Ajeds volime 7_sept_2010

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES

(AJEDS)

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES

September, 2010

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PROF. B.S. OKEKE

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF

PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)

VOL. 7, NO.1 September, 2010

ISSN: 07945-760

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)

EDITORIAL BOARD

• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief

University of Port Harcourt

• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor University of Port Harcourt

• Professor (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt

• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor

• Dr. David Aboho Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor

• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk University of Uyo - Associate Editor

• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart Rivers State College of Education, Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

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CONSULTING EDITORS Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - University of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria. Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science

And Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe. Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Dr.(Mrs.) Patricia B. - English Section, Department of Mireku-Gyimah Mining Engineering University of Mines and

Technology (UMAT), Tarkwa, Ghana.

Dr. Bernard Moswela - Faculty of Education, University of Botswana.

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 7., No 1, September, 2010

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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 7, Number 1 of the journal, and it contains 17 articles. Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines. • The article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and

appendices inclusive. • Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of

paper only, using font 14. • Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words. • Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with

non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board. • Citations and references must conform to current American

Psychological Association (APA) style. • Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed

and stamped large (bag) envelope as well as an official self addressed/stamped envelope for return of assessed paper(s), and acceptance letter respectively.

• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone numbers of contributors.

All correspondence should be directed to:

Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS), C/o Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.7., No 1, September, 2010

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Fasasi, Y.A. Department of Educational Management, University of

Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Etejere, P.A.O. Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Benwari, N.N. Department of Curriculum & Instruction, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Leigha, A.M. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Nbina, J.B. Department of curriculum Studies & Educational Technology Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Eimuhi, J.O. Department of Educational Foundations & Management, Faculty of Education Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria.

Oyebamiji, M.A. Department of Adult & Non-Formal Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Abanum, B.K. Department of Adult & Non-Formal Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Ekechukwu, R. Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance & Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Oyeoku, E. K. Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.


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Paloma, F.G. Department of Human, Philosophical & Educational Sciences, University of Salemo, Italy.

Nicodemo Maria. Department of Science of Formation, University of Salemo, Italy.

Sgambelluri R. Department of Human Philosophical & Educational science, University of Salemo, Italy.

Ambretti, A. Department of Human Philosophical & Educational Sciences, University of Salemo,Italy.

Di Tore S. Department of Human, Philosophical & Educational Sciences, University of Salemo,Italy.

Sibilio Maurizio Department of Human, Philosophical & Educational Sciences, University of Salemo,Italy.

Nwankwo, O.C. Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance & Counselling , University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Onuorah, M.N. Air force Secondary School, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Nwanekezi, A.U. Faculty of Education , University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Nzokurum, J.C. Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt Nigeria.

Abidoye, A.S. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Nbina, J.B. Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Babajide, E.O. College of Human Resource Management, Ogun State, University of Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.

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Olaosebikan, B.T. Department of Physical & Health Education, Faculty of Education, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Orunaboka, T.T. Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Onyido, J.A. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education , University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Ogeh, O. M. Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Odu, K.O. Department of Technical & Business Education, Abraka, Delta state, Nigeria.

Nwile, B. C. Department of Educational Management, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Editorial Board iii Consulting Editors iv Editorial/Notes for Contributors v List of Contributors vi Table of Contents ix

INFLUENCE OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF EDUCATION ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN NIGERIA Dr. Y.A. Fasasi & Dr. (Mrs.) P.A.O. Etejere 1 EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND REMEDIES Dr. (Mrs) N.N. Benwari & Angela M. Leigha (Mrs) 5 EFFECTS OF SELF-REGULATION AS A CURRICULUM DELIVERY STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY Jacobson Barineka Nbina Ph.D. 15 FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION: A POTENT TOOL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN EDO STATE OF NIGERIA Eimuhi, Justina O.(Ph.D.) 22 COMMUNITY EDUCATION AS A TOOL FOR IMPROVED SOCIO-ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AMONG WOMEN IN SOME SELECTED RURAL COMMUNITIES OF RIVERS STATE. Oyebamiji, M.A.(Ph.D.) & Abanum, B.K. 30 AGE AND RANK DIFFERENTIALS AS CORRELATES OF BURNOUT AMONG POLICEMEN IN RIVERS STATE: IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING DR. (Mrs) Rosemary Ekechukwu 36 DOCUMENTATION OF THE CONTRIBUTUIONS OF AGE-GRADES TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHAFIA EDUCATION ZONE OF ABIA STATE Oyeoku, Eke Kalu 42


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DIVERGENT DIDACTICS IN THE AGE OF COMPLEXITY THE CATEGORICAL ARCHITECTURE OF KNOWLEDGE’S OVERCOMING Gomez Paloma F., Nicodemo M. , Sgambelluri R., Ambretti A.,Di Tore S.& Sibilio M. 50 WOMEN AND POVERTY:THE NIGER-DELTA EXPERIENCE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT. Prof. Nwankwo, O.C. & Onuorah, Maria N. (Mrs) 62 SCIENCE TEACHING IN NIGERIAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS: THE WAY FORWARD Dr. (Mrs) A.U. Nwanekezi & Dr. (Mrs.) J.C. Nzokurum 68 ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AS TOOL FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA Abidoye A. Sarumi, Ph.D. 74 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND THE ACQUISITION OF SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS: IMPLICATIONS FOR GENDER BALANCING IN NIGERIA. Nbina, Jacobson Barineka (Ph.D). 84 IMPACT OF WORKPLACE LEARNING ON ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AMONG INDUSTRIAL WORKERS IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA Babajide, Elsie Omolara (Ph.D.) 88 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF COMPETENCE ACQUIRED BY GRADUATES OF THE UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMME OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA Olaosebikan, Benjamin Tunji Ph.D. & Orunaboka, Tamunobelema Tammy Ph.D. 96 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT – AN APPRAISAL Dr. (Mrs) Josephine A. Onyido & Ogeh, Obitor M. 106 HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND NEW RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER ODU, Kennedy Oji (Ph.D) 112 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN NIGERIA Nwile, Befii Charles 123

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INFLUENCE OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF EDUCATION ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN NIGERIA

DR. Y.A. FASASI DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN,

NIGERIA. E- mail address: adefasas@ yahoo.com

DR. (MRS.) P.A.O. ETEJERE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN,

NIGERIA. E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper focuses on demand and supply of education and their influence on employment opportunities in Nigeria. An attempt by an individual to acquire knowledge and skills is usually based on the prospects presently enjoyed by specialists in a field, parental control or the background at a lower level of education. These seem to be poor determinants of future employment opportunities. Also, quality of teachers, facilities and other inputs in education are likely to influence the quality of education to be supplied by the educational institutions and consequently, the employment opportunities. The bases for demanding and the strategies for supplying education seem to be having certain problems which may not make employment after graduation feasible. Educators and administrators are to identify trends in demand and supply and enlighten parents and students. The government should provide qualitative education which would enhance employment opportunities of graduates. Introduction In Nigeria, the Government and citizens have adopted education as an instrument for achieving the country’s developmental objectives. Thus, educational institutions are established at primary, secondary and tertiary levels in order to provide opportunities for knowledge and skill acquisition in different aspects of life. The institutions are also expected to assist in the development of mental, physical and social abilities so that the school leavers will be able to live a meaningful life and contribute positively to the development of the society (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Moreover, the Government has embarked on series of educational programmes which are intended to provide adequate opportunities for all citizens. These have encouraged a large number of school age children to enroll in schools and subsequently graduate to higher levels or to the world of work. The expectation is that after attending and completing an education level, graduates who are willing should be able to secure jobs and be able to sustain themselves economically. In fact, the introduction of a 9- year basic education is meant, among others, to provide more opportunities for primary school pupils to acquire necessary skills for additional three years of junior secondary education (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2006). However, experience of school graduates concerning gainful employment leaves much to be desired. Many look hopelessly and helplessly towards the government which can not satisfy all of them. Many also look onto private organizations which can only absorb a very few number of graduates. Those who wish to stand on their own could not achieve this objective as a result of poor knowledge-base and lack of capital. This situation has turned many graduate jobless. The prevailing situation in the society is that many able and willing graduates do not get jobs, at all, many get jobs that are irrelevant to their specialization while many others get jobs with poor salaries (Babalola, 2007).

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies. Vol. 7., No. 1, September, 2010

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Therefore, education system at all levels should be re-examined in order to find out what has gone wrong and why. In this regard, this paper examines the citizens’ demand for and the government’s supply of education vis a vis their relevance to the needs of labour market in particular and the society in general. Relationship between Education and Employment

Education is the development of an individual, physically, socially, mentally, morally and economically, so that an individual will be able to live well and contribute to the progress of the society. Its import lies in the fact that availability of natural resources in a country would only indicate that there are potentials for wealth and prosperity. The potentials remain dormant until there are human beings who have been trained for identification, extraction and utilization of natural resources. When these personnel are engaged in productive activities, they become agents for further development of human and material resources. The extent to which individuals are trained would determine the caliber of workforce available to the nation. Work refers to a vocation, through which an individual is able to contribute to public welfare and he is entitled in the community. Ogunbameru (2004) categorized work into three: economic activity (employment), unpaid to share in the goods available, domestic and leisure activity and voluntary community service. This categorization implies that employment is a type of work embarked upon as an economic venture. People, therefore, seek employment in order to earn a living and to contribute to the well-being of the society. Moreover, part of the aims of education is to provide knowledge, ability and necessary training to work productively in the society. An employed individual is expected to utilize his knowledge and skills, and to continue to acquire more of these in order to improve productivity. It is probably in realization of these, that the government has designed the nation’s education system in a manner that could ensure acquisition of necessary skills and competencies. For example, one of the objectives of education at the secondary school level is ‘’to provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades’’ (FRN, 2004 : 18). Furthermore, science, vocational and technical education are designed to develop knowledge and skills in science, technology, agricultural, industry, commerce and other relevant fields. Tertiary education is designed to contribute to national development through relevant high level manpower training. This is to show that Nigeria has an educational policy designed for national development through the development of its human resources. The educated manpower are to be employed in different sectors where they will contribute to the development of the nation. The realization of this laudable goal depends on the positive relationship among demand for education, its supply and the needs of the society as expressed at the labour market.

Demand for Education and its influence on Employment

Demand for education refers to the desire to pursue a particular field of study. This is informed by a number of factors. Decision to acquire a particular skill could be based on the prospects presently enjoyed by specialists in the field, in terms of salaries and enhanced status. However, demand for education in this manner may not have positive influence on employment. An individual concerned may spend up to five years to get qualified. Within this period, events such as economic depression and technological development could have occurred and neutralized the need for a particular skill. Demand for education may be initiated by parent or guardian of a student when they desire a particular profession. This does not take the need of the society into consideration. Also the interest and ability of the student may affect performance and consequently the future job prospects. An individual desire for higher education may warrant an application for any course of study without minding the needs of the society. Also, an institution of learning may offer any course to an applicant in order to satisfy his admission needs. These could have negative consequences on employment prospect in future. Educational background at primary and secondary levels could pave way for or block the chances of further educational opportunities and consequently job prospects. For example, a student with weak background in

Influence of demand and supply of education on employment opportunities in Nigeria.: Fasasi, Y.A. & Etejere, P.A.O.

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science will not be able to offer science-based courses and consequently he will be denied of any job opportunities in this field. Supply of Education and its Consequence on Employment

Quality and quantity of education given in primary, secondary and tertiary levels could determine the extent of employability of graduates from the institutions. In a tracer study conducted by Ayeni and Oladipo (2007) on training and employment of technical college graduates in Oyo State, out of 900 graduates from the 4 technical colleges, 441 (49%) got employment, while 459 (51%) were unemployed. Instances such as this are common in feature of graduates from different institutions and could be due to many factors. For example, teachers’ quality would determine the quality of education supplied by an institution. In a study carried out by Okebukola (2005), teachers who were specialists in their fields stated that they had difficulty in teaching some topics in their subjects. Many of the teachers were found to be poor in knowledge of subject-matter, communication skills and entrepreneurial skills. These teachers are not likely to assist their learners in acquisition of sound knowledge and skills. Also, availability of educational facilities such as teaching and learning materials would determine the quality of education to be supplied to the learners. Incidentally, many schools do not have the facilities in adequate quality and quantity. In fact, there is a wide variation in facilities available in schools located in rural and urban centres. The quality of education to be supplied from these schools leaves much to be desired. This will reflect in the graduates from the schools who may not be able to fit into available jobs. Moreover, the curriculum spells out the content of an education programme. It determines the quality and quantity of knowledge to be acquired. Therefore, it is a vital aspect of the education system which is to be supplied. If it is irrelevant, inadequate and not comprehensive, the knowledge and skills to be supplied will be deficient and the graduates of the institutions will be disadvantaged in terms of employment opportunities. Funding and financing also constitute important inputs in that they determine the quality of education to be supplied to the society. If an institution is starved of fund, it will not be able to meet its current and capital expenditure, and the school programmes will suffer. On the other hand, there is need for prudent financial management if an educational institution will be able to attain high quality. Conclusion and Recommendations

The discussion so far leads to the conclusion that each of the bases for demanding education is not likely to enhance a student’s chance for employment after graduation. It can also be concluded that quality inputs into education is important as a strategy for supply of knowledge and skills in education if graduates are to be gainfully employed. The following recommendations are therefore worth of note:

(i) Educators and administrators should study the trends in demand and supply of education

and advise the stakeholders especially parents and students. This is because students’ use of

present employment prospect to determine future, and parents’ insistence on a particular

course of study could be counterproductive at the labour market.

