Behavioral approach

[Type the document title]

Behavioral approaches Page 1

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO

LEARNING

Subject: Educational Psychology and Guidance

Submitted To: Miss Zobia Kiran

Submitted By: Amina Hussain, Ayesha Latif, Aroosha Hussain and Ayesha Bashir

University Of Education Bank Road Campus Lahore


Table of Contents

1. Behavioral Approaches to Learning _________________________________________ 2

1.1 Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 2

1.2 Importance ______________________________________________________________ 2

1.3 An Introduction to Pavlov's Classical (Respondent) Conditioning ___________________ 3

1.3.1 Experiment _____________________________________________________________________ 3

1.3.2 Major concepts of classical conditioning ______________________________________________ 4

1.3.3 The specific model for classical conditioning ___________________________________________ 4

1.3.3.1 Before conditioning __________________________________________________________ 4

1.3.3.2 During conditioning __________________________________________________________ 5

1.3.3.3 After conditioning ___________________________________________________________ 5

1.3.4 Educational implications ___________________________________________________________ 6

1.4 An Introduction to Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning _________________________ 6

1.4.1 Thorndike's Connectionism Theory __________________________________________________ 7

1.4.1.1 Experiment _________________________________________________________________ 7

1.4.2 Skinner's Operant Conditioning _____________________________________________________ 8

1.4.2.1 Tools and procedures of operant conditioning ____________________________________ 9

1.4.2.1.1 Consequences that shape behavior: Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction ______ 9

1.4.2.1.2 Five operant conditioning procedures________________________________________ 10

1.4.2.2 Applied Behavioral Analysis ___________________________________________________ 11

1.4.2.3 Schedule of Reinforcement ___________________________________________________ 12

1.4.2.4 Educational implications of Operant Conditioning _________________________________ 14

1.5 References _____________________________________________________________ 14


1. Behavioral Approaches to Learning

1.1 Introduction

The behavioral approach to learning and

development, which has for the most part

dominated the psychology of curriculum design

and educational technology, has evolved from

relying on a few basic principles.

Despite various behavioral theories that extend

from the simple classical conditioning of Ivan

Pavlov to elaborated operant conditioning of B. F. Skinner, all share common basic principles

that have been used successfully in designing educational materials.

The behavior psychologists believe that instruction should have a specific goal(s), and they

strongly support sequencing of instructional materials by first presenting simple facts and

then moving into more complex information. They believe that if teachers present and

sequence instructional materials and evaluate students’ achievements, then students will learn

more effectively.

1.2 Importance

To have a good understanding of the behavioral approach and its implication for learning

environments, it is beneficial to first look at the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) and his

influence on Thorndike (1874-1949) and Skinner (1904-1991). Such a historical

understanding of the evolution of the behavioral approach will assist us in the discussion of

the application of behavioral theories to the learning.

Behavioral Approaches To Learning


1.3 An Introduction to Pavlov's Classical (Respondent)

Conditioning

Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied within the

behaviorist tradition (hence the name classical). Classical Conditioning is a type of learning

in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli.

The major theorist in the development of classical

conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist

trained in biology and medicine (as was his

contemporary, Sigmund Freud).

Pavlov in his work on the digestive system of dogs

came upon an interesting idea that changed the

history of psychological research. While studying the

digestive system of dogs he became intrigued with

his observation that dogs deprived of food began to salivate when one of his assistants

walked into the room. He began to investigate this phenomenon and established the laws of

classical conditioning. Skinner renamed this type of learning "respondent conditioning" since

in this type of learning, one is responding to an environmental antecedent.

1.3.1 Experiment

In his laboratory he created a situation where a

bell was sounded a few seconds before a hungry

dog was to be fed. After several attempts

repeating the same process of sounding a bell

before feeding, the dog began to salivate simply



at the sound of the bell. Pavlov called the process (by which the dog learned to respond to an

artificial stimulus to provoke natural responses) classical conditioning. The bell that

originally had no meaning to the dog was referred to as conditioned stimulus because of its

association with food, and the salivation as the response to the sound of the bell as the

conditioned response.

