked that Cesar Chavez was a good man, and did really good things for the poor and the farmworkers, and immigrants. I also liked that he went to see Dolores and he walked with her 340 miles—to be able to stick up for the farmworkers so they could get their rights. Cesar Chavez’s lost his house and they worked in a farm to be able to get his house back—but they did not treat them right and he did something about it. I would do it too.
Dr. Clark: Cesar Chavez was a good person as was Dolores Huerta. Was there anything that you did not like about the story?
Lina: That he did not eat. I think it is sad that he had to stop eating to show that oth-ers needed their rights. Also, that he died in 1993, we don’t know who is going to fight for our rights now.
Paola: That he was too nice—and they did not treat him well…all he wanted was to get rights for immigrants, like you, mommy, my grandma, and almost everyone in our family.
Dr. Clark: We are so lucky to have people who have fought for us. What did you like about how the story is written? Can you think of how the book could be improved?
Lina: I like how the author wrote it. But I did not know some words, so I needed my mom to explain them to me.
Paola: I liked that they explained what hap-pened long time ago in a good way.
Dr. Clark: How is the artwork in the book? Did you like the illustrations by Joe Cepeda?
Paola: I like the ilustraciones a lot! They look like people!
Lina: The pictures are like real life and it had a lot of colors. It was awesome!
Dr. Clark: I also loved the illustrations. I thought the children looked like you. What is a hero to you?
Paola: A person that does almost every-thing to save someone’s life and rights. Like Cesar Chavez and Martin Luther King and Dolores Huerta.
Lina: A person that does amazing things that makes the world better. They are heroes because God gave them a blessing to look at what is wrong and try to make it better.
Dr. Clark: Good point. We need heroes in our lives to remind us to do our best. Would you recommend this book to your friends and why?
Paola: Yes! Because it is a really good book to learn about our heroes like us—who are Latinos who fought for us so we could have rights. We need to read this book in our classrooms. I also like to see Dolores Huerta as she is showing courage by taking all that he did and she is now fighting for it. I like that! I want to be a leader and fight for their rights.
Lina: Yes, because we learn how we can start fighting for our rights to make the world a better place. I also recommend it because it is bilingual and I don’t remember any Latino heroes until right now, it just taught me about these two Latinos leaders. About leadership, about how to make the world a better place. You don’t want to live your life miserable so we need to fight for this. Now Dolores is fighting for all that Cesar did and believed. She is doing it now.Now after this book, it makes me want to stick up for people, and for me! I want to continue the spirit that God gave Cesar and continue it.
Dr. Clark: Girls, if I had not read this book, your comments would make me want to read it. I am so glad that you two are going to be our new future leaders and heroes. Did you enjoy reviewing Side by Side/Lado a Lado?
Lina and Paola: We loved it!!! Can you send us more books to review? It was fun! ★
The authors can be contacted at:[email protected] and [email protected]
J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 4 ★ N AB E P ERSPECT I VES 21
Instructional Advocacy for English LearnersThe Role of a Teacher Leader in Breaking Down Traditional High School SilosFelice Atesoglu Russell, Kennesaw State University • Jill Weseman Klune, Highline Public Schools, Burien, WA
Abstract: High school teachers
are often viewed as content
experts, responsible solely for the
ability to impart knowledge on a
particular subject. As the linguistic
diversity in our schools increases
and with the implementation of
Common Core State Standards,
high school teachers need to look
beyond their departmental silos to
meet the needs of English learners
in their content classes. This
article describes how a teacher
leader with expertise in language
acquisition and development
collaborates with the English
language arts teachers at Vista
High School (pseudonym) and
acts as an instructional advocate
to support English learners within
the mainstream.
School is out for the day at Vista High School (pseudonym) and a group of teachers sit around a table together
looking at student data. The teachers are trying to determine the placement for one of their English learners (ELs) within the English language arts curriculum for the next school year. The teachers that sit at the table include three English language arts teachers and two English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers. In many high schools these teachers would not be work-ing collaboratively or would be grouped together in name (perhaps in the same department), but not actively working on student placement in such an intentional way. The teachers use district literacy frame-works and outcomes linked to Common Core State Standards (CCSS) to determine if the student has reached specific proficien-cies in order to advance to the next level of English language arts. This collaborative work is the norm for the Literacy Team at Vista. Vista is a small high school led by a principal with a vision for the inclusion of ELs across the school. This vision has led to the development of a school culture that supports meeting the needs of ELs within mainstream content classes. Within this context, the principal provides the necessary instructional leader-ship work to support both teachers and ELs as they enact inclusive practices in the con-tent classroom. The principal of Vista says,
We operate from a philosophy of inclu-sion…students who are learning English should be included in classes with all other students and get support that they need to be able to be successful…to con-tinue their progress in learning English.