(ii) Demand for any type of education should be based on developmental needs and the plans

prepared to achieve the needs. In this regard, the government, the parents and other

stakeholders should have a common forum for decision making.

(iii) There is need for qualitative education in all aspects. All inputs should be of high quality. Processing of the inputs should also be of high quality. The government should ensure these through its quality control agents.


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References Ayeni, A.O. & Oladipo, S.A. (2007). Training and employment of technical college graduates. Journal of

Applied Research in Education, 5 (1): 116-123. Babalola, J.B. (2007). Reinventing Nigerian higher education for youth employment in a competitive

global economy. A distinguished lecture delivered at the University of Calabar, Department of Educational Administration and Planning, University of Calabar.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. (4th Edition). Lagos: NERDC. Federal Government of Nigeria (2006). 40 Frequently asked questions on Universal Basic Education.

Abuja: Universal Basic Education Commission. Ogunbameru, O.A. (2004). Organizational dynamics. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Okebukola, P. (2005). Quality assurance in teacher education: The role of faculty of education in Nigerian

universities. A Paper Delivered at the Annual Conference of Committee of Deans of Nigerian Universities at Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin.

Influence of demand and supply of education on employment opportunities in Nigeria.: Fasasi, Y.A. & Etejere, P.A.O.

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EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA:

CAUSES, EFFECTS AND REMEDIES

Dr. (Mrs.) N.N. Benwari Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce

Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria Phone: 08037078830 Email: [email protected]

Angela M. Leigha (Mrs.)

Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Phone: 08063320606. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This study investigated the causes, effects and remedies of examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state. Fifty (50) schools were randomly selected with twenty-five (25) each from rural and urban areas. Being an already existing issue, a descriptive survey design was used. A total of 150 teachers at five (5) teachers per school constituted the sample. A modified four-point Likert scale questionnaire titled: Causes, Effects and Remedies of Examination Malpractice (CEREM) was constructed and used to elicit relevant information. Four research questions were posed to guide the study. The mean and standard deviation statistics were used in analyzing the data collected. The findings revealed that the factors causing examination malpractice were mutually exclusive ranging from societal value system, economic factors, and psychological factors to academic factors. Examination malpractice affects the school system, students and their parents, the government and, indeed, the entire society. Besides the remedies, the study recommended government should increase funding, provide appropriate facilities as well as ensure regular and continuous supervision and inspection of schools. Key words: Examination malpractice, causes, effects, remedies, secondary schools, Bayelsa state. Introduction

In Nigeria, efforts made to administer examinations that meet standards of reliability, validity, objectivity, and usability have become a major challenge due to examination malpractice or cheating (Asuka, 1997). A record (statistics of examination irregularities and malpractices in WAEC May/June exams from 1993 to 2002) has it that Bayelsa state rank fourth in examination malpractice in Nigeria with an Examination Malpractice Index (EMI) of 26.60. Also, the Examination Ethics Project Memo to Secondary Education Reference Committee (JCC, 2004) notes that in 2002 alone, the EMI for Bayelsa state stood at 20.59 still ranking 4th

Examination malpractice could be viewed from different perspectives. To the Sociologist, examination malpractice is any deviant act that is perpetrated by a student, candidate or person (aiding a candidate) before, during and after an examination to be declared successful (Asuka, 1994). The moralist sees it as a bad practice applied in an examination in order to make the examinee earn an unmerited grade (Asuru, 2004). Legally, examination malpractice is an illegal act by the examinee or examiner or his agent/s before, during or after the examination with the intent to make the examinee have an undue advantage or earn an unmerited grade (Asuru, 1997; Asuru, 2004; Ezekiel-Hart, 2006; Ezeh & Abanobi (2004) in Egwunyenga

out of 36 states of the federation. This situation is yet to improve over the years.


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& Oghuvbu, 2008; Onoja (2004) in Egwunyenga & Oghuvbu, 2008; Oparta, 2003, in Egwunyenga & Oghuvbu, 2008). It is a fraud (Ganagana, 2005).

Types of examination malpractice

Asuru (2004) classifies committal of examination malpractice into three different stages or types, viz: pre-examination stage, during-examination stage and the Post-examination stage. (A) Pre-Examination Malpractice

(B) During Examination Malpractice; further subdivided into:

(i) Special Centers (ii) Double Entry (iii) Impersonation/Mercenary (iv) Body Writing or Tattoo (v) Invitation to Treat (vi) Bullets/Missiles/Microchips/Super Prints/Prototype/Arms and Ammunition (vii) Consulting Materials Outside the Examination Hall (viii) Getting External Assistance (ix) Necking/Giraffing/Dubbing/Alliance/Ecomog (x) Electronic/Computer Method (xi) Obasanjo Messenger or GSM Connection (xii) Naira Chip (C) Post-Examination Malpractice; also subdivided into:

(i) Rewriting of the Paper after the examination (ii) Back for Bed (i) Cash and Carry (Sorting/Finding) (ii) Collective Settlement (iii) Altering of Scores (iv) Source Syndicate (v) Hit Men (vi) Certificate Racketeering (D) Project, Thesis and Assignment Contractors.

Quite a number of laws, including Act No. 27, 1973; Act No. 20, 1984 as amended by Act No 22, 1986 and Act No 33, 1999, which repealed and amended sections of the 1986 Act, have been passed to eradicate examination malpractice in schools to no avail (Asuru, 2004). The percentage of those who commit examination malpractice grew from 1% in 1985 to over 13% of the candidates in 1994 (Oluyeba, 1993, in Egbezor & Agabi, 2005).

So what are the causes of examination malpractice in schools?

Examination satisfies quite a number of objectives and involves many personalities. Abuse or malpractice may equally gravitate around those objectives or purposes especially where they are considered critical to survival of a person or system. Examination malpractice, Asuru (2004) believes, is caused by the following factors: societal value system, economic factors, overemphasis on paper qualification, faulty admission system, perceived difficulty of some subjects or courses, constant closure of schools due to strike, parental factor and community school involvement. To Ganagana (2005), the cause is psychological, while Onoja (2004) blames the issue on students’ laziness and unpreparedness for examination.

Examination malpractice in senior secondary schools in Bayelsa State, Nigeria: Causes, Effects and Remedies: Benwari, N.N. & Leigha, A.M.

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Others (Azu, 1999; Enole, 2001; Ezeh, 2002; Agabi & Egbezor, 2005) point to lack of interest on schooling among the youth; negligence of responsibility by parents, poor funding of education, poor state of facilities, high cost of education, poverty as well as corruption in the society. Unwholesome societal value placed on easy wealth, unbridled greed or rush for financial or material gains, absence of conducive environment for teaching and learning as well as improper reward system. Yet others (Asuka, 1999; Amaele, 2000; Okeke, 2004; Lauwerys, 1962 in Okeke, 2004; Ebong & Asodike, 2005, Leigha & Asuka, 2008) identified poor pedagogy, Poor teacher self-image, salaries and poor conditions of service, over-congested classes. Government attitude, logistics and supervisory problems, need to maintain good school image and craze for degree. What are the effects of examination malpractice?

The effects of examination malpractice “are damaging and total because they impact on the entire gamut of the society and also, spans over generations. It “wrecks unquantifiable damage on the society”, produces “educational misfits” and graduates who “parade excellent school certificate and degree results that cannot be defended” (Asuru, 2004:50). Public school certificates are now regarded as “meal tickets” (Asuka, 1999:167). Examination malpractice has other effects:

(i) At the student level: examination malpractice inculcates negative habit and attitude to learning among students; they may develop phobia towards reading; reduces hard work, creativity and ingenuity among students;

(ii) At the level of the educational system: it results in poor public perception of the educational system; low regard for public school grades;

(iii) There is parents’ strong dislike for public schools; wastage of Government (i.e. public) funds which represents poor investment; and that it produces unemployment (Leigha & Asuka, 2008).

Asuru (2004) notes that examination malpractice: (i) Is a dangerous orientation for leaders of tomorrow; (ii) plants seeds of fraud and corruption into the fragile minds of the youth; (iii) leads to education without character training; (iv) produces certificates not backed by skills and knowledge; (v) produces poor quality labour force; (vi) causes fatal professional errors that results in loss of lives, failed businesses, failed contracts,

failed buildings, etc; (vii) causes inability of children to identify their talents and realize their destinies; (viii) Causes huge economic losses: purchasing extra forms and in re-taking cancelled

examinations.

Remedies of examination malpractice

Since examination malpractice is caused, solution could be trapped within the causes (Leigha, 2003). Asuru (2004) and Leigha & Asuka (2008) opine a careful dissection of the activities of the different groups connected with the administration of examinations for its solution. These groups include students and their parents, the government and stakeholders. Purpose of the Study

This study was carried out to:

1. Assess the state of teaching and learning.

2. Assist in raising the quality of education through reliable examination administration.


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3. Contribute effective strategies towards the resolution of problems and issues arising from

implementation of policies and guideline for examination administration.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study.

1. To what extent do factors such as anxiety among students, poor quality teaching manpower and

student poverty cause examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state?

2. What are other causes of examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state?

3. To what extent are the quality and standard of education delivered in the state affected by the

existence of examination malpractice in the secondary school system in Bayelsa state?

4. How can the problem of examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state be solved?

Design

Due to its descriptive nature, this study employed the survey research design.

Sample

Using the stratified random sampling technique, one hundred and fifty (150) teachers were selected from fifty (50) secondary schools in eight (8) local government areas of Bayelsa State for this study. The respondents were selected in the following order: 80 urban and 70 rural teachers, 60 graduate and 90 non-graduate teachers, 85 old (i.e. 50 years and above) and 65 young (i.e. below 50 years) teachers. Instrumentation

A questionnaire titled: Causes, Effects and Remedies of Examination Malpractice (CEREM) was constructed by the researcher. The 50-item questionnaire had two sections (i.e. A and B). Section A elicited demographic data of respondents such as sex, location, local government area, class, subject taught etc, while section B was designed on a modified four-point Likert scale i.e. from strongly agree (4) to strongly disagree (1) found out the extent to which certain factors cause, affect and remedy examination malpractice.

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument

Four research experts assisted in subjecting the questionnaire to construct validity. Some question items were deleted while some others were restructured. A reliability coefficient of 0.80 was obtained through a test-re-test method from a pilot study administered in a neutral location after an interval of two weeks. Procedure

The questionnaires were administered to target respondents personally by the researchers hence retrieval

rate was a hundred percent.


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Data Analysis

The arithmetic mean, standard deviation and rank order statistics were used to analyze the data collected.

Results

Table 1: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on factors that cause examination malpractice in secondary schools S/n Item Mean Std.

dev. Rank

1. Poor reading habits of students. 3.0 0.01 6th 2. Anxiety of students on school examinations 3.25 0.01 5th 3. Poor quality teaching manpower. 3.40 0.02 4th 4. Lack of relevant instructional facilities. 3.50 0.02 3rd 5. Student laziness 3.50 0.02 3rd 6. Overemphasis on paper qualification 3.60 0.021 1st 7. Student lack of money to purchase relevant textbooks. 3.55 0.02 2nd Table 1 shows that the calculated mean statistics value for: overemphasis on paper qualification in the society, student inability to procure relevant textbooks to study and prepare effectively for examinations, students’ Laziness or indolence, lack of qualified teaching manpower, great anxiety among students and poor reading habits all have mean score above 3.0. Therefore, these factors are major causes of examination malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools Table 2: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on other causes of examination malpractice in secondary schools S/n Item Mean Std.

dev. Rank

1. Constant closure of schools due to strike. 3.50 0.02 5th 2. Student unpreparedness for examinations. 3.70 0.03 1st 3. Scramble for high grades. 3.25 0.01 6th 4. Poor teacher remuneration. 3.60 0.03 3rd 5. High student-teacher ratio i.e. over-congested classrooms. 3.55 0.02 4th 6. Poor funding of schools by authorities. 3.65 0.03 2nd 7. Parents’ greed. 3.25 0.01 6th Table 2 shows other factors that cause examination malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools. These are unpreparedness for examinations, poor school funding, poor remuneration of teachers especially in rural and outlying areas, over congestion of classrooms, constant closure of schools due to strike, parents’ greed and scramble for grades among students. With calculated mean values above 3.0, that these factors cause examination malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools is accepted.


