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Learning
“Process by which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behaviour.” (Woolfolk, et al 2008: 245)
“… behaviourists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience. This change in behaviour is always observable …” (Jordan, et al 2008:21)
“Behaviourism is a theory of learning focusing on observable behaviours and discounting any mental activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behaviour.” (Pritchard, 2009:6)
Close your eyes and try to create vivid image of the following:
• The smell of fresh coffee
• An embarrassing moment at school
• The taste of chocolate
• The sight of a needle just before a blood test
What did you notice as you formed these images? What were you feeling as you thought about them?
Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936
Early explanations of learning: Contiguity and classical conditioning (From Woolfolk, et al 2008:246)
• Contiguity
– association of two events because of repeated pairing
• Stimulus
– event that activates behaviour
• Response
– observable reaction to a stimulus
Classical conditioning – other key terms
Classical conditioningAssociation of automatic responses with new stimuli
Neutral stimulusStimulus not connected to a response
Unconditioned stimulusStimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response
Unconditioned responseNaturally occurring emotional or physiological response
Conditioned stimulusStimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning.
Conditioned responseLearned response to previously neutral stimulus.
Woolfolk, et al (2008:247)
Food
Food Bell
Bell Salivation
Salivation
SalivationUnconditionedresponse
Conditionedresponse
Pavlov in practice (?)
Pavlov has shown how he can condition a dog to ‘drool’ to the sound of a bell – but how can this inform your practice?
In small groups, identify an example of this in a learning situation – how, as teachers can we use the basic Stimulus-Response Theory? Think of some examples also in everyday situations
PavlovClassical conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning is “the automatic conditioning of
involuntary responses such as salivation and fear. Clearly,
not all human learning is so automatic and unintentional.
Most behaviours are not involuntary responses. People
act or ‘operate’ on their environment to produce
different kinds of consequences.”
Woolfolk, et al (2008:249)
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Overview
• Used rats and pigeons for his experiments
• Skinner Box showed that animals could be trained to carry out increasingly complex tasks
• Introduced positive and negative reinforcement
• Positive rewards more effective in encouraging desired behaviour
The Skinner Box
A B CConsequencesAntecedent Behaviour
Reinforcement
Reinforcement – use of consequences to strengthen behaviour
Consequence Effect
Behaviour Reinforcer Strengthened or repeated behaviour
Punishment
Punishment – process that weakens or suppresses behaviour
Consequence Effect
Behaviour Punishment Weakened or decreased behaviour
Image: Woolfolk, et al (2008:252)
• After you execute a turn during a skiing lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great job!"
• At work, you exceed this month's sales quota so your boss gives you a bonus.
• For your teaching observation you are awarded a grade 1
The ski instructor offering praise, the employer giving a bonus, and the observer awarding a grade 1 are all examples of positive reinforcers. In each of these situations, the reinforcement is an additional stimulus occurring after the behaviour that increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again in the future.
Examples of positive reinforcement
• Before going out in the sun, you apply sunscreen to avoid getting sunburned.
• You clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid getting in a fight with your roommate.
• You leave the house early to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for class.
Sunburn, a fight with your roommate and being late for work are all negative outcomes that were avoided by performing a specific behaviour. By eliminating these undesirable outcomes the preventative behaviours become more likely to occur again in the future.
Examples of negative reinforcement
Activity
In pairs think of at least 3 examples of operant conditioning in your own teaching
Are these examples of positive or negativereinforcement?
Consider their success in the classroom20 mins
Classical conditioningAn association is formed between a stimulus and an involuntary response
Operant conditioningAn association is formed between a stimulus and a voluntary response
To summarise …
Later developments in behaviourism
Wolfgang Kohler (1925) – apes presented with out-of-reach food appeared to solve problems by sudden insight rather than trial and error.
Tolman (1946) – rats could learn, remember and use facts about a maze. Create ‘cognitive map’ to store and access information.
Behaviourism dominated psychology until 1960’s. cognitive approaches renew interest in mental processes.
Ralph Tyler (1949)
Click on Ralph for
further info
Educational implications of behaviourism
• Bloom’s taxonomy
• Curriculum planning
• Models of instruction
• Learning outcomes
• AssessmentSee Jordan, et al (2008)pp 29-33
Critique of behaviourism?
• Too simplistic
• Reducing humans behaviour to stimulus – response
• Learning without understanding
• Human learning involves thinking, reasoning and
social factorsScales, 2012: 60
Behaviourism.Not really concerned
with mental processes
Cognitivism.Storing, processing,
remembering.‘Cognitive map’
Constructivism.Connecting new
knowledge to existing.
Making meaning.
References
Jordan, A., Carlile, O and Stack, A. (2008) Approaches to LearningMaidenhead: Open University Press
Pritchard, A. (2009) Ways of Learning (2nd Ed.)London: Routledge
Scales, P. (2013) Teaching in the Lifelong Learning(2nd Ed.) Maidenhead: Open University Press
Woolfolk, A., Hughes, M. and Walkup, V. (2008) Psychology in EducationHarlow: Pearson Education LImited
