LEARNING STRATEGIES

GROUP 3 :1. SISKA FEBRI NURIZA

(14178055)2. MELLATI MANDASARI

(14178032)

DEVELOPMENTS IN LANGUAGE LEARNERS STRATEGIES

LEARNING STRATEGIESBy Rod Ellis

INTRODUCTION

Individual learner differencesBelieveAffective statesGeneral factorsPrevious learning experiences

Situational factors The setting formal or informalThe nature of the instruction Specific task of learner

INTRODUCTION

Main finding of this research

1. A number of definitions learning strategy

2. Main method that have to investigate them

3. Discussion of various frameworks for classifying them

4. Factors that influence learners’ choice of strategy

Defining learning strategy

The concept of strategy is unclear until now

General definition Strategy consisted of mental behavioral activity related to some specific stage in

the overall process of language acquisition or language use

General distinction made by three types of strategies:

- Production- Communication

- learning

A production strategy consists of an attempt to use ones linguistic system efficiently and clearly with a

minimum effort

Communication strategies consists of attempt to deal with the problem in communication that have arisen

in interaction

Language learning strategy is an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in target

language

Source Definition

Stern 1983

Weinstein and Mayer 1986

Chamot 1987

Rubin 1987

Oxford 1989

-Strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristic of the approach employed by the language learner. Techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior. -Behavior and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners’ encoding process-Learning strategies are techniques approaches or deliberates actions that students take in order to facilitate learning recall of both linguistic and content area information-Learning strategies are strategies which contributes to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly -LLS are behavior or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.

Cohen (1990:15) refers to learning strategies directed at the language skill of vocabulary learning

(linguistic knowledge)

The table shows reveals a number of problems, because it is not clear whether they are to be

perceived of as behavioral or mental

1. Oxford (1989) appears to see them as essentially behavioral, whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1989)

see them as both behavioral and mental.

2. Stern (1983) distinguish strategies and techniques. (such grammar and vocabulary). In other hand the

other researcher use the term strategy to refer the kind of behaviors Stern calls techniques

4. Learning strategy have seen direct r indirect effect on interlanguage development

3. Whether learning strategy – conscious or subconscious

List the main characteristic of learning strategy1. Strategy refer to both general approach or

specific action or technique used to learn anL2

2. Strategies are problem oriented3. Learner are generally aware of the strategy

they use4. Strategy involve linguistic behavior and non

linguistic5. Linguistic strategy can be perform in L1 and

L26. Some strategy are behavioral and other are

mental7. In the main strategy contribute indirect to

learning and other indirect8. learning strategy use various considerably

as a result of both the kind of the task thelearner is engage and individual preference.

Anderson distinguish 3 stages of skill learning

1. Cognitive sage (concious strategy )2. Associate stage (connect the skill and

construct efficient product)3. Automatic stage (the action become

subconscious)

Method used to investigate learning strategy

Interview and questionnaire are require learner to report on the learning strategies they use or an relation

to specific activity .

Questionaire- Naiman et al (1978) ask general question about the learner technique for studying the sound

system, grammar, vocabulary, and the four skills

Interview- Wenden 1987 conduct interview on which she asked learner to comment on specific learning activities.

Interview and questionnaire diary studies, think aloud task

Collecting the

Diary studies- collecting the information of learning strategies by retrospective report

Think aloud- require learner to introspect the strategy that they use in particular task

Collecting the

Classifying learner strategy

Little classify learning strategies into general

categories

Type of learnerSettingParticular interest

Scehan 1989 identifies in different taxonomies

1. Learner capacity to impose himself on learningsituation (how to use word expression, puttingword in a sentence to check understanding)

2. Technical predisposition (Naiman et al- realizingthat language as a system- analysis the targetlanguage and making inferring about it)

3. Learner capacity to evaluate for exampleNaiman and Rubin both refer to the importance ofmonitoring (guesses, correction error)

Collecting the

Three major type of strategy (o,melly and chamots)

Cognitive strategy

RepetitionNote-takingElaborating

Metacognitive

PlanningMonitoringEvaluating

Working with peers and asking questions toteacher and native speakerSocial / affective

Collecting the

Oxford (1985) classify leaning strategy into primary strategy and

secondary strategy

1990 Classify learning strategy into direct and indirect

Learning strategy

Direct strategy

Memory strategies

Cognitive srategy

Compensation strategies

Indirect strategy

Metacognitive strategies

Affective strategies

Social strategies

Collecting the

Factors affecting strategy choice

1. Individual learner differences

1. Attitude2. Affective strategy3. General factors

2. Believe about language learning

1. Learner with emphasized on the importanceof learning

2. Learner with emphasized on the importanceof using language

3. Learner who stress on personal factors

Collecting the

3. Learner factors

a. Age

Young children Older children

•Employ strategy in a task specific manner •Often simple Example repetition

•Make use of general strategies-more flexible•More complex and sophisticated example: active systematic and elaboration procedures

Collecting the

3. Learner factors

b. AptitudeIt is not strongly related to strategy .