In his later works, Pavlov found that once a dog is conditioned to respond to the sound of a

bell, it would also salivate to other sounds such as a siren or horn. He referred to this

extended conditioned response as stimulus generalization.

1.3.2 Major concepts of classical conditioning

Classical conditioning starts with a reflex: an innate, involuntary behavior or response caused

by an antecedent environmental event. For example, if air is blown into your eye, you blink.

You have no voluntary or conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not.

(UCS) Unconditioned Stimulus: a stimulus which naturally bring about a response

(UCR) Unconditioned response: response occurred as a result of unconditioned stimulus

(NS) Neutral Stimulus: not elicit a response. It is also known as orienting stimulus

(CS) Conditioned Stimulus: stimulus bring about a specific response

(CR) Conditioned response: response occurs by specific stimulus

1.3.3 The specific model for classical conditioning

1.3.3.1 Before conditioning

In order to have classical or respondent conditioning,

there must be a stimulus that will automatically

produce a specific response. This stimulus is called the

Unconditioned Stimulus or UCS because there is no

learning involved in connecting the stimulus and

response. There must also be a stimulus that will not



provoke this specific response, but will produce an orienting response. This stimulus is called

a Neutral Stimulus or an Orienting Stimulus.

1.3.3.2 During conditioning

During conditioning, the neutral

stimulus will first be presented,

followed by the unconditioned

stimulus. Over time, the learner will

develop an association between these

two stimuli (i.e., will learn to make a

connection between the two stimuli.)

1.3.3.3 After conditioning

After conditioning, the previously neutral or orienting stimulus will elicit the response

previously only elicited by the

unconditioned stimulus. The stimulus

is now called a conditioned stimulus

because it will now elicit a different

response as a result of conditioning or

learning. The response is now called a

conditioned response because it is

elicited by a stimulus as a result of

learning. The two responses,

unconditioned and conditioned, look the same, but they are elicited by different stimuli and

are therefore given different labels.

In classical conditioning no new behaviors are learned. Instead, an association is developed

(through pairing) between the NS and the US so that the animal / person responds to both



events / stimuli in the same way; restated, after conditioning, both the US and the CS will

elicit the same involuntary response (the person / animal learns to respond reflexively to a

new stimulus).

1.3.4 Educational implications

In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional

behavior. Things that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli

that gain our attention. For example, if a particular academic subject or remembering a

particular teacher produces emotional feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of

classical conditioning.

1.4 An Introduction to Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce

changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.

Example: When John made good grades [behavior] his parents gave him money

[consequence] so he continued to make good grades [future behavior].

The major theorists for the development of operant conditioning are Edward Thorndike, John

Watson, and B. F. Skinner. This approach to behaviorism played a major role in the

development of the science of psychology, especially in the United States. They proposed

that learning is the result of the application of consequences; that is, learners begin to connect

certain responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the probability of the response

to change (i.e., learning occurs.).

Thorndike labeled this type of learning instrumental. Using consequences, he taught kittens

to manipulate a latch (e.g., an instrument). Skinner renamed instrumental as operant because

it is more descriptive (i.e., in this learning, one is "operating" on, and is influenced by, the

environment). Where classical conditioning illustrates SR learning, operant conditioning is

often viewed as RS learning since it is the consequence that follows the response that



influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. It is through operant

conditioning that voluntary responses are learned.

1.4.1 Thorndike's Connectionism Theory

In the U.S., John B. Watson (1878-1958) and E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949) were influenced

by Pavlov’s classical conditioning and applied it to educational environments. Of these two

American scholars, the work of E.L. Thorndike in the area of applying a behavioral approach

to education dominated educational practices in the United States for several decades in the

twentieth century. Thorndike’s theory of learning has come to be known as connectionism

because he posited that learning was a process of forming a connection between stimulus and

response.

1.4.1.1 Experiment

Thorndike based his theory on an experiment he conducted on animals. He placed a cat in a

cage where a string was hanging from the door into the cage. Food as a reward was placed

outside the cage behind the door. The cat was placed in the cage and after extended trial and

error found that pulling the string would open the door. By opening the door the cat had

access to food or his reward. The process was repeated over and over again till the cat

connected that pulling the string would open the door, which resulted in a reward in terms of

food. Based on this experiment on animals, Thorndike defined learning as habit formation, or

forming a connection between stimulus and response.