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Table 3: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on effects of examination malpractice on education delivered in the state S/n Item Mean Std.

dev. Rank

1. Poor investment of funds and represent wastage in education. 3.70 0.09 6th

2. Produces negative habits and attitudes among youths. 3.72 0.09 5th

3. Reduces reading habits among students. 3.77 0.10 1st

4. Leads to graduate unemployment. 3.72 0.09 5th

5. Produces poor labour skills. 3.72 0.09 5th

6. Produces education without training. 3.73 0.10 4th

7. Inability of children to develop talents and ingenuity. 3.60 0.07 8th

8. Plants seed of fraud and corruption among youth. 3.75 0.12 3rd

9. A dangerous orientation among youth. 3.65 0.10 7th

10. Produces certificate without skills. 3.76 0.13 2nd

From table 3, there is calculated mean value of above 3.0 for these factors: reduces reading habits, produces certificates without skills in the society, plants seeds of fraud and corruption among youth, produces education without training and produces poor labour skills that leads to graduates without employable skills syndrome. Others include negative habits and attitudes among youth, represents poor investment and wastage in education, dangerous orientation among youth and lack of ingenuity among students. Therefore, these factors are considered as effects of examination malpractice on the education system and society .


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Table 4: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on solutions to examination malpractice in secondary schools S/n Item Mean Std.

dev. Rank

1. Provide relevant facilities in schools. 3.72 0.12 7th 2. Re-prioritize our national values. 3.67 0.08 9th 3. Supply quality teaching manpower in schools. 3.70 0.10 8th 4. Provide scholarships, bursaries, etc, to indigent students. 3.74 0.14 5th 5. Give more homework to occupy students. 3.73 0.10 6th 6. Adopt principle of leadership by example. 3.43 0.06 17th 7. Place less emphasis on paper qualification. 3.78 0.15 1st 8. Adequately compensate hardworking teachers. 3.70 0.08 8th 9. Conduct public campaign and enlightenment. 3.56 0.03 13th 10. Implement reading and study periods in the learning time-table. 3.60 0.07 12th 11. Provide effective guidance and counseling services in schools. 3.65 0.06 11th 12. Use certified I.D. cards for examinations. 3.55 0.03 14th 13. Implement and regularly pay the TSS salary structure to teachers. 3.70 0.12 8th 14. Implement good working conditions for teachers. 3.50 0.02 16th 15. Emphasize skill training in schools. 3.74 0.13 4th 16. Implement appropriate surveillance in schools. 3.65 0.06 10th 17. Disallow private candidates sitting regular school examinations. 3.75 0.12 3rd 18. Regularly supervise and inspect schools. 3.66 0.06 9th 19. Organize seminars, conferences and workshops to update teachers

and students knowledge on examination ethics and standards. 3.55 0.03 15th

20. Implement all penal decrees on erring students and their teacher collaborators.

3.76 0.15 2nd

Table 4 clearly isolate several remedies to the issue of examination malpractice in secondary schools

in Bayelsa state, if genuinely implemented. However, these solutions would be treated as recommendations

in this study.

Discussion of Findings

The result of this study discovered that several factors cause examination malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools. This finding confirms the studies of Asuru (2004); Ebong and Asodike (2005) and the theoretical position of Ganagana (2005); Onoja (2004); Azu 1999; Enole (2001); Ezeh (2002); Agabi and Egbezor (2005), and Asuka (1999) among others, that the causes of examination malpractice in schools are mutually exclusive and all-embracing (societal value system, economic factors and academic factors). Also, the study discovered that examination malpractice has multifarious effects on the whole gamut of society, at the student level, examination officials as well as the parents and guardians. This finding is congruous with those of Asuka, (1999), Asuru, (2004) and Ezekiel-Hart (2006). It is also consistent with Ebong’s (2004) finding that examination malpractice wastes government funds; represents poor investment that produces youth with unemployable skills. Finally, this study discovered that examination malpractice contain solutions within its causes, especially with the teacher. The finding also confirms the assertions of Enaowho and Eferakeya (1989), Okeke (2004), Asuru (2004) and Ezekiel-Hart (2006) that the solution to examination malpractice lies with the Nigerian teacher who is, currently, poorly paid and treated (Amaele, 2000), and ridiculed by the government, parents and his own students.


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It is imperative that psychological and institutional factors be considered in examination malpractice investigation. This is because management is different from administration. Provision of examination materials is a managerial function which may be performed by one or few persons. But running examinations with the provided materials is an administrative activity that involves the attitude, character, behaviour and functions of many persons. Optimal success depends on resolute and resilient human actions and decisions which require commitment and honesty (Leigha, 2007; Asuru, 2004; and Ezekiel-Hart, 2006). Thus, even where management; political will, attitude towards education matters, etc, is right, Bayelsa state secondary school system might still suffer “quality degradation” (Okongwu, 1986:193); produce a miserable (26.9%) learning achievement (Falayajo, Makoju, Okebukola, Onuogha, & Olubodun, 1997) and become “very unsuitable to the welfare of society” (Aniagolu, 1998:62). The notion that proper examination conduct is directly proportional to quality of education delivered in schools as maintained everywhere is relative and subject to human and system efficiency. Recommendations

Based on the findings, it is recommended as follows:

1. Government authorities should endeavour to provide necessary facilities to equip schools in the

state, particularly at the rural areas.

2. Since good quality education is now free and compulsory, governing authorities should invest

more funds in building schools with enough classrooms to accommodate the increasing demand.

3. To this end, the UNESCO demand for allocation 26% annual budget to education should be

implemented to effectively cater for school needs as they arise. This would avoid wastage and

promote returns on social investment.

4. To avoid politicization; ensure professionalism and accountability, officials of the Post-Primary

Schools Board (PPSB) should be used to administer public examinations.

5. There is need to establish a facility database through committed supervision and inspection of

schools, at least once in every two years. This provides for effective facility management for

quality delivery rather than resort to damage control measures.

6. Since no educational system can rise above the quality of its teaching manpower there is need, not

only to recruit and deploy teachers to control damage in the system but also establish a database to

feed the system as the need arises, thus avoid teacher shortage syndrome.

7. Finally, in order to curb examination offences such as corruption, bribery, fraud, etc, government

should implement appropriate legislation to prosecute and punish offenders.


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References

Agabi, O.G. & Egbezor, D.E. (2005). School and Society: The contemporary Challenges. In O.G. Agabi, A.K. Okorosaye-Orubite, J. Ezekiel-Hart & D.E. Egbebor (EDS) School & Society. Port Harcourt: DavidStones Publishers.

Aniagolu, A.N (1998). Lecture commentary in Oputa and Utomi, Restoring the integrity of the university.

Hill point Lecture series. Enugu: New Generation Books. Amaele, S. (2000). Moral Values in Nigerian Education-issues, problems and prospects. Ibadan:

Bounty press. Asuka, T.T. (1997). Sociology of Nigerian Education. Port Harcourt: Oneness Books. Asuru, V.A. (1996). Examination malpractice: Nature, causes and solutions. In G.A. Badmus &

O. Peter (Eds) Challenges of Managing Educational Assessment in Nigeria. JAMB, NABTEB & NBEM.

Asuru, V.A. (1997). Examination Malpractice: trends, Causes, Effects & Solutions. Port Harcourt: S. I. J. publishers. Asuru, V.A. (2004). Examination Malpractice-Agenda for a change. Port Harcourt: Owas

haven enterprises. Ebong, J.M. & Asodike, J.D. (2005). Problems and challenges for quality delivery of pre-

primary (Nursery) education in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme in Rivers state. African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS). 1&2(1). 116-122.

Enaowho, J.O. & Eferakeya, O.A. (1989). Educational Administration. Ibadan: Paperback publishers

limited. Enole, S.V. (2001). Problems of education in poor countries. Journal of Research in Education. 8(1). 101-106. Egwunyenga, E.J. & Oghuvbu, E.P. (2008). Problems of examination malfeasance in Nigerian

Universities: Emergent issues and management options. Trends in Educational Studies (TRES). 3(1). 196-202.

Exam Ethics Project (2004). Memo to Secondary Education Reference Committee of the 2004 Joint

Consultative Committee (JCC) on Education, on Implementation of Mandates of 50th

NCE on Eradicating Examination Malpractice.

Ezekiel-Hart, J. (2006). Examination malpractice and the quality of student enrolment in tertiary institutions. In: J.M. Ebong & J. Ezekiel-Hart (eds) Contemporary Issues in Education. Port Harcourt: EagleLithograph press.

Ezeh, G.C. & Abaobi, C.K. (2004). Curbing Examination malpractice in Nigeria for quality

education and national development. Nigerian Journal of Functional Education. 3(1). 22-31

. Ezeh, G.C. (2005). Examination malpractice: A threat to functional secondary education in

Nigeria. Paper presented at the National Annual Conference of school of education, Federal College of Education (Technical) May, 24-27.


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Falayajo, W., Makoju, G.A., Okebukola, P., Onugha, D.C., & Olubodun, J.O. (1997). Assessment of learning achievement of primary four pupils in Nigeria (National Report). Lagos: Scamps production.

Ganagana, T.E. (2005). Eradication of examination malpractice in Rivers state primary schools.

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS). 1&2(1). Pp. 152-156. Leigha, M.B. (2003). Examination Malpractice: A nut to crack. The Argus. June 17-19. Vol 2. p. 5. Leigha, M.B. (2007). The Concept of Finance Elasticity and Quality Education. Uniport.

(Unpublished Seminar). Leigha, M.B. & Asuka, T.T. (2008). Eradicating examination malpractice in public secondary schools: The teacher imperative. Journal of Educational Issues. Okeke, B.S. (2004). Teaching in Nigeria: The Bureaucracy and Professionalism. Port Harcourt: Mercury Int’l publishing Nig. Okongwu, C.S. (1986). The Nigerian Economy: Anatomy of a traumatized Economy with

some proposals for stabilization. Enugu: Fourth dimension. Onoja, P.E. (2004). Examination malpractice: Its causes, effects and solution. Nigerian Journal

of Unity and development. 3(1). 56-63. Opata, D.U. (2003). Examination malpractice in Nigeria: Speaking frankly to our children and us.

Nsukka: Great AP Express Publishers Ltd.


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EFFECTS OF SELF-REGULATION AS A CURRICULUM DELIVERY STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’

ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY

Jacobson Barineka Nbina Ph.D. Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology

Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt

Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study was designed to investigate the efficacy of self-regulation in facilitating curriculum delivery vis-à-vis students’ achievement in chemistry. Two research questions and three null hypotheses guided the study. The design of the study was a pretest-post-test non-equivalent control group design. Two hundred and eighty four (284) Senior Secondary III Chemistry students’ from four single-sexed secondary schools in Port Harcourt Education Zone of Rivers State, Nigeria participated in the study. Design of Teacher-Learner involvement in facilitating curriculum delivery through self-regulation is given. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the null hypotheses at (p < 0.05). The result showed that transferring ownership of learning and involving students in critical thinking effect enhance positive learning and facilitates curriculum delivery outcomes as students taught through self-regulation achieved better than those taught by traditional methods. However, gender did not have significant impact on students’ achievement. Introduction The essence of designing curriculum in science education is to promote positive learning outcomes and to give teachers the “road-map” to effective delivery. However, all too often the attention of curriculum planners tend to focus on desired educational change while neglecting the ‘how’ of achieving intended outcomes of the curriculum. According to Waugh & Godfrey (1995) bringing a new curriculum into practice involves three distinct steps – initiation, implementation and routinisation. While affecting the curriculum plan in science classroom, the teacher is expected to put into practice curriculum ideas in such a way as to transfer ‘executive control’ of the learning process to the learner. Self-regulation is very significant in the learning process. Self regulation refers to students’ ability to understand and control their learning (Schraw & Brooks, 2002). It involves the actual thinking or internal mental activity of the learner. Through self-regulation, the learner constructs a new model of understanding and refinement of conceptual understanding. Zimmerman (1990) regards self-regulation strategies as strongly associated with superior academic functioning and planning; it is essential for success in college math and science classes. Thus, the integration on self-regulation skills into science classroom is necessary because without self-regulatory skills students are at a greater risk of dropping out or failing because they attribute their learning problems to lack of ability (Graham, 1991). The integration of self-regulation in the plan of activities or design of any curriculum enhances successful delivery and sound knowledge base. The profile of implementation in any curriculum should include (a) classroom integration (what the teacher does and what the learners do); (b)use and nature of science practical work; (c)incorporation of science in society; (d) assessment practices (Rogan & Aldous, 2005:317). A curriculum plan that incorporates self-regulation succinctly depicts not only the active involvement of the learner but also the teacher’s ability to give ownership of learning process to the learner. Self-regulation emphasizes quality of learning rather than rote memorization of content which learners regurgitate in tests and examination. While teaching in depth for understanding, the teacher encourages learners to be “strategy users” and “self-regulated learners”. Curriculum delivery shifts from