Vista has roughly 30% of its student population identified as ELs, while many have exited previously from the program, and many more speak a first language other than English at home. When the school was opened in 2005 the principal was deter-mined to think about the literacy needs of ELs across the content areas to provide them access to core content as quickly as possible. As a result, the Literacy Team has been a cohesive unit since the schools inception. The teachers use the district literacy frame-work and outcomes to determine if the student has reached specific proficiencies in order to advance to the next level of English language arts. Unlike in a traditional model, the classes are not labeled 9th or 10th grade English language arts but are given titles such as “Introduction to Literature and Composition” and “Advanced Literature and Composition.” This structure enables the Literacy Team to determine placement for their students working on developing English language proficiency and enables them to have students repeat levels, if needed, in a supportive climate. Leadership from multiple levels has impacted the success of the Literacy Team in doing their work in such a collegial manner. The principal enabled this group of teach-ers the time and space to come together through the creation of the Literacy Team. Having this time set aside enables collegial conversations to take place. In addition, leadership comes from the teacher level. Within this Literacy Team, Jill Klune, an ESL teacher has a .3 release from her teaching responsibilities to serve as an EL facilitator (she is also the co-author of this article). In this role, the teacher leader is
N AB E PERSPECT IVES ★ J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 422
charged with supporting content teachers and their instruction of English learners in the mainstream classroom. Ms. Klune, a founding teacher at Vista, is an integral part of the Literacy Team and consistently puts the focus on instructional advocacy for ELs. This is evident in how her instructional expertise in linguistically responsive peda-gogy (Lucas, Villegas, & Freedson-Gonzalez, 2008) are utilized resources by teachers across the school. Teachers who take on formalized teacher leadership roles are uniquely positioned to maintain connections with teaching and stu-dents, while at the same time contributing to the capacity building of teachers and cul-ture in their buildings (Lieberman & Miller, 2004). In this sense, Ms. Klune is well positioned as a change agent and conduit between the principal and teaching staff. Increasingly, there is a push for main-stream teachers to teach all students high-level content, including all levels of ELs, creating a challenging instructional environ-ment. Most mainstream teachers have little professional preparation for teaching ELs content, let alone the linguistic knowledge to effectively meet the academic language development demands that ELs require. ESL teachers are often called upon to be the experts in their buildings (Brooks, Adams, & Morita-Mullaney, 2010) and charged with the task of meeting the instructional needs of ELs both in their EL classes and in mainstream classes. Adolescent students acquiring English are tasked with the “double duty” work of learning content and language (Walqui, 2006). Ms. Klune navigates her roles by work-ing at multiple levels with a consistent focus on instructional advocacy for ELs as they move from ELL-specific classes into the mainstream. Specifically, as a teacher leader, Ms. Klune engages at the following levels:
Level I: Work with ELs as an ESL Teacher and Content TeacherAt this level, Ms. Klune works directly with ELs as a classroom teacher. She models inter-actions with ELs for content teachers, advo-cates for EL needs within the content class-room, and is a safe space for ELs. As a dual-certified teacher (ESL and English language arts), in the most recent school year she took on a section of mainstream English language arts, in addition to her ESL classes, in order to have an improved understanding of ELs in the mainstream in the Vista context. As an EL facilitator, teaching mainstream English language arts has strengthened her practice by improving her understanding of differen-tiation within a heterogeneous class of ELs and proficient English speakers.
Level II: Work with Content Teachers Here Ms. Klune engages teachers and ELs in conversations related to student self-advo-cacy, brings content teacher awareness to particular EL students and their individual needs, and provides specific instructional strategies related to developing academic language. This is accomplished through instructional coaching and consulting work with mainstream teachers.
Level III: Work with the Literacy TeamAs a member of the Literacy Team, Ms. Klune is a voice for ELs and their needs in mainstream English language arts and she emphasizes the need for common structures and practices across the literacy curriculum and classes. Ms. Klune notes that early on she was a major voice for the needs of ELs within the Literacy Team but her col-leagues have developed their capacity in this area. As a result, Literacy Team members
routinely advocate for ELs as part of their daily instructional work.