Thorndike applied his connection theory directly into educational planning. He developed

two major laws of learning that are influenced by reward: law of effect, and law of exercise.

The law of effect simply states that when a connection is created between stimulus and

response and is followed by reward, the connection is strengthened (Thorndike, 1913). The

law of exercise simply states that the strength of a stimulus response connection is directly

proportional to the number of times it has been repeated.



1.4.2 Skinner's Operant Conditioning

Like other behaviorists, B. S. Skinner's (1904-1991)

learning and developmental theory, known as operant

conditioning, was based on animal research. While

other behaviorists experimented on dogs and cats,

Skinner used rats and pigeons to carry out his

experiments and then applied his animal behavior

findings to human learning processes. Skinner's

behavior theory differed in two major ways in

relation to other behavioral theories.

First, Skinner's theory differed in respect to stimuli-responses and second, his theory

differed in the treatment of reward. In both treatments, Skinner's theory became more

similar to explaining higher psychological functions that are uniquely human. Skinner, like

other behaviorists, believed that stimuli could cause responses in human behavior.

However, he differs in his treatment of response in behavioral theory.

Unlike Thorndike and Watson who believed that there is only one type of response, Skinner

posited two different responses to explain human behavior as opposed to animal behavior.

The two types of response are called respondent and operant.

Respondents are responses that occur to specific stimulus. This type of response is very

similar to the way other behaviorist treated the definition of response. These types of

response represent elementary needs. For example, you drink water (response) when you are

thirsty (stimulus).

However, a majority of human learning behavior, according to Skinner, is of the operant

response type. Operant responses occur for no apparent reason and they are uniquely

human. For example reading a book, playing, or paying attention are operant responses that



occur at random. It is the operant responses that form the basis of Skinner’s operant

conditioning theory. According to Skinner there are certain responses that a human child

has the innate propensity to acquire. These responses he referred to as operant responses.

If the operant responses are properly reinforced, then they become rooted in human behavior.

This is why Skinner refers to his theory as operant conditioning.

Conditionings of the operant response become the goal of learning and education. For

example, when a child in the first grade pays attention or reads a book and the teacher smiles

every time the student is paying attention or reading a book, then such behaviors are

positively reinforced and become part of the behavioral repertoire of the student. Learning to

pay attention or reading a book, as the result of smiles, is uniquely human behavior.

Skinner, very much like Thorndike, believed reward was the most important factor in the

learning process. Skinner, however, preferred the term reinforcement instead of reward. To

Skinner, reinforcement was a process that increased the probability of responses. Skinner

(1968) states: " A reward is compensation or remuneration for services performed and is

seldom immediately contingent on behavior. We reward people; we reinforce behavior.

1.4.2.1 Tools and procedures of operant conditioning

1.4.2.1.1 Consequences that shape behavior: Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction

Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive

(delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates

a total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction

(i.e. no change in consequences following a response).

Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater

frequency.

Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment_%28psychology%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_%28psychology%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment_%28psychology%29



Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a

behavior is inconsequential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfavorable

consequences) it will occur less frequently. When a previously reinforced behavior is

no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a

decline in that behavior.

1.4.2.1.2 Five operant conditioning procedures

Five procedures are defined by the presentation or removal of a reinforcement or punishment.

Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive

refers to addition, and negative refers to subtraction. The procedures are:

1. Positive reinforcement

(Reinforcement): Occurs when a

behavior (response) is followed by a

stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding,

increasing the frequency of that

behavior. In the Skinner box

experiment, a stimulus such as food or

a sugar solution can be delivered when

the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. This p rocedure is

usually called simply reinforcement.

2. Negative reinforcement (Escape): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by

the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In

the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously

sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a

lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_%28psychology%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinner_box

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aversive



3. Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent

stimulation"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as

introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Positive

punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus

or increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an

electric shock). This procedure is usually called simply punishment.

4. Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent

withdrawal"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a

stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting

in a decrease in that behavior.