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knowledge transmission by teachers to focusing on the learners as being incharge of their own learning outcomes. Traditional approaches however, emphasizes content coverage. Role dominance of the teacher in the traditional teaching methods results in rote learning. The implication is that students are not deeply involved in the learning process; they do not engage in critical thinking and meaningful group work and their inability to write scientific report based on understanding culminates in failure. Research has shown that much emphasis is placed on examination to the neglect of laboratory practical work (Okafor, 2000). Adeyegbe (1993) noted that 75% of the period allotted to practical lessons in Nigerian schools is used to cover theoretical aspects of the curriculum content. Recent research (Ugwu, 2007) confirmed that one of the difficulties militating against inculcating chemistry practical skills/process skills in students is “insufficient time allotted to chemistry practicals”. This was explained by Chief Examiner’s yearly reports of students’ weaknesses in quantitative chemical analysis as follows:

Failure to understand the principles and procedure of volumetric analysis, May/June General Certificate O’ Level. Chief Examiners’ Reports, 1987:120. Deficient observational skills (May/June SSCE Chief Examiner’s Reports 1993:81). Inadequate understanding of the mole concept. Inability to determine mole ratios from stoichiometric equations, failure to understand chemical arithmetic, omission of units of measurement, (SSCE May/June, Chief Examiners’ Reports 1996:100). Poor knowledge of laboratory procedures, handling of reagents and storage of chemicals/reagents; shallow knowledge of theory of indicators; inability to interpret the chemicals of equations; poor mathematical skills; inappropriate use of chemical terminology; poor knowledge of significant figures, units of measurement and the mole concept.( Chief Examiners’ Reports Nov/Dec 2002:147).

The choice of limiting this paper to quantitative chemical analysis of aspects of chemistry stems from the fact that achievement in qualitative chemical analysis requires direct and inverse proportional reasoning patterns which are subsumed in self-regulation. Sound knowledge-base of the mole concept for example will lead to understanding of stoichiometry. According to Anamuah – Mensah, Erickson & Gaskell (1987) quantitative chemical analysis include balancing of equation, calculation from equations, mole ratio and inherent structural relations. In quantitative chemical analysis learners/students should be able to predict results, identify procedures, set up conditions for experiment, make measurements, provide observational data, and evaluate procedures using tables. Through self-regulation, students are expected to develop dexterity with practical procedures/process skills and problem solving not only in quantitative chemical analysis but also in other science subjects/topics in chemistry.

A recent research by Udoh (2008) showed that chemistry classes were still teacher dominated. In his study he found that experienced and inexperienced teachers in Ikot Ekpene Local Govenrment Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, talked in chemistry class for 63.3% and 61.4 respectively most of the time. He further showed that male and female chemistry teachers spent 64.7% and 59.5% in the class lecturing. Thus, the study revealed that the teaching of chemistry is still far from adequate. This supports much earlier researches, by Adeyegbe (1993), Ezekannagha and Ifeakor (2000) who opined that there is need to actively engage students in hands-on experience during chemistry classes. Since studies done so far have not answered the problem of teacher dominated chemistry classroom, it is

Effects of self-regulation as a curriculum delivery strategy on students’ achievement in chemistry.: Nbina, J.B.

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pertinent to examine the extent to which self-regulation will address the issue of effective curriculum delivery as against traditional teaching methods. The following research questions were proffered to be answered in the course of this study:

1. What is the mean achievement scores of students taught chemistry by self-regulation and

those taught by traditional methods?

2. What is the effect of gender on mean achievement scores of students in chemistry?

The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:

Ho1

Ho

: The mean achievement scores of students taught chemistry through self-regulation would not

differ significantly from those taught with traditional method.

2

Ho

: There is no significant effect of gender on students’ mean achievement in chemistry.

3

: There is no significant interaction effect of self-regulation process and gender on student’s

cognitive achievement in chemistry.

Method

The study is a quasi-experimental pretest-post test control group design. The population comprised Senior Secondary Students Class III (SSS III) offering chemistry in Port Harcourt Education Zone, Rivers State. Port Harcourt Education Zone has 68 coeducational schools, but in this study single-sex schools were used since school-type is not considered an important variable. The sample study comprised two male-only and two female-only school out of which a total of 284 SSS III chemistry students were drawn. The total number of single-sexed schools in the zone is nine (9) male-only and five (5) female-only schools out of which purposive sampling was used to draw four schools that have at least two streams offering chemistry. Eight intact classroom groups were thus randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The treatment group which was exposed to self-regulation comprised 148 subjects (71 boys and 77 girls). The control group which was exposed to traditional method comprised 148 subjects (71 male and 77 female).

Simple random sampling was used to select the responses of 71 females for treatment and control groups respectively (equal replication in a 2 x 2 ANCOVA to allow for estimation of experimental error). The total sample for the study for which data was complete was 142 male and 142 female for treatment and control groups respectively.

Quantitative Chemical Analysis Achievement Test (QCAAT) was used to collect data. The QCAAT

was designed to :

(a) test students’ knowledge of practical activities in volumetric analysis.

(b) calculation of number of moles of a base involved in a neutralization reaction with a dilute

acid of unknown concentration.

(c) concentration of hydrogen chloride acid in g/dm3 and moles/dm3

The instructional procedure was as follows.

.

A is a solution of hydrogen chloride acid. B is a 0.1M solution of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV). Titrate

solution A against solution B using screened methyl orange as indicator. Record your titration results.

From your results calculate;

i. the number of moles of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) involved in the complete reaction

ii. the concentration of solution A g/dm3 and moles/dm3

.


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Equation for the reaction is:

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

(Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)

What effect would each of the error described below have on the concentration of hydrogen chloride

acid if;

The burette is not rinsed with the hydrogen chloride acid solution

The pipette is not rinsed with the sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) solution

The last drop in the pipette is blown out

The conical flask contains some distilled water before the addition of Na2CO3

The burette is leaking

The funnel is not removed after filling the burette with acid solution

The control group was taught by the traditional methods of lecture, discussion and teacher demonstration. Before the beginning of each session, salt samples were weighed and solutions were standardized by the instructor or laboratory assistants. The students observed teacher’s demonstrations and listened to the teacher as he explained the concepts at each stage and demonstrated the procedures involved. At each stage students followed the teachers’ instruction as they (the students) carried out the practical activities. They also followed the step-by-step or algorithmic methods in solving problems as they were taught by the teacher. Equations for reactions and formula for calculations were written out for the students.

The treatment group was taught using an organized, sequenced and well-designed lesson plan that ran through five stages: the first stage students were gingered by thought provoking questions to elicit their previous knowledge on proportional relations. The second phase challenged students to explore the materials and apparatus for their use, placed on the bench table. Using a series of structured written out questions, they observed and identified the practical materials and the links in the set of laid down apparatus and specimen materials. They investigated the concept under study. They were given minimal guidance by the teacher. In the phase of explanation, teacher organized students in groups of four, and encouraged them to discuss their findings, and write down their own mental constructions. The next phase may require the teacher to elaborate, refine and introduce new ideas. At the end of the lesson, the teacher gave assessment to appraise students’ knowledge base and understanding.

The research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation. The design is a 2 (method:

self-regulation and traditional method) x 2 (Gender: male and female ANCOVA).


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Results

The results obtained are presented in tabular form as follows:

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviation of the Students’ in Post-Treatment QCAAT (By Treatment by Gender)

GENDER MALE FEMALE OVERALL Treatment x 49.39 51.40 50.39

S 14.16 13.60 13.98 N 71 71 142

Control x 30.00 26.01 29.32 S 12.14 9.97 11.91 N 71 71 142

Overall x 40.61 38.21 35.36 S 14.72 17.79 16.41 N 142 142 284

Research question 1

What is the mean achievement scores of secondary school students taught chemistry by self-regulation

and those taught by traditional method?

It can be seen from Table 1, that the mean achievement score for the treatment group is 50.39

as against 29.32 for the control group. This seems to suggest that the experimental group performed

better than the control group, the latter having a lesser mean score.

Ho1

: The mean achievement score of students taught chemistry through self-regulation would not

differ significantly from those taught with traditional method (p<0.05).

Table 2: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’ achievement scores (by treatment, by gender)

Source of variation Sum of squares

Degree of freedom (d.f)

Mean square

Significance Decision at 0.05 level

Covariate (pre-treatment)

30,975.78 1 30,975.78 .000

MaineEffects 61,952.71 3 20,650.91 .000 S

Teaching method 28,284.84 1 28,284.84 .000 S

Gender 126.73 1 126.73 .145 NS

2-WayiInteraction 568.64 1 568.64 .730 NS

Teaching method X Gender

568.64 1 568.64 .100 NS

Explained 62,512.35 4 15,630.34 .110 NS

Residual 16,545.36 279 56.30

Total 79,066.72 283 279.39

S = Significant at 0.05 level; NS = Not significant at 0.05 level

Ho2

Table 2 reveals that the observed difference between the mean scores of the experimental and control

groups is significant at 0.05 level. This is because teaching method as a main effect is shown in that

table to be significant at 0.00 level, thus at 0.05 which is much higher than 0.00 teaching is significant.

In other words the hypothesis of no significance between the mean scores of the experimental group

and control group is rejected at 0.05 level.

: There is no significant effect of gender on students’ mean achievement in chemistry.


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Research question 2

What is the effect of gender on mean achievement scores of secondary school students in chemistry? Table 1 shows that the overall achievement score of male students is 40.61 while the overall mean score of female students is 38.21. The difference appears to indicate that male students scored higher than the female students in the Quantitative Chemical Analysis Test. Ho2

Table 2 shows that gender as a main effect has no significance on students’ mean achievement in chemistry. This is because the table shows that gender as a main effect is not significant at that level. In other words, the observed difference between the mean achievement scores of the male students and female students as noted in the Table is not a real difference but attributed to error. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significance difference between the mean scores of male and female is not rejected at 0.05 level.

: There is no significant (p<0.05) effect of gender on students’ mean achievement in chemistry.

Ho3:

Table 2 shows that the interaction effect of method of teaching and students’ gender is not significant at 0.05 level. This is because the interaction effect of teaching method and gender on the students’ achievement is shown to be significant at 0.11 level. As that level is higher than 0.05, the interaction effect is not significant at this level. Consequently, the null hypothesis of no significant interaction effect is not rejected. This simply means that there is no significant combined effect of teaching method and students’ gender on their achievement in chemistry.

There is no significant (p<.05) interaction effect of self-regulation process and gender on students’ cognitive achievement in chemistry.

Discussion

Evidence from the findings of this study shows that self-regulation has significant effect on students’ achievement in chemistry. The experimental group produced higher mean achievement scores than the control group taught the same aspect of chemistry (quantitative chemical analysis) using the traditional method. The findings of this study agree with Zimmerman’s (1990) opinion that self-regulation strategies are strongly associated with superior academic functioning. This is not surprising because the students were involved in the learning process and they were able to give their own mental construct for proper understanding of the topic. Consequently, self-regulation not only enhanced the achievement of the students but also facilitated the delivery by the teacher who invariably found fulfillment from the students’ achievement. In addition, since the students had the ownership of learning, the teacher’s role was minimal, hence delivery was made easier. There is no significant difference in achievement between male and female in the experimental groups. The absence of interaction between teaching method and gender with respect to achievement also implies that both boys and girls duly benefited from the process.

Implications and Recommendations

Self-regulation process favours both boys and girls. Teachers should employ it effectively in classrooms to develop creative abilities and critical thinking in both boys and girls. Hence, to maximize students’ achievement in chemistry classrooms, lessons should be activity-oriented to enable students engage in indepth thinking. This will impact equally positively on females and males and thus encourage gender equity in science achievement. It is important that teachers have sound conceptual knowledge of chemistry content if they should be able to give students opportunity to have ‘executive


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control’ of the classroom interaction. Curriculum designers should take cognizance of the fact that students’ metacognition is an indispensable factor in any learning process. Consequently, curriculum planners and policy makers should emphasize/encourage content delivery to promote self-regulation. References

Adeyegbe, S. O. (1993). The senior secondary school science curriculum and candidates’ performance: An appraisal of the first cycle of operation. Journal of Science Teacher Association of Nigeria, 21 (1 & 2), 3 – 12.