Level IV: Work Across the SchoolAt the school level, Ms. Klune is uniquely positioned to collaborate with the principal and advocate for the needs of ELs. She con-sistently puts the focus on the needs of ELs at staff meetings and in conversations with the principal. As a teacher leader in this context, Ms. Klune has the potential to influence main-stream teacher practice as she contributes to building teacher capacity through profes-sional development that is situated in the classroom, connected to the school culture and context, and ongoing. Ms. Klune’s work is directly impacting teacher capacity for the instruction of ELs at Vista. Through her involvement at multiple levels, she is enact-ing teacher leadership as an instructional advocate for ELs. There are several lessons for practice that we can take from this case.
(1) Include ESL Teachers and StudentsThe EL facilitator (who also serves as the ESL department chair) constructs student schedules collaboratively with the counselor, principal, and content teachers to both provide access to content, as well as support students in these challenging content classes. Once students are past the beginning stages of proficiency, they attend mainstream classes. Concurrently, ELs take literacy support classes that align with the English language arts curriculum. Literacy teach-ers have opportunities to collaborate and discuss student issues during Literacy Team meetings. The EL facilitator plays a key role as a conduit between content teachers and ESL classes, advocating for student place-ment and class sections as needed within the Literacy Team and content area classes.
Most mainstream teachers have little professional preparation for teaching
ELs content, let alone the linguistic knowledge to effectively meet the
academic language development demands that ELs require.
J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 4 ★ N AB E P ERSPECT I VES 23
(2) Use of Common Instructional StrategiesThe EL facilitator recognizes that many teachers across the school use common instructional strategies with a focus on developing literacy skills. These common strategies include such things as annotating texts in science, Cornell notes in social stud-ies, sentence stems in math, and think-pair-share in English language arts. By drawing mainstream teacher attention to common instructional strategies (and encouraging their consistent use) across the content areas, she helps content teachers to understand the value in having ELs transfer their academic literacy skills from one content area to the next. The use of common instructional strategies is further supported by the prin-cipal and reinforced by the EL facilitator during teacher-led school-wide professional development sessions.
(3) Align ELL Program Design and Supports for TeachersThe EL facilitator and principal work col-laboratively to design and implement the ESL program and provide strategic sup-port for both the teachers and ELs in the mainstream. Working together, the focus is
on how to support English language acqui-sition, while including ELs as quickly as possible within mainstream content classes. This process results in an inclusive approach that takes into account where and how ELs are served, as well as how content teachers who have ELs in their mainstream classes are supported to meet the linguistic needs of their students. The focus is on support-ing ELs and teachers, while holding up high expectations for both: ELs are given the message that they can be successful in the mainstream classes and teachers are provided support at the school or classroom level to ensure that ELs can be successful in those academically rigorous classes. For example, over the course of the 2009-10 school year the focus was on developing capacity of the 9th and 10th grade science teachers because these classes had large numbers of recently mainstreamed ELs. The EL facilitator pro-vided classroom embedded instructional coaching to these teachers.
(4) Build on Current Programs in the School As a small school, one of the goals is for stu-dents and teachers to have personal relation-ships. This is strengthened at Vista through
a well-designed and articulated advisory program. Teachers stay with the same group of students for all four years of high school and all students are included in advisory, including all ELs. This structure used for advisory is something the school is already engaged in and has positive benefits for ELs. Beginning ELs are immediately exposed to native English speakers on a regular basis in advisory. This exposure and inclusion from the very beginning sends the message to students that they are valued and a part of the academic and social cultures at Vista. The EL facilitator makes use of this struc-ture as she checks-in with advisory teachers when ELs are struggling. By reaching out to advisory teachers, the EL facilitator is mak-ing use of a structure that exists within the school to advocate for and keep in touch with the needs of ELs academic and social-emotional needs.
(5) Planning for SustainabilityMs. Klune notes that there have been suc-cesses and challenges in her role as an EL facilitator. One way in which she has seen success has been working with small teams of teachers rather than individuals. In her role as EL facilitator she was able to
N AB E PERSPECT IVES ★ J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 424
facilitate teacher collaboration and describes this phenomenon:
I’ve found collaboration to be very power-ful in this role. During one year, I worked with 9th and 10th grade Science teachers on integrating EL supports. We regularly co-planned, observed each other’s classes in a studio-coaching model, and debriefed together. This empowered the Science team to strengthen their EL supports.