5. Extinction: Occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is

no longer effective. For example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses.

Then, in "extinction", no food is given. Typically the rat continues to press more and

more slowly and eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be

"extinguished."

In particular Skinner’s contributions can be seen in the area of applied behavioral

analysis and development of schedule of reinforcement.

1.4.2.2 Applied Behavioral Analysis

Contributions of Skinner were influential on development of applied behavior analysis, which

has been successfully used in treating educational problems and social problems such as

anxiety and aggression. The basic principles of applied behavioral analysis can be used to

solve educational problems. Skinner and other behaviorists strongly believed that students’

educational problems must be assessed and an instructional objective(s) should be written to

treat the educational problem. After identify the objective, the teacher should seek for the

most logical sequence of instructional materials presented in small steps to treat the



educational problem. If the students respond to the problem, then they must be immediately

reinforced.

Figure shows how the applied

behavior analysis can be modified

in the area of learning. As

illustrated in the diagram an

effective applied behavior

analysis for education has three

components: assessment,

intervention, and evaluation. The

purpose of assessment is to pretest the learners’ level and to set objective. To achieve the

objective(s), educators must develop an academic intervention program such as sequenced

instructional materials. Finally, the learner should be evaluated and their responses should be

reinforced. If responses are correct, then, the learner should be guided to the next level of

instruction. If the learners cannot provide appropriate responses, they are guided back to the

intervention component for further instruction.

1.4.2.3 Schedule of Reinforcement

The development of the schedule of reinforcement is the second area in which Skinner’s

theory of operant conditioning was influential. Schedules of reinforcement are rules that

control the delivery of reinforcement.

A schedule of reinforcement deals with when or how often a response is reinforced.

From this perspective, reinforcement can either be

Continuous: Continuous reinforcement simply means that the behavior is followed by

a consequence each time it occurs.



Intermittent: Intermittent schedules are based either on the passage of time (interval

schedules) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio schedules).

Intermittent reinforcement can also be ratio. Ratio reinforcement can also be fixed ratio or

variable ratio

Fixed ratio: A ratio deals with

reinforcing a portion of

responses. For example, it can

be fixed reinforcement that is

applied after each set of four

appropriate responses. In this

case the learner receives

reinforcement after completing

four problems.

Variable ratio. A ratio can also be set according to a variable. For example, it may

be based on presenting the subject with reinforcement after an average number of

responses such as 1:3 or 1:20. In this case it is very hard for the learner to predict

when he or she gets reinforcement.

Intermittent reinforcement can also be an interval when reinforcing occurs following a

lapse of time from the previous reinforcement. Interval reinforcement can also be fixed or

variable.

In a fixed interval there is a constant unit of time between the reinforcements. For

example, students will be graded every five minutes when they are using the program.

In variable intervals reinforcement is presented after a lapse of time. The subject

does not know when the next reinforcement is going to come.



1.4.2.4 Educational implications of Operant Conditioning

Our knowledge about operant conditioning has greatly influenced educational practices.

Children at all ages exhibit behavior. Teachers and parents are, by definition, behavior

modifiers (if a child is behaviorally the same at the end of the academic year, you will not

have done your job as a teacher; children are supposed to learn (i.e., produce relatively

permanent change in behavior or behavior potential) as a result of the experiences they have

in the school / classroom setting.

Behavioral studies in classroom settings have established principles that help teachers

organize and arrange classroom experiences to facilitate both academic and social behavior.

Instruction itself has also been the focus of numerous studies, and has resulted in a variety of

teaching models for educators at all levels. Programmed instruction is only one such model.

Programmed instruction requires that learning be done in small steps, with the learner being

an active participant (rather than passive), and that immediate corrective feedback is provided

at each step.

1.5 References

1) Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to classical (respondent) conditioning.

Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved

[date], from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/classcnd.html

2) Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental)

conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State

University. Retrieved [date] from,

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/operant.html

3) http://edschool.csueastbay.edu/departments/etleads/Chapter3Behaviroal.PDF.

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/classcnd.html

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/operant.html

http://edschool.csueastbay.edu/departments/etleads/Chapter3Behaviroal.PDF