Anamuah-Mensha, J., Erickson, G. & Gaskel, J. (1987). Development and validation of a path-analysis

model of students’ performance in chemistry. Journal of research in Science teaching, 24 (8), 728 – 738.

Ezekannagha, G. N. & Ifeakor, A. C. (2000), Enriching STM for national development: the need for

improvisation in teaching and learning of chemistry in Nigerian dsecondary schools. In Akale M. A. (2000) 41st

Annual Conference Processing of STAN.

Graham, S. (1991). A review of attribution theory in achievement contexts. Education Psychology Review, 3, 5 – 39.

Okafor, P. N. (2000). Laboratory resources and utilization as correlates of chemistry students’ learning

outcomes, 41st

Annual Conference Proceedings of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) 169-173.

Rogan, J. & Aldous, C. (2005). Relationship between the constructs of a theory of curriculum implementation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42, (3), 313 – 316.

Schraw, G. & Brooks, D. W. (2002). Helping students self-regulate in math and science courses:

Improving the will and the skill file://A:self-RegulationinCollegeScienceTeaching.htm. Udoh, A. O. (2008), An analysis of classroom interaction of senior secondary school chemistry

teachers in Ikot Ekpene Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 43 (1 & 2), 16 -22.

Ugwu, A. (2007). Towards inculcation of chemistry practical skills in students: Teachers’ difficulties in

Uchenna Nzewi, Proceedings of the 50th

Anniversary of STAN Conference – STAN Education for Sustainable Development, 106-109.

Waugh, R. & Godfrey, J. (1995). Understanding teacher’s receptivity to system-wide educational charge. Journal of Education Administration, 33, 38-54.

West African Examination Council Senior Certificate Examination, May/June 1987, 1993, 1996, 2002.

Chief Examiners’ Reports

, Nigeria.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25, 3 – 17.


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FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION : A POTENT TOOL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN EDO STATE OF NIGERIA

JUSTINA O. EIMUHI, (Ph.D.)

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS & MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF EDUCATION

AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY, EKPOMA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA.

Tel: +2348056430890 E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract This article posits that formal and non-formal education are very potent tools for entrepreneurship and sustainable development of Edo State, which has remained underdeveloped for long. The ideas and concepts of entrepreneurship and sustainable development were discussed. The article concludes that formal and non-formal education should be given the deserved place of prominence in order to create room for entrepreneurship and sustainable development. Keywords: Formal, Non-Formal Education, Entrepreneurship, Sustainable Development, Potent, Tool. Introduction

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of entrepreneurship and sustainable development, Hanushek and Woessmann (2008). Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another. Etymologically, the word education is derived from educare (Latin) “bring up”, which is related to educere “bring out”, “bring forth what is within”, “bring out potent” and ducere, “to lead” (www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate). A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions; since 1952, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations’ International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13 (Wikipaedia, the free enclopaedia). A formal education program is the process of training and developing people in knowledge, skills, mind, and character and a structured and certified programme (http.//www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliterarcyterms/whatisformaleducation.htm). The systems of formal education includes: pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, adult education, alternative education and indigenous education. On the other hand, non-formal education became part of the international discourse on education policy in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It can be seen as related to the concepts of recurrent and lifelong learning. Tight (1966) suggests that whereas the latter concepts have to do with the extension of education and learning throughout life, non-formal education is about ‘acknowledging the importance of education, learning and training, which takes place outside recognized educational institutions’. Fordham (1993) suggests that in the 1970s, four characteristics came to be associated with non-formal education: relevance to the needs of disadvantaged groups; concern with specific categories of persons; a focus on clearly defined purposes; flexibility in organization and methods. Formal education is linked with schools and training institutions, non-formal with community groups and other organizations.


mailto:[email protected]�

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Generally, formal and non-formal education equips individuals with the wisdom, skills and knowledge required for entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is the act of being an entrepreneur, which is a French word meaning “one who undertakes innovations, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform innovations into economic goods”. This may result in new organizations or may be part of revitalizing mature organizations in response to a perceived opportunity. The most obvious form of entrepreneurship is that of starting new businesses (referred to as Start-up Company); however, in recent years, the term has been extended to include social land political forms of entrepreneurial activity. When entrepreneurship is describing activities within a firm or large organization it is referred to as intra-preneurship and may include corporate venturing, when large entities spin-off organizations; Shane (2003). In the contemporary world, entrepreneurship has become a condition sine qua no for sustainable development. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. The term was used by the Brundtland Commission which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable development as development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”; United Nations Organisation (1987). Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with social challenges facing humanity. As early as the 1970s, “sustainability” was employed to describe an economy “in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems”; Stivers (1976). The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, socio-political sustainability; Daly (1973).

Statement of the Problem

Entrepreneurship, which is one of the factors that can guarantee sustainable development, has not been given the right in Edo State of Nigeria for too long. The economy of most Asian countries is controlled by Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs), while 67% of the American economy is propelled by SMEE

(NIM-NYSC Strategic Training Programme, SMPE 104). For the Asian countries to be where they are today, they realized the need to develop their human-capital, and therefore, invested heavily on the development of their manpower needs.

In Nigeria, especially Edo State, the need for entrepreneurial skill acquisition has not been appreciated by the government and other stakeholders, hence the state has remained perpetually underdeveloped since its creation in August 1991 despite its being one of the oil producing states of the country. In the state, government is the sole employer of labour with only a few private sector organizations assisting to absolve our teeming unemployed youths. Regrettably, the Civil Service Commission Report for 2006 puts the number of persons employed by the state government at 2,190 out of a population of 3,218,322 provided by the National Population Commission in 2006; (NPC, 2006).

Edo State government alone cannot guarantee sustainable development of the state. Therefore, the need to encourage

entrepreneurial skills and knowledge acquisition through systematic learning and practice cannot be over-

emphasized.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this paper are:

1. To justify the importance of formal and non-formal education as a tool for entrepreneurship;

2. To highlight the role of entrepreneurship in sustainable development;

3. To draw the attention of government and other stakeholders to the need for entrepreneurial skills

development;

Formal and Non-formal Education: a potent tool for entrepreneurship and sustainable development in Edo state of Nigeria. :Eimuhi, J.O.

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4. To recommend to government and other stakeholders that formal and non-formal education be given the

right place in the scheme of things in Edo State.

Significance of the Study

This study is particularly very important because it is geared towards the justification of the formal and non-formal education as potent tool for entrepreneurship and sustainable development of Edo State which has remained underdeveloped for too long. Unemployment has become endemic, pervasive and a cracker worm in Edo State. Consequently, a study of this nature that is aimed at justifying the need for the creation of opportunities for enterprises to grow and strive is germane.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The Idea of Formal Education

Formal education is a concept referring to the process in which students can learn something through:

1. Instruction, which refers to the facilitating of learning towards identified objectives, delivered either by an

instructor or other forms;

2. Teaching, that refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student;

3. Learning, which refers to learning with a view towards preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or

abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion. These involves the following stages:

i. Primary education: Primary (or elementary) education consist of the first 5 – 7 years of formal, structured

education. In general, main education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or

six, although this varies between, and sometimes within countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age

children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising; UNESCO (2008). Under the

Education for All programs drive by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal

enrolment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive

primary education.

ii. Secondary education: In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education

comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the

typically compulsory comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, “post-

secondary”, or “higher” education (e.g. university, vocational school for adults). Depending on the system,

schools for this period, or part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums,

middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one

system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country

to country and even within them, but it generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling,

secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years in the United States and Canada, primary and

secondary education together are sometimes refereed as K-12 education, and in New Zealand year 1 – 13 is

used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher

education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States

did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in the big businesses and technological advances in factories

(for instance, the emergence of electrification), their skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand,


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high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare

students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and

the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient,

which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with

just primary educational attainment.

iii. Higher education: Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the

non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education,

such as a high school, secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and

postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main

institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.

Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees (Swassing,

Barbe & Milone, 1979).

iv. Adult education: Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging

from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific

courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing and coding, management sciences, social sciences, real

estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the internet.

v. Alternative education: also known as non-traditional or educational alternative is a broad term that may be

used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of

education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging

from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general

audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.

vi. Indigenous education: Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and

content) as an alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems has come to

represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous communities who

choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors. As an educational

method, the inclusion of the indigenous ways of knowing, learning, instructing, teaching and training, has

been viewed by many critical and post-modern scholars as important for ensuring that students/learners and

teachers/instructors (whether indigenous or non-indigenous) are able to benefit from education in a

culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances awareness of indigenous

traditions ( Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).

The Idea of Non-formal Education

As Fordham (1993) relates in 1967 at an international conference in Williamsburg, USA, ideas were set for what was to become a widely read analysis of the growing ‘world educational crisis’ (Coombs, 1968). There was concern about unsuitable curricular; a realization that educational growth and economic growth were not necessarily in step, and that job did not emerge directly as a result of educational inputs. Many countries were finding it difficult (politically or economically) to pay for the expansion of formal education. The conclusion was that formal educational systems had adapted too slowly to the socio-economic changes around them and that they were held back not only by their own conservatism, but also by the inertia of societies themselves. If we also accept that

Formal and Non-formal Education: a potent tool for entrepreneurship and sustainable development in Edo state of Nigeria.: Eimuhi, J.O.

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educational policy making tends to follow rather than lead other social trends, then it followed that change would have to come not merely from within formal schooling, but from the wider society and from other sectors within it. It was from this point of departure that planners and economics in the World Bank began to make distinction between informal, non-formal and formal education (Fordham, 1993). Non-formal education means any organized educational activity outside the established formal system – whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. The range of initiatives and programmes that have adopted the title ‘non-formal’ are many and various. They include literacy and basic education for adults and young people, political and trade union education, ‘catching-up’ programmes for school drop-outs, pre-school education for young children, political and trade union education and various kinds of educational work linked with development initiatives including agricultural extension and training programmes and health education. They also shade over into various examples of both state and private vocational training programmes. The McGivney and Murrary (1992) collection, Adult Education in Development gives a good feel of the sorts of initiatives this might include. They look particularly at health education, literacy, rural development and the role of women in development. However, it can be confusing to use terms like adult education in the context of southern education – given the age distribution of populations and the large numbers of young people involved in non-formal programmes.

What is also apparent from the literature is that it was politically useful to use a term like non-formal education. As Shukla (1985) has argued by the mid 1960s it was becoming clear that an education system based around schooling could not be sustainable because of the sheer cost to already fragile economies. A search for ‘new’ techniques was therefore on. Second, within the north it was becoming clear that the school was only one amongst many potential educative elements. These were essentially ‘western’ concerns. At the same time, a number of socialist countries initiated large programmes for changing the consciousness, skills and organizations of their populations. They typically used many of the forms that we now label as non-formal education: special trained educators (maybe for 4 to 5 weeks; not teachers) sent out to local villages to set up and run programmes and recruit further helpers and group member. The use of mass media such as radio and television, things like news-sheets and comics. Provision on a mass scale – a whole region or country is targeted; sometimes formal, sometimes informal sanctions against those who did not participate.

Contrasts between ‘Formal’ and ‘Non-formal’ Programmes

Simkins (1976) analyzed non-formal education programmes in terms of purposes, timing, content delivery systems and control, and contrasted these with formal educational programmes. The resulting idea-types provide a useful framework and bring out the extent to which non-formal education initiatives, while emphasizing flexibility, localness and responsiveness remain located within a curricular form of education (in contrast with those forms driven by conversation). Idea-type models of normal and non-formal education

Formal Non-formal Purposes Long-term and general

Credential-based Short-term and specific Non-credential-based

Timing Long cycle/preparatory/full-time Short cycle/recurrent/part-time Content Standardized/input centred academic

Entry requirements determine clientele Individualized/output centred practical Clientele determine entry requirements

Delivery system

Institution-based, isolated from environment Rigidly structured, teacher-centred and resource intensive

Environment-based, community related Flexible, learner-centred and resource saving

Control External/hierarchical Self-governing/democratic Adapted by: Fordham, 1993 from Simkins, 1977:12 – 15.


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The concept of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is the capacity and willingness to undertake conception, organization, and management of a productive venture with all attendant risks while seeking profit as a reward. In economics, entrepreneurship is regarded as a factor of production together with land, labour, natural resources and capital. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, and an essential component of nation’s ability to succeed in an ever changing and more competitive global marketplace.21

Furthermore, entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new organizations or revitalizing mature organizations, particularly new business generally in response to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a difficult undertaking, as a vast majority of new businesses fail due to unfavourable business environment in Nigeria. Entrepreneurial activities are substantially different depending on the type of organization that is being started. Entrepreneurship ranges in scale from solo projects (even involving the entrepreneur only on part-time basis) to major undertakings creating many job opportunities. Many high-profile entrepreneurial venture capital or huge funding in order to raise the needed capital to build the business. Good enough, many kinds of organizations now exist; to support would be entrepreneurs, including specialized government agencies some of which have been mentioned above, business incubators, science parks and some non-governmental organizations (McClelland, 1981).