Bialystok (1981) found aptitude was not influence as learners’ believes , in other hand, learner with decontextualized language skill (aspect of aptitude skill) will be able to talk about the strategy they

use

Leino (1998) learner with high conceptual level were better describing their strategies or vice versa

Collecting the

b. Learning style

Oxford (1989) people with different learning style have different learning strategy

c. Learner motivation

Oxford and Nyikos (1989) study at university in the US found that degree of motivation influence the choice of language learning.

Formal practice more popular than functional practice

d. Learner goal

Also determine strategy use . For example strategy us in expression students should concern to with developing communicative

competence rather than reading technical literature

Collecting the

e. Learner personality

Its not reliable because extrovert students are expected to report they strategy use but in some cases the introvert students can

report significantly greater use of strategies than extrovert

Collecting the

The learner personality background

Erman (1990) Found that professional linguistic reported using more strategies

more frequently that untrained instructed and students

Chamoet et al (1987) higher level students at Spanish and Russian in US using more strategies rather than beginning level of students

Factors in strategy use

Indivudual learner differences Social factors

Leaner factors of age and motvation, backgroud emerge as important

factors

The language being learntThe language setting

The type of learning taskThe learner sex

Learning strategies and language use

There are some studies about relationship learning strategies and languge learning

Focus on strategies used to learn

vocabulary

The population 1. Adult L2

learner2. Learning

strategies used by children

The strategies Vs the

criterion of learning

measurement

Good language learner

Successful learner

Five major aspects successful language learning

1. A concern for language form

2.A concern for communication

3. An active task approach

4. An awareness of the learning process

5. A capacity to use strategies a flexibly in accordance with task requirement

Study Learner Method Result

Rubin 1975 Lerner of mixed ages in classroomsettings

Observation (emphazise in importang using video camera)

Following strategies disscussed :1. Preparedness to guess2. Attempt to to communcate3. Willing for appear4. Attention to form5. Practising6. Moitoring and other’s speech7. Attending the meaning

Naiman et al. 1978

1. 34 graduateL2 learner –many multilingual

2. Students of L2 French in grades 8, 10, 12

1.Interview-questionaire2. Classroom observation schedule

Following strategies disscussedidentified :1. Active task approach2. Realization of language as

system3. Realization of language as a

means communication and interaction

4. Management of affective commands

5. Monitoring of L2 performance

Rubin 1981 Young adults in classroom setting

1. Classroom observation schedule

2. observation of

Strategies in these areas identified1. Clarification2. Monitoring3. Memorization

Studies of vocabulary learning strategies

Brown and Perry (1991)Investigate the success of three vocabulary learning

keyword semanticA keyword semantic

Studies of learning strategies used by children

Wong Fillmore (1976 ; 1979)

Five mexican children learning english in the Unites States

Collecting data : children natural speaking in the pair

with native speaker child in a play situation.

Chesterfield and chesterfield (1980)

Succesfully by children in the early stages of language

learning

Fourteen mexican american children where sudy indifferent point during

their first year schooling

Data collected by using observtion in bilingual classroom.

The strategies use is repetition, memorization and use of formulac expressions

Relating learning strategies to second language development

conclusion

.1.The strategies that learner elect to use reflect their general stage of L2 development.