The teachers took ownership of the plan-ning and continued to collaborate long after the work with Ms. Klune ended. Success was also found analyzing EL student work with small groups of content and EL teach-ers. This turned out to be a strong practice that led to professional conversations and teacher-identified next steps. Finally, dur-ing the most recent academic year, Ms. Klune’s school was able to add a .4 literacy coach to their staff. This colleague was also an English language arts and ESL sup-port teacher at the school. Ms. Klune and the literacy coach, along with the princi-pal, formed an Instructional Leadership Team that met weekly to plan whole-staff professional development supporting the implementation of CCSS. The focus of the Instructional Leadership Team was on build-ing teacher confidence in the use of rigorous texts across all content areas and the instruc-tional supports needed to help all students access these texts. While the examples above describe the suc-cess of Ms. Klune’s collaborative work, she has had to deal with juggling competing responsibilities and roles. She notes that,
Maintaining three roles: those of teacher, ESL department chair, and EL Facilitator can be a great challenge. Though the three roles are complementary, and all share the same goal of preparing ELs for success in
our school, their various demands compete for time and energy. As a teacher and EL Facilitator, collaboration with content teachers is key. To be a successful ESL sup-port or content teacher, I find it critical to share ideas and co-plan with colleagues. As an EL Facilitator, co-planning, coach-ing, and consulting demands that you carve time out to meet regularly in order to see growth. The role of ESL depart-ment chair brings with it…often critical behind-the-scenes…administrative work and deadlines…juggling all of these func-tions within .3 or .4 release time can be challenging, particularly during certain times of the year. I have often felt the need to focus on one area to see more of an impact.
To ensure sustainability for this type of teacher leadership, it is critical principals recognize the balancing act necessary to enact this work and the multiple competing demands. In many comprehensive high schools today, the stratification of both content teachers and students is the norm. This lack of collaboration across content areas and the tracking of students have the potential to negatively impact students learning English. Teacher leaders can play a role in breaking down these silos while advocating for the needs of our linguistically diverse students. Tapping into the resource of teacher leader-ship in schools experiencing an increase in English as a second language learners, in particular, when the teacher leader is both an advocate of ELs and content expert in second language acquisition and develop-ment, can have positive implications for both students and teaching. Principals can support this work by recognizing the importance of setting the tone for the inclusion of ELs across the school and supporting the development of
emerging teacher leaders with expertise in language acquisition in their schools. These steps can contribute to the staff ’s feelings of collective responsibility for meeting the instructional needs of ELs. Ultimately, instructional advocacy for ELs by teacher leaders that is supported by the principal can encourage the entire school community to be more intentional in how the needs of ELs are met. ★
Felice Atesoglu Russell is an assistant profes-sor of curriculum and instruction/TESOL at Kennesaw State University, 1000 Chastain Rd., Kennesaw, GA; 770-794-7854; [email protected]
Jill Weseman Klune is an ESL teacher and EL facilitator at Highline Public Schools, [email protected]
ReferencesBrooks, K., Adams, S. R., & Morita-Mullaney, T. (2010).
Creating inclusive learning communities for ELL students: Transforming school principals’ perspectives. Theory Into Practice, 49(2), 145-151.
Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (2004). Teacher Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Lucas, T., Villegas, A. M., & Freedson-Gonzalez, M. (2008). Linguistically responsive teacher education: Preparing classroom teachers to teach Englih language learners. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(4), 361-373.
Walqui, A. (2006). Scaffolding instruction for English language learners: A conceptual framework International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9(2), 159-180.
Ultimately, instructional advocacy for ELs by teacher leaders that is
supported by the principal can encourage the entire school community to
be more intentional in how the needs of ELs are met.