The concept of Sustainable Development

In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable development as ‘development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (UCN, 2006). The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environment protection (World Summit Outcome Document, 2005). Economic sustainability: Agenda 21 clearly identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. It emphasizes that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centred ways of doing business to new approaches that involve cross-sectorial co-ordination and the integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development (Allen, 2007).

According to Hasna Vancock, sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all aspects of human life affecting sustenance. It means resolving the conflict between the various competing goals, and involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity famously known as three dimensions (triple bottom line) with its resultant vector being technology, hence it is a continually evolving process, the “journey” (the process of achieving sustainability) is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting to the destination (the desired future state). However, the “destination” of sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense that we understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future system.

Conclusion

It is concluded that entrepreneurial skills and knowledge can be acquired through systematic learning and practice. Therefore, formal and non-formal education is a potent tool for entrepreneurship if well managed. Consequently, formal and non-formal education should be given the right place in the scheme of things in Edo State in order to create room for entrepreneurship and by logical extension sustainable development of the state.


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Recommendations

In view of the foregoing, the following recommendations were offered:

1. Government of Edo State should as a matter of urgency embark on aggressive investment on human capital

development, as this will translate to the proliferation of entrepreneurs and enterprises that can guarantee

employment for the teeming unemployed youths in the state;

2. All the educational institutions in the state should be given face-lift to enable them meet the needs of their

establishment;

3. Conducive environment should be urgently created for small and medium scale enterprises to strive in the

state;

4. Formal and non-formal education should be given the right place in the scheme of things in Edo State in

order to bring sustainable development to the state.

References

Allen, W. (2007). “Learning for Sustainability: Sustainable Development.” Hasna, A.M. (2007). “Dimensions of sustainability”. Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Development; Energy, Environment and Health, 2(1):47 – 57.

Boulanger, P.M. (2008). “Sustainable Development Indicators: A scientific challenge, A Democrtic Issue” S.A.P.I.E.N.S., 1(1).

Civil Service Commission Report, 2006.

Coombs, P. (1968). The World Educational Crisis, New York: Oxford University Press.

Daly, H.E. (1973). Towards a Steady State Economy, San Francisco: Freeman; Daly, H.E. (1991). Steady State Economics (2nd ed), Washington DC: Island Presss.

Fordham, P.E. (1993), “Informal, Non-formal and Formal Education Programmes” in YMCA George College, ICE301 Lifelong Learning Unit 2, London: YMCA George Williams College.

Hanushek, E.A. & Woessmann, L. (2008), “The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development”, Journal of Economic Literature 46, No. 3.

http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/whatisformaleducation.htm.

McClelland, D.C. (1981), The Achieving Entrepreneurs and Society, New York: The Free Press.

McGivney, V. and Murray, F. (1991), Adult Education in Development; Methods and Approaches from Changing Societies, Leicester: NIACE.

Merriam, S.; Caffarella, R. and Baumgartner, L. (2007), Learning in Adult: A Comprehensive Guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

National Population Commission, 2006.

NIM-NYSC Strategic Training Programme, Study Pack for SMPE 104.


http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/whatisformaleducation.htm�

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Shane, S. (2003), “A General Theory of Entrepreneurship: The Individual Opportunity, Nexus: Edward Elgar.

Simkins, T. (1977), Non-formal Education and Development. Some Critical Issues, Manchester: Department of Adult and Higher Education, University of Manchester, 77 + iv pages. Helpful survey of thinking and practice with case studies (the Village Polytechnics, Kenya; mass education campaign in Tanzania; Cuba’s schools in the countryside).

Stivers, R. (1976), The Sustainable Society: Ethics and Economic Growth. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.

Swassing, R.H.; Barbe, W.B. & Milone, M.N. (1979), The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit, Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.

UCN (2006), The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in the Twenty-first Century; Report of the IUCN thinkers meeting, 29 – 31 January, 2006. http://emsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_future_of_sustanaiblity/pdf

United Nations Organisation (1987), Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development; General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December, 1987.

Wikipaedia, the free enclopaedia.

www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate.


http://emsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_future_of_sustanaiblity/pdf�

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COMMUNITY EDUCATION AS A TOOL FOR IMPROVED SOCIO-ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AMONG WOMEN IN SOME SELECTED RURAL COMMUNITIES

OF RIVERS STATE.

OYEBAMIJI, M.A. & ABANUM, B.K.

Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education,

Faculty of Education,

University of Port Harcourt. Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Education serves as an instrument per excellence for the liberation of man from all shackles of ignorance, poverty and dependency. Women are faced with a number of problems which hinders their effective contributions to socio-economic improvement of their communities. Majority of the rural women have little or no opportunity of having access to education whether formally or informally. Community education serves as an alternative for women to maximally gain knowledge skills and attitudes that will promote their family lives and the entire society as a whole. The State Commission for Mass Education promotes community education at the grassroots for this purpose. This paper therefore examined the role community education played at improving the socio-economic activities of the rural women in some selected rural communities of Rivers State. A sample of 500 respondents was randomly selected from each identified rural communities in three local government areas used for the study. A structured questionnaire using the Likert Scale format was administered. The data collected was analyzed using t-test of independent sample. The results gathered shows that community education promotes women’s attitudes, skills perception and awareness of the alternative means of practising their daily economic activities. The paper recommended that both the state commission for mass education and non-governmental organizations should integrate their efforts in promoting community education for grassroots development.

Introduction

Socio-economic activities imply those activities which can transform better life for the rural women. The deplorable state of our rural communities makes it imperative for a pragmatic approach to be adopted so as to bring about the desired development. Prevailing problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, underdevelopment and hunger need to be tackled in such a way as to get improvement in the quality of life of the rural women. Community education is one of the approaches that have been suggested to tackle the issue of underdevelopment in rural areas.

The formal education cannot solve all the problems of the rural communities because of the increasing globalization and inequality in the society. Community education has been seen as a way of facing out these challenges because of its ability to tackle problems that people in the rural communities grapple with (Anyanwu, 2002). Community education unlike the formal school system ensures continuity and progression which engenders sustainability.

The concept of community education has been perceived differently by scholars. Oduaran (1987) noted that defining community education has been plagued with difficulties mainly because of the variations of communal characteristics and goals. To him, the various definitions given reveal that the concept is based on three premises; namely, each community has its own needs and common goals towards which it drives itself; resources in education should be directed at harnessing the communities’ felt needs; and


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in using the vehicle of education for community development, all community members must not only be fully engaged in learning but be ready to co-operate to pool their human and financial resources towards the realization of communities’ terminal goals. As a concept, it represents diverse concerns which have not been organized into a discrete literature throughout the world. The phrase refers not to numerous ways of teaching youth about community life, but also the various effects in community development. Such effects are: political empowerment of local communities, coordination of social services; economic development; citizen participation; citizen education; continuing adult education; extension education and extended use of school facilities for these purposes (Newman, 1989 and Oyebamiji, 2005).

Anyanwu (2002) and Oyebamiji (2005) see community education as a process in which people become awakened to individual and collective life style they can realistically achieve, decision of the objectives to be achieved, taking cognizance of the value systems under which they may choose their strategies, becoming conscious of their needs and resources, strengthening their organizational and institutional structures and moving towards an improved quality of life. It is a philosophical concept which serves the community by providing for all of the educational needs of all its community members.

Community education is a process of empowerment, social justice, change, challenge, respect and collective consciousness. It is within and of the community, reflecting the needs of the individuals of that community. Community education has a twofold interconnected aim for participants and these are as stated by the Irish National Adult Learning Organization (2008):

(i) The personal acquisition of skills, knowledge and the development of potential;

(ii) The social and community empowerment and advancement.

Akande (2007) sees community education as the type of education needed to ensure the self confidence, self respect, and personal independence as well as to safeguard human rights and achieve social equality.

Community education is non-formal in nature and its functional approach makes it an appropriate strategy to reach and transform our rural communities. One step towards rural transformation and development is the eradication of ignorance and the creation of the awareness that the rural community life can become better. Unlike the formal education, community education seeks to encourage the use of acquired knowledge and skills to meet everyday need.

According to the Massachusetts Department of Adult Education (1974:4) six basic elements of the working definitions of community education has been identified:

(a) Partnership between educational agencies and the community.

(b) Identifying community needs.

(c) Using available resources.

(d) Democratizing educational decision-making.

(e) Recognizing learning as a lifelong activity.

(f) Encouraging full access to all facilities (cultural, recreational, and educational) for all

members of a community.

The Problem

Rivers State is a state that is rich in mineral oil, yet the state is still struggling with community development issues that range from poverty, youth unemployment, youth restiveness, hunger, HIV/AIDS epidemic and illiteracy. Of recent, the government of the state established the Rivers State

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Development Program (RSDP) with sole purpose of bringing sustainable development to the rural communities of the state where the bulk of the population are women. Despite all efforts by the state, illiteracy, poverty, youth restiveness, ill health due to deplorable state of the socio-economic status of the rural communities. This paper is set out purposely to assess the impact community education play in advancing improved socio-economic status of the rural women in the state.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were generated for the study:

Ho1

affect significantly the attitudes of women that participated for improved income socio-

economic activities than non-participants.

: Community education programmes at the rural communities will not

Ho2

H

: Community education programmes will not significantly influence skills utilization of

women that participated and those that did not participate towards socio-economic development

for self-reliance.

o3

Methodology

: Community education programmes at the rural communities will not significantly promote

creativity on the part of the participants for improved revenue generation than those who did

not.

The study adopted a survey research design to determine whether community Education can promote z

rural communities of Rivers State (Khana, Etche and Degema local government areas). The samples

for the study were 500 women randomly selected from different communities in the three local

government areas of study (300 participants and 200 non participants of the community education

programmes). Stratified sampling technique was used to select the respondents.

Instrument

A self designed instrument used for the study was a questionnaire on

community education as a tool to improved socio-economic activities among women in some selected

rural communities in Rivers State. The instrument was administered with the help of research

assistants for a proper coverage of the three local governments and the samples. It took one month to

complete the administration of the instrument. The instrument contained a list of twenty one items for

the women. They have a modified for point Likert Rating Scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly

Disagree. The items were designed to elicit information from the subjects on whether community

education can serve as a veritable tool for improved socio-economic activities among women.


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Results of Findings

Hypothesis 1: Community Education programmes at the rural communities will not affect

significantly the attitudes of women that participated for improved socio-economic development

than non participants.

Table 1: Summary of t-test analysis on participants’ and non participants’ community education

and their differential attitudes towards socio-economic activities.

Group N Mean SD df t P Remark Participants 300 22.35 9.16 4.88 3.311 .000 Sig.

(P<0.05) Non-Participants

190 22.95 8.71

* Significant at P<0.05

The result in table 1 shows that calculated t is significant at .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. It is therefore concluded that participated women in community education programmes at the rural areas become more aware of the use and ways of converting the locally untapped natural resources to wealth. Thus, their managerial capability of turning wastes to wealth became improved and it increases their socio-economic abilities and improved living conditions.

Hypothesis 2: Community Education will not significantly influence skills utilization of women

that participated and those that did not towards socio-economic development for self-reliance.

Table 2: Summary of t-test analysis on the influence of community education on skill utilization

of women participants in community education programmes and non-participants



190 20.45 7.69


The result above shows a significant influence of community education on the skills and potentialities of the women that participated in the programmes than those who did not. Their knowledge of the modern approaches to development and the skills already acquired in handling social and economic issues became more refined and defined. The knowledge and skills acquired by the women participants were applied in the day to day activities in their communities.

Hypothesis 3: Community Education at the rural communities will not significantly promote

creativity on the part of the participants for improved revenue generation for socio-economic

improvement than those who did not.


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Table 3: Summary of t-test analysis on creativity of women participants and non-participants in

community education programmes.



190 11.67 6.11


In the table above, it was established that there is significant difference in the creativeness and ingenuity on the part of the women participants in community education programmes than those who did not. The creativity and personal ingenuity demonstrated by the women clearly manifested in their ways of interacting, handling, preparing, and coordinating the social and economic activities in their communities. The women participants in return applied the popular Laubach slogan of “each one to teach one, or sponsor the education of one”.