2.Successfulrner appear to use learning strategies more frequently and in qualitatively different ways than learner whoa are less successful

3.successful language learning involves attention in both form and meaning

4. different kinds of language strategies many contribute to different aspects of l2 profiency

5. learner need to employ the strategies flexibly by selecting those strategies that are appropriate for performing a particular learning tasks

6.because of metacognitive strategies is involving identification planning monitoring

and evaluation assume considerable importance at least for adults

7. the successful learner able tot talk what the strategies' that they use

8. the leaner strategies may difference social and interactional strategies maybe more important with young learner

Training learner in the use of learning strategies

Bialystock (1983b )

The ability of grade 10 student of L2 French to inferences meaning

of words in a text

The experimental class: using picture cues

and use dictionaries

improved

Other class:

Less effective

Cohen and Aphek (1980 ) adult learner of L2

Hebrew in vocabulary acquisition through

assosiations

The students more

proficient in using

association in recall tasks

O’Malley (1985b) the effect of two kinds of training on

75 intermedite level ESL students of mixed ethnic

background

The control group

The experimental group 1 using imagery and

grouping (cognitive strategy). The second

group received training with the

similar strategy and also in self evaluation

(metalingualstrategy)

More useful for advanced learners

The learning styles of different groups

need to be account in

planning strategy training

There are many issues that need we choose before strategy training can be implemneted effectively

1. More work is need to discover what strategies and, in particular, what combination of strategies that should be taught

2. we have to found of taking into account learner own preferred learning strategies

3. some learner need convincing that strategy learning in worth while

4. it is not clear whether learner training will work best when the exists as separate strand in language program or when is fully into the language teaching materials

5. When strategy training should be attempted6. Whether learners should be made conscious of the

strategies they are taught, or whether just providing practice opportunities is sufficient

DEVELOPMENTS IN

LANGUAGE LEARNERS

STRATEGIES

Written by : Ernesto Macaro

1. The origins of Language Learners Strategies

The history of research in second

language acquisition

Two lines of development that show the birth of LLS

Researchers’ attention changed from the teacher

and his/her method of teaching

The revolution of the researchers, practitioners and policy makers’ beliefs

about definition of learning a language

a. Rejoice :

The ‘Good Language Learner’

is Born

In the late 1960s and early 1970s

Why some learners learnt language better than others?

The characteristics of good learners

Large and universal

Researchers’ attention changed from the teacher and his/her method of

teaching

Disappoinment

• Characteristics of good language learners

• 1. An active approach to the task

• 2. Experimentation and planning

• 3. Willingness to practice

• 4. self-monitoring and critical sensitivity

Stren (1975)

• Characteristics of good language learners

• 1. The willingness and ability to guess the meaning of unknown words

• 2. The willingness to monitor one’s own speech

• 3. A strong drive to communicate

• 4. A willingness to attend to both form and meaning

• 5. A lack of inhibition

Rubin (1975)

• Characteristics of good language learners

• 1. The comprehension of the learners about language as a means of communication

• 2. An ability to manage the affective demands of language learning

Naiman et al. (1978/1995)

b. Searching for Communicative

Competence

The conceptualization about what it was to be competent in language was changing in 1980 where the communicative competence include

not only grammatical competence but also sociolinguistic and discourse competence and it also includes strategic competence

Linguistic knowledge and strategic knowledge

Strategic competence focused on communication strategies

Means a sufficiently large mental lexicon and a rule system sufficiently to allow learner to put an utterance or sentence together. For example,

grammatical knowledge

Knowing what to do with linguistic knowledge: knowing

how to put it to its best use

2. Exploring a Language Learner Strategy

a. The Relationship between

Knowing and Doing

If you are being able to do something requires you to have the knowledge about it. And also you to have knowledge of the strategies .

The knowledge- behavior relationship in a strategy has become an issues because the theory of ‘proceduralization or automaticity

b. The Size of Strategy

Practically achievable The strategies must bee

effective

The achievement (learning goal in a specific task or learning situation)

SMALL

c. What Makes an Action Strategic?

Dornyei (2005) Whether strategies actually exist? The previous researcher didn’t confirm which strategy that indicate the behavior or non strategic

Good learners = good strategies

Poor learners = bad strategies

Choosing all of strategies in the right combination, available and in appropriate time

The solution of the problem :

- Small and mental activity

- Conscious behavior should be classified

- There are no good or bad strategies

3. Developments in Strategy

Elicitation InstrumentsThere are two types of elicit instruments : the questionnaire and the verbal self-report (think aloud protocol). LLS questionnaire here divided into two types :

The general questionnaire : try to draw out the overall strategic behavior of the learners. The best general questionnaire is the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) , developed by Rebecca Oxford in the late 1980s

Task specific questionnaire

4. The Good Language Learner Reborn

There are four terms that usually use in the LLS literature by some researchers: ‘proficiency’, ‘successful’, ‘high achieving’, and ‘experienced’.