J A N U A R Y - M A R C H 2 0 1 4 ★ N AB E P ERSPECT I VES 25
The Abandoned American Indian of the U.S. by Dale Schlundt
When one says the phrase “American Indian,” what comes to mind? Is it the fierce looking warrior on horseback or perhaps the individual in war paint holding a repeating rifle, ever ready for battle? We have so many political and societal issues being discussed in regards to 21st century American citi-zens, yet it is truly rare to hear any issues relating to present day American Indians. “Present day” being the key phrase. Isn’t it unfortunate, a people we forced to accept a European based society such as our own, are today left to be their own advocates in the U.S., typically having little voice at all? If asked to picture a person of indig-enous ancestry, I would argue a much more realistic depiction would be one living a modern American life, much like you and I. Granted, perhaps with small variations, comparable to any differences between eth-nicities. However, a vast many also continue to see the negative effects of the past that have yet to be corrected. Poverty being a concerning issue among various contemporary American Indian communities. Of course, not every person of North American indigenous ancestry is living in poverty stricken communities, yet the numbers in regards to this are sobering. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, a poll taken showed American Indians as one of two ethnic groups whose poverty rates peaked at 27%, as compared to a national U.S. average of 14.3%.1 My question is how as a nation do we justify such misfor-tune among a people we have inarguably exerted so much influence over during the past two hundred plus years? Are we so far removed from the immoral actions of our own ancestors towards these native societ-ies that we negate our responsibilities to the wellbeing of their communities today? In a time where recognition of past wrongs
is vital, it is certainly not the sole solution either. The phrase “talk is cheap” did not originate because it was false statement. Real advocacy, as well as action, is needed for the status quo to see a positive change in favor of the various American Indian heritages. A loss of culture, if not the worst atroc-ity, is truly one not to be overlooked in terms of collateral damage done to native societies. All one has to do is research the Carlisle Indian School, opened in the late nineteenth century, in an effort to “convert” Indian children to be American. Youth not allowed to speak their own language, prac-tice their faith, or wear non-European cloth-ing, having a lasting effect. The hope was for them to grow up and be able to assimi-late into white society, essentially “weaning” the Indian culture out of existence, if you will. Perhaps you are saying to yourself, “Well that’s not so bad, I guess.” However, through simply looking at race relations throughout history, foretelling success of this program should be simple. Despite many children adapting to American culture and even learning useful trades, what white com-munities would be accepting of them in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century? One thing that history proves is that pub-lic opinion is uncontrollable. The chances of successful Indian assimilation in that time period, despite a few individual’s best intentions, is minimal at best. Although, the Carlisle School had a devastating effect only a small group, relative to the many native inhabitants of the time period, it is just one of many examples of disservices done to American Indian cultures. Examples leading to the present socio-economic sta-tus many hold today. According to PBS Indian Country Diaries, an insightful work called “Revitalizing Native Culture,” in the 90’s there were 175 native languages
spoken compared to the many hundreds in pre-European contact.2 Once again, stag-gering numbers that are very telling of the degeneration of indigenous populations and their heritage. In a time where we put value on respecting other cultures, it is a true embarrassment that few of us think of the American Indian in discussions about mov-ing America forward, myself included.I always begin my first day of the semester teaching U.S. History classes for college freshman with a picture of candidate Barack Obama visiting the Crow Tribal Reservation. I ask them why this is significant. Typically they answer correctly, even if not realizing the significance of the larger context. That being because we don’t see politicians, nor the public, giving contemporary American Indian groups a voice in American poli-tics. Now the motivation behind candidate Obama visiting that reservation can obvi-ously be debated. Yet regardless, when thinking of U.S. voters, I would suggest that conservative, liberals, and others may come to mind. Do individuals of North American indigenous ancestry pop up in our thoughts when picturing the American electorate? While we continue to argue over healthcare laws and asking the questions of “what can we do to help me,” I can’t help but think of the story of the Indian students from the Carlisle Indian School, getting off the train to greet their parents after being separated for so long. As they walk up to greet each other, they then realize they cannot, no lon-ger does either speak the same language they once shared. Perhaps it is time to right the wrongs. ★
Dale Schlundt holds a Master’s Degree in Adult Education with a concentration in American History from the University of Texas at San Antonio. He is currently an Adjunct Professor for Palo Alto College and Our Lady of the Lake University. Dale has two new books available, Tracking Life’s Lessons: Through Experiences, History, and a Little Interpretation and Education Decoded (A Collection of My Writings) now avail-able on Amazon.
Endnotes1 “American Indian and Alaska Native Poverty Rate About
50 Percent in Rapid City, S.D., and “About 30 Percent in Five Other Cities”, U.S. Census Bureau, Census Bureau Reports, FEB. 20, 2013.
2 “Revitalizing Native Culture”, Indian Country Diaries, PBS. September, 2006.
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