Discussions

In this study, the researchers have clearly showed that women at the rural communities were exposed to educational services and training programmes by the State Mass Education Commission of Rivers State. This was done so as to promote sustainable development in the state. Among the community education programmes organized by the state are: Literacy teaching of the word, body, money, civic, and family-life literacy. The community education programmes focused mainly on income generating improvements like food processing and preservation. This aspect of the programme becomes relevant because majority of the raw foods produced by the rural women do waste away due to inability to preserve them. Economic activities on how to turn wastes to wealth, on health and civic responsibilities were imparted to the women. The participants became more enlightened in different aspects of literacy education, more active and able to make use of the new approaches and strategies (use of soy beans for improved nutrition, modern ways of practicing agriculture, poultry, animal husbandry, bee keeping and so on) exposed to them in their daily operations. Indeed, the women participants attest to their new experiences which they affirm has improved their revenue base in their day to day activities.

Women participants in community education with their new source of knowledge and skills became a source of inspiration to the non-participants and the slogan “Had I known”, was in them. It was also discovered that those that benefitted were prepared to share their experience and skills so as to benefit the mass majority of women yet to benefit from such programmes.

Conclusion

Community education has the potential of promoting the knowledge and skills of the rural women base on the findings of this study. This is because community education is essentially a practical process of learning by doing. It is a direct learning experience adopting whatever methodology that may suit the client as he is, whether literate or not. It is has a flexible procedure and normally available on a part-time and spare time basis as and when the clientele is available. Community education has served to raise the consciousness of the rural participants, making them more aware of new options.

Recommendations

The researchers’ therefore recommended that:

(i) The State Mass Education Commission need to coordinate the activities of the local

government Agency for Adult and Non-Formal Education and the activities of the non-


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governmental organizations to widen their activities to take care of the education of the

rural women for improved socio-economic development;

(ii) The three tiers of government should invest in the education of the rural dwellers

particularly community education which focuses on specific knowledge, skills needed by

the rural dwellers;

(iii) There is the need for adequate motivational strategies for those that willing participate in

community education programmes so as to entice the non-participants for reduction in the

level of illiteracy, ignorance poverty and ill health at the rural communities.

References

Anyanwu, C.N. (1994): The Human Commonwealth for a Humane Society. Inaugural Lecture, Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.

Anyanwu, C.N. (2002): Community Education: The African Dimension; Ibadan: Alafas Nigeria Company.

Akande, J.A. (2007): “The Practice of Community Education in Nigeria”. Journal of Education Research and Review, Vol.2 (10): 264-270.

Barikor, C.N. (1984): “Contemporary Issues in Community Development Education”. Adult Education in Nigeria, Vol.ix. Bock, J.C. & Papagiannis, Y.J. (1983): Non-Formal Education for Development, New York: Pergamon Press. Bopp, M. (1994): The Illusive essential: Evaluating Participation in Non-Formal Education and Community Development processes, Convergence: XXVII: 23-44. Coombs, P. (1973): New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth, New York: International Council for Educational Development. Massachussetts Department of Education, (1979): Community Education: An Action. Handbook, Boston: Center Research Incorporated, Massachussetts Department of Education. Newman, F.M. (1985): “Community education and Community Development in Torstein”, The International Encyclopedia of Education, New York: Pergamon Press. Oduaran, A.B. (1987): “The Trouble with self-reliance in Nigeria: How Community Education can help”. Oduaran, A.B. & Eheazu, B.A. (eds), Issues in Nigeria Adult and Community Education, Nigerian Journal of Adult Education. Oyebamiji, M.A. (2005): “Community Education and Leadership Development in Nigeria”, Ago- Iwoye, Journal of Educational Focus, Vol.6: 46-53. --------------------- (2005): “Non-Formal Education Programme and Income Generation among Women at the Grassroots in Oyo and Osun State, Nigeria: A Comparative Study”, Ago-Iwoye, International Journal of Labour and Trade Unionism, 1(1): 75-83.


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AGE AND RANK DIFFERENTIALS AS CORRELATES OF BURNOUT AMONG POLICEMEN IN RIVERS STATE:

IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING

DR. (MRS) ROSEMARY EKECHUKWU DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT Tel: +234-7038904233 Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study investigate on age and rank differentials as correlates of burnout among policemen in Rivers State. The researcher observed a pattern of emotional exhaustion, fatigue, frustration cynicism and lack of personal accomplishment among policemen which indeed are signs of job burnout. The researcher decided to identify what factors cause these feelings. Two research questions and two hypotheses were answered and tested respectively. Ex-post facto design was adopted for the study. The study population consisted of 9,500 policemen and women. A sample of 1000 policemen was drawn using multi-size sampling technique. Two instruments were utilized, namely Correlates of Police Burnout Inventory (COPBI), and Police Burnout Inventory (PBI). Data analysis was done using mean, standard deviation, t-test, z-test and anova. The result obtained after analysis revealed significant influence of age and rank on burnout. Based on the result of the findings, it was recommended among others that, the police service commission should established. Workshop and seminars should be organized regularly for men and women of the Nigerian police.

Introduction

As a former staff of the Nigeria Police Force, experience have shown that policemen and women work under such tight schedule that saps their energy and leaves them exhausted each day. According to their duty slogan; Every policeman is required to be at alert and on duty 24 hours of the day. If this is, the time to rest or recreate to reduce tension and bottled-up emotions is not taken care of. A closer observation of this category of workers also reveals that some of them often wear worried looks as a result of their job demands. They equally experience work drudgery and see their work as painfully empty, uninteresting and unrewarding. Most of the time, they feel drained and used up with little desire to return to that job the next day. Indeed, policemen face extreme stressful conditions in their job that dry up motivation to work and this also results in different health conditions.

Burnout is a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynism that occurs frequently among individuals who do people-work of some kind. Shiron (2003) defined burnout as a chronic affective state, comprised of emotional exhaustion, physical fatigue, and cognitive weariness.

Freudenberger (1974) described burnout as:

A debilitating psychological condition brought about by unrelieved work stress resulting in depleted energy and emotional exhaustion, lowered resistance to illness, increased depersonalization in


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interpersonal relationships; increased dissatisfaction and pessimism; increased absenteeism and work inefficiency.

Shaufeli and Enzmann (1998) declared that the hardest hit professionals of burnout syndrome are service providers like policemen, nurses, counselors, doctors, teachers and traffic wardens, who often become cynical about their work and openly hostile to the very people they serve. Policemen are prone to burnout because of certain psycho-social and demographic variables associated with their profession. Some of such variables include excess workload, incessant transfer, poor marital adjustment, anxiety, age, gender, and rank. This article looked at age and rank differentials as correlates of burnout.

Frequent reference to age as being related to burnout is made in burnout literature (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Burnout has been observed more often in employees under age 40, or those having limited professional work experience (Pine & Aronson, 1988). Cherniss (1982) interprets the higher occurrence of burnout among younger professionals as an identity crisis due to unsuccessful occupational socialization. Melendez and de-Guzman (1983) found that age and low rank was related to burnout due to mid life crisis which may fit many policemen of the rank and file and inspectors rank categories.

Supervision and chain of command (ranks) is another correlate of burnout among policemen. Policemen are under obligation to take instructions and orders from their senior officers or superiors. Some times, the superior officers abuse this privilege. The seniors oppress as well as intimidate the juniors, default, give orderly room trail and even detentions. The junior women police are some times sexually harassed. Their rights are often denied them, in the name of “obey before complain” and absolute loyalty.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of age and rank on the burnout level of policemen

in Rivers State.

Significance of the Study

The findings from this study will be significant because, they will provide valuable information for both policemen and policy – makers on the employment age and retirement of policemen. It will equally serve as an eye-opener to the administrators on the need to establish counseling and recreational centres, workshops and seminars that will involve both junior and senior servicemen. This kind of interaction will go a long way to promote healthier relationship between the rank and file officers and their superiors.

Research questions

(1) How does age influence burnout among policemen in Rivers State?

(2) How does rank influence burnout among policemen in Rivers State?

Hypotheses

Ho1

Ho

: There is no significant influence of age on burnout among policemen in Rivers State.

2

Method

: There is no significant influence of rank on burnout among policemen in Rivers State.

The design of the study was ex-post facto. It was used to gather data on age and rank differentials as

correlates of burnout among police personnel in Rivers State.

Age and rank differentials as correlates of burnout among policemen in Rivers state: implications for counseling.: Ekechukwu, R.

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Population of the Study

The population of the study comprised all the policemen and women in Rivers State. From the statistics office of the Rivers State police headquarters, 2007, there were 9,500 serving policemen and women made up of 2500 women and 7000 men. They have 4000 rank and file officers, 2500 Inspectors and 3000 superior officers. The study utilized both the rank and file and officers.

A total sample of 1000 policemen was used for the study. Multi-stage sampling technique was utilized for the study and Port Harcourt Area command was purposively selected for the study.

Two instruments were utilized for the study namely: Correlates of Police Burnout Inventory (COPBI) which was for independent variables and Police Burnout Inventory (PBI) for dependent variable. The two instruments were developed by the researcher and validated by two experts in the Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counseling, University of Port Harcourt.

The data were analyzed using t-test, mean, standard deviation, z-test, and anova.

Results

The data and results of each research question and its corresponding hypothesis are presented on the

same table.

Research Question 1: How does age influence burnout among policemen in Rivers State?

Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation used in analysis of Influence of Age and burnout

Variables (Age Range) n X Sd

20-29 333 63.312 19.525 30-39 312 64.731 18.526 40-49 211 71.161 20.802 50-59 42 58.333 6.312

60-above 63 65.825 19.273 958 65.4499

Table 2 shows that policemen within the age bracket of 20-29 had burnout mean score of 63.312 and

standard deviation of 19.523. Those from age bracket of 30-39 had burnout mean score of 64.731 and

standard deviation of 18.526. Policemen from age bracket of 40-49 had mean score of 71.161 and standard

deviation of 20.802. Those from 50-59 age bracket had mean score of 58.333 and standard deviation score

of 6.312, while those from 60-above had mean score of 65.825 and standard score of 19.273.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the level of Burnout among policemen due to age.

Table 1.2: Summary of ANOVA Result on the Influence of Age on Burnout Among Policemen

Source df Sum of square Mean square f-ratio f-critical Result Between group

54 106657.9248 2671.981 7.324 2.38 Significant Within group 953 34769.1702 364.839

total 958 558379.095


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Table 1.2 shows that the f-ratio 7.324 is greater than the F-critical 2.38 at degree of freedom 4.953

and 0.5 level of significance. The null hypothesis is rejected. The result therefore implies that there is a

significant difference in the levels of burnout among policemen of different age groups as shown on the

table.

Table 1.3: Post Hoc Multiple Comparison Test for the means on table 1.2

Ages X 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

20-29 63.312 - - - - - 30-39 64.731 - - - * - 40-49 71.161 * * - * - 50-59 58.333 - - - - - 60-69 65.825 - - - * -

Table above shows the pairs that are significant with (*), while (-) are the pairs that are not

significant. Policemen within the age bracket of 40-49 is significant with policemen in age bracket 30-39,

50-59 while policemen in age bracket of 60 and above is significant with those in age bracket 50-59.

Research question 2: To what extent does rank influence burnout among policemen in Rivers State.

Table 2.1: Mean and standard deviation used in the analysis of influence of rank on burnout among

policemen.

ranks n X Sd

Rank and file 667 64.633 17.613 Inspectors 121 69.298 21.976

Superior police officers (spo)

212 67.906 24.514

Table 2.1 shows that rank and file policemen have mean score of 64.633 and standard deviation of

17.613. Inspectors and Mean Score of 69.298 and standard deviation of 21.976. Superior Police Officers

(SPOs) had mean score of 67.906 and standard deviation of 24.514.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant influence in the level of burnout among policemen due to their ranks.

Table 2.2: Summary of ANOVA Result on the Influence of Rank o Burnout Among Policemen in

Rivers State

Source df Sum of square Mean square

f-ratio f-critical Result

Between group 2 3320.709 166.355 Significant

Within group 997 391348.410 392-520 4.230 2.83 Total 999


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Table 2.2 shows that the F-ratio 4.230 is greater than the F-critical 2.38 at degree of freedom 2.997, at 0.5 level of significance. The null hypothesis is rejected. The result therefore implies that there is significant difference in the level of burnout among policemen of different ranks. Therefore, rank of policemen significantly influences their burnout level.

Discussion

This study found that there arise significant differences among the age groups on the influence of age on burnout. The policemen within the middle age bracket, that is 40-49 had the highest mean 71.161. This may be due to mid-life crisis, meaning that, they have worries about their working conditions, their personal accomplishment and the excess workload that they have to handle each day without corresponding incentives from the organization. Following this group are those within age range of 30-39 with burnout mean of 64.731 who may be referred to in this case as young professionals. They may as well suffer burnout more than other age brackets of 50-59 and 60-above because of identity crisis due to disjointed occupational socialization (Chenniss, 1980).