‘proficiency’ = the measurement

‘achievement’ = the outcome of education

‘success’ = someone has gotten the good result in language test

‘expertise’ = someone who learnt a lot of languages and show their ability in language continually.

5. Developments in Strategy-based InstructionThere are five familiar steps in SBI:1. Increase the size and types of LLS that

appropriate for the students2. In the process of introduction the teacher or

peers show the model of strategies that they use directly

3. Students’ opportunity to practice the strategies with teacher/researchers’ support

4. Elimination of the support5. Evaluation the effectiveness of the SBI

Strategy evaluation – attribution – self efficacy (Graham, 2004)

The phenomena that also happened in implementing SBI for young children and adult:

1. Older learners seem opposed to SBI

2. Using L1

The solution : change the strategic behavior as part of the assessment system. Assessment would need to focus on the process of learning than the

product of learning

The solutions : 1. mixing the L1 and L2 in the instruction, but trying to increase the use of L2.

2. To provide evidence that SBI instruction is so effective in raising achieving

6. The Research Evidence in LLS and SBI

The relationship between LLS –other Variables and research on SBL = in the learning process

The research evidences:Learners that have high levels of proficiency, use more and very different strategies

In fact, higher proficiency facilitates different strategic behaviorIts not mean that using more different strategies make the students reach

the high levels of proficiency

The second evidence is the older learners use different strategies than younger learners

The result of the study show that the older learners using more cognitively complex strategies while the younger learners tend to use the social

strategies

Females are more strategic than malesWhatton (2003) and Griffiths (2003) did not find females using more or particularly

different strategies than males

The differences of cultural groups approaches to L2 study have also not been support by LLS research

Beddel (1993) found that only limited differences between the Chinese students he studied and Western students report in other studies

Grainger (1997) found that no significant differences in reported strategy use

The variable that occur to interact with high or different strategy use the most is motivation

Motivated learners = use more or different strategies Different strategies = learning is success and higher levels of motivationThe fact both of them achieve the learners with high levels of education

There is no evidence for

a causal link between

Strategic behavior Proficiency or achievement measure

One of the evidence that show the link, if the research evidence on strategy based instruction was POSITIVE

Hasan (2005) stated that some evidence that L2 learners using strategic behavior give the faster progress than do not

Flaitz and Feyten (1996) and Nunan (1992) didn’t find the improvement because of the strategic behavior

The vast majority of SBI studies have focused on a single skill and the result of study showed the positive improvement toward four skills (Listening,

Speaking, Reading and Writing)

CONCLUSION1. This study described about LLS movement because of the

interest of researchers have changed and their interest in the learners because what learners do with their linguistics knowledge is important than the knowledge itself.

2. Without understanding of how the good language learners becomes good it is impossible to say that strategic behaviouras a students’ factor in success

3. In explaining the strategy the teacher should be explained carefully and make it as small as possible, should consider with the material and flexible combination

4. Strategic behaviour can be achieved by beginning investigate if and how strategies transfer from one task to another and one educational setting to another

5. We should be considering ‘achievement’. By identify high-achieving and low-achieving students and identify the strategies they use and why they use them

Suggestion

M.Hafdi : we should be careful as a teacher in order to believe our students in doing the task or assignment or their proficiency. Because as I saw in the reality many students are doing the task. The tend to copy/paste in the internet.

Elwin Zebua: I did not agree with mr.Hafdi’sstatement because proficiency cannot see as the students’ ability is good or bad. If you do not trust the students, you won’t be able to transfer the knowledge to the students

Questions 1. Hesti : related to the first article, stage of learning: cognitive, associative and

automatic. How to determine these stage of learning?2. Desfi yenti : should the strategy based instruction be taught to the students?3. Robby Ibrahim : what is the appropriate strategy for each level of students that

related to the Oxford strategy? 4. Iftitah Rahmi: asking about our opinion about ‘the attitude that is not strongly

related with the strategy’ which is the researchers said in the article.

Additional idea: Question no 2= Dorsy Deshongfa : yes, because it is really important. Strategy

based instructor also finding the students’ difficulties before decide the appropriate strategy for the students.

Question no 3=Ifitah rahmi : not the appropriateness, but how the strategy influence that use by

the students and frequency the use of strategy. Elwin Zebua : strategy is the key of the students’ need. What aspect or

considering about and it will in crease the size or types LLS.