Frequent reference of age as being related to burnout is made in the burnout literature (Schampel, & Enzmann 1998). Pins and Aronson (1998), and Chennis (1980) further stated that burnout has been observed more often in employees under age 40 or those having limited professional work experience. Another study with similar result was that of Chennis (1980) who interpreted the higher occurrence of burnout among younger professionals as an identity crisis due to unsuccessful occupational socialization. Melendez and DeGuzman (1983) found that age was related to burnout due to mid-life crisis. This may fit many police officers in Rivers State.

Maslach (2001) links age to lack of experience but offers concern for caution in that there exists a survival bias, i.e. those who burnout early in their careers are likely to quit their jobs, leaving behind the survivors who consequently exhibits lower level of burnout. Ifelunni (1999) in his work with counselors and burnout found that burnout continues to increase with increase in age. He summarized that older counselors experience more burnout than the younger ones. This is conflicting with the present study. Maslach et al (2001) noticed that the burnout level among younger employees generally is reported to be higher than the older employees and policemen. The present study and Maslach & Leiter (2001) seem to agree that the burnout at younger ages than older ages is as a result of earlier risk in an individual’s career.

This study also found that there is a significant influence of rank on burnout of policemen in Rivers State. Police officers and Inspectors all had higher mean scores than the rank and files. This means that officers are more likely to suffer burnout than the rank and file policemen. This may be due to high occupational gains and success they are anticipating and pursuing. Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) supported this discourse in their own work with lecturers in higher institutions. They found that individuals with high educational levels have been found to be more prone to burnout than those with less educational qualifications in the same occupation. They attributed this to the fact that people having higher educational qualification may have greater expectations from their career accomplishments than those individuals with less education. Individuals who occupy higher ranks may have higher expectations from their career accomplishments than those individuals with less education. Individuals who occupy higher ranks may have higher expectations for their jobs and are thus more distressed if these categories of individuals would be more likely to become frustrated, disappointed and perhaps suffer burnout.


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Implications for Counselling

Age was found to have significant difference with burnout. This means that Nigeria Police Force should make appropriate strategies to improve the working conditions of men and women of the community, especially those that are entering newly. Adequate orientation, on the job training, workshops and seminars should be put in place to reduce mid-life crisis, lack of experience and expertise that create rooms for burnout among workers.

Proper orientation of men and officers of the Nigeria police is very needful counselor will use his expertise to bridge communication gap and assist all the stakeholders to work out and implement the necessary career development opportunities.

References

Cheniss, U. (1982). Job Burnout in Public Education. Symptoms, Causes and Survivors Skills. New York: Teachers College Press.

Ekechukwu, R. O. (2008). Correlates of Burnout Among Policemen in Rivers State. An unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Department of Educational Psychology Guidance and Counselling, University of Port Harcourt

Frendenbeger, H. J. (1974). Staff Burnout. Journal of Social Issues. 30, 105-159.

Ifelumi, C. S. (1999). Age Differentials and Psychological Burnout of Guidance Counsellors in Nigerian Secondary Schools. Nigerian Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and Education (NJESPE). Vol. 2: 25 – 29.

Maslach, C. (2003). Burnout: The Cost of caring. Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice – Hall.

Melendez, N. & DeGuzman M. (1983). Burnout: The New Academic Disease. ASHE – ERIC Higher Education Research Report. No. 9. Washington D. C: Association for the study of Higher Education.

Pines A. B. & Aronson E. (1988). Career burnout: Causes and Cures, New York: The Free Press.

Schaufeli, W. & Enzmann D (1998). The burnout companion to study and practices: A critical analysis. Rottterdam: A.D. Donker – Rotterdam.

Shiron, A. (2003). Job-related burnout. In Quick & L. E. Tetrick. Handbook of Occupational health psychology. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.


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DOCUMENTATION OF THE CONTRIBUTUIONS OF AGE-GRADES TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHAFIA

EDUCATION ZONE OF ABIA STATE

OYEOKU, EKE KALU

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, NIGERIA.

Abstract

This study was designed to investigate the contributions of age-grades to secondary schools in Ohafia Education zone of Abia State. To carry out this study, two research questions and one hypothesis were formulated. Questionnaire was used to collect relevant data from the 55principals and 120 members of age-grades in the Education zone. Mean was used to answer the research questions while t-test statistic was employed to test the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The major findings of this study include among other things the fact that between 2006 and 2010, the age-grades contributed N2.5m on scholarship to secondary school students, N1.5m on sports and games equipment; N4m on renovation of classroom blocks, N1.5m on bursary awards to students, N3.5m on the building of introductory technology workshops, N

2m on the provision of science equipment. Age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone of Abia State provided 34 classroom blocks, 26 laboratory blocks, 22 introductory technology workshops and 12 dormitories.

Background

The age-grade institution is one tradition that is prevalent in African societies. It is a very important grouping in the organisation of the social and political structure of societies based on the age of the participants. The fabric of age-grade organisation is based on a certain age-gap ranging from two to three years or even more, depending on the society. Ottenberg and Ottenberg (1960) argued that age-grades and age-set are associations based on age groupings. The membership is made up of mainly men and sometimes women. The organization is simple but more united in functions.

Among the Igbos of Nigeria, the age-grade system performs an important role in the political and socio-cultural life of the people. It also forms the natural or biological stratification of the society since authority and leadership basically derives its strength from the age of the participants at various levels. According to Otite and Ogionwo (2006) and Ifemesia (1979) age-sets and age-grades variously referred to as Otu Ogbo, Ulo, Ebiri and Uka, were vital institutions for fostering communal and humane living among the Igbos. Among the Ohafia Igbos, often referred to as the Cross River Igbos, the age-grade system is a very strong, dictating and controlling group activity in the communities.

Age-grade is used to refer to the division of society into a number of sections based on sociological age. Age-grade is further defined by Giddens, Duneier and Appelbaum, (2005) as a group in which several contingent age-sets combine to form a larger body having recognized functions. In other words, it is the structural framework through which different age-set pass with different clusters of rights, duties, obligations and privileges associated with them. On the other hand, Mitchell, (1979) defined an age set as a formally organized group of men or women recruited on the basis of sociological age. There are usually public ceremonies when the sets are formed and when the different sets advance through the age-grade structure. Probably the most important of these stages is the initiation ceremony when youths and maidens acquire mature status.

Age-grade system in Ohafia context is the grouping of people (male and female) born within the same time span which may vary up to three years and giving the group a name which they retain collectively till the last person in that group dies. The grouping takes place very early in their lives, before they are ten years old but they do not take a name (izara afa) officially till adolescence (say 20 years). Birth and


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death records were not kept in Ohafia Zone until after 1914. Even then, these were kept haphazardly by individuals. Grouping children into age groups was loosely done with mothers remembering certain events which took place when they were nursing their children.

Age-grade system, “Uke”, as it is known in Ohafia Zone is an age long tradition whose origin is veiled in the historical past of Ohafia. But one can presume that it started in a period when Ohafia people developed group consciousness and began to plan for their collective and communal security, stability and integration within a territorial boundary or polity. The view stems from the fact that the age-grade system provides the people with manpower at the various levels of communal political organisation, community development, military service and a kind of police force. It is also possible that age-grade systems metamorphosed from peer group association to a situation where people grow up together, play together, hunt together, and find themselves playing social roles together in their community. This argument can be substantiated with Otite and Ogionwo’s (2006:35) opinion that:

The age-grade of children consisted of what might be called the photo-age-set groups of children below teenage. They were usually referred to as Ogbo (nacho) nta ngwelle, (the age-grade hunting lizards). Within this grade, children learn among other things the co-operative art of the chase, and ceremonial division and proper distribution of cuts of meat. They also played at masks and learned discipline themselves of flogging and redicule, threatening and brow beating of various kinds.

From the above, we can see that age-grade process does not suddenly begin, rather there is an element of natural development and growth of relationship between the players in age-group activities. Basden (1966) also said that boys while still quite young as well as youths mingle quite freely with old men. This can be seen or regarded as a gestation period towards an age-grade formation. Today the institution of age-grade has grown to become the mainstay of traditional community administration in Ohafia Local Government Area. These age-grades exist in all the villages of Ohafia with names of age-grades duplicating from one village to another. They have actively participated in community development activities like the building of town halls, construction of roads and bridges, guarding of the villages in times of war and building of primary schools for their communities. Presently, age-grades have become innovative with each age-grade trying to introduce a new project which other age-grades have not thought about making age-grade activities of today highly competitive. Also with changing times the names adopted by age-grades have also taken a new dimension. In the colonial days, names like Uke London (London Age-grade) was fashionable but today, such names have been over-taken by more indigenous names like Ugomba Age-grade (the Eagle of the community).

The community development activities of age-grades over the years have been centred on the building of town halls, roads, and bridges among others, with little attention to secondary education. Therefore, there is need to ascertain the participation of age-grades in secondary school education in Ohafia Education Zone of Abia State.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to determine through the opinions of secondary school principals and the executive members of the age-grade, the specific contributions of age-grades in the provision of secondary education in the Ohafia Education Zone of Abia State.

Documentation of the contributions of age-grades to secondary schools in Ohafia education zone of Abia state.: Oyeoku, E. K.

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Research Questions

This study answered the following research questions:

1. What are the specific financial contributions of age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone of Abia

State in the management of Secondary Schools?

2. What contributions have the age-grades made to Secondary School Education in the area of

the provision of infrastructural facilities and equipment?

Hypothesis

A null hypothesis was formulated to guide the study, thus:

There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the Urban and Rural Secondary School principals with regard to the specific contributions of age-grades to the discipline of staff and students.

Method

The design of this study was descriptive survey involving the use of a questionnaire and focus group discussion with the executive members of the age-grades. The population for this study comprised all the secondary school principals and executive members of different age-grades in the Ohafia Education Zone of Abia State. Based on the 2009/2010 school year, this population was 55 for the principals and 120 for the age-grades. (Source: Secondary School Education Management Board, Planning, Statistics and Research Unit, 2009/2010).

One of the instruments for data collection was a questionnaire titled “Documentation of the Contributions of Age-grades of Secondary School Education in Ohafia Education Zone of Abia State”. It was administered to secondary school principals and executive of the selected communities in the Ohafia Education Zone. Structured interview schedule for executive members of the age-grades and principal.

The questionnaire was constructed on a four-point rating scale of Very Great Extent (VGE), Great Extent (GE), Little Extent (LE), and None at All (NA). the questionnaire was designed to collect information from the secondary school principals on the contributions of the Age-grades to discipline of staff and students. There were ten items on the whole. The scale was rated as below:

VCE – 4 Points

GE – 3 Points

LE – 2 Points

NA – 1 Point.

The second research instrument for this study was a structured interview format for the executive members of the age-grades. The information sought included: Name of age-grade, name of school where the age-grade made some contributions, the particular item provided and quantity.

The instrument was validated by two specialists in the Sociology of Education and one in Educational Administration of the Department of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. These experts were


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given the initial draft of the instrument to check the adequacy of the items and the weighting of the responses. Their comments were adhered to in the final preparation of the instrument.

In order to determine the reliability of the instrument to be used for the study, it was administered to 10 Secondary School Principals. It was collected two weeks later, the instrument was re-administered to the same group of respondents. Using the first and second scores after the administration of the instrument, a test retest reliability estimate was computed using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation. The coefficient obtained was 0.84. This value was therefore considered high enough to aid the conclusion that the instrument was reliable.

The researcher employed the direct delivery technique in the administration of the questionnaire. This means that the researcher administered the instrument personally to the respondents. This offered the researcher the opportunity to explain the technical terms which might not be clear to those who are in different age-grades. One hundred and twenty (120) questionnaire were distributed to the executive members of the different age-grades while 55 copies of the questionnaire were administered to Urban and Rural Secondary School Principals.

The data collected were analysed in the following ways: Four-point rating scales was used to rate the responses to the items of the questionnaire.

Means were used to answer the three research questions formulated for the study. Responses related to each research question was tallied and weighted. Any mean from 2.55 and above shows that the respondents agreed with the corresponding item and an item with a mean below 2.55 indicated disagreement.

Answers to Research Questions

Research Question I

What are the specific financial contributions of age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone in the

management of Secondary Schools.

The data for answering the above research question are presented on table I below.

Table I: Financial contributions of Age-grades to Secondary Education in Ohafia Education

Zone between 2006 - 2010.

S/NO ITEM OF EXPENDITURE AMOUNT CONTRIBUTED (N)

1. Scholarship to students 2.5m 2. Funds for sport and game equipment. 1.5m 3. Financial Assistance for renovation of classroom

blocks. 4m

4. Bursary awards to students 1.5m 5. Financial Assistance to the building of introductory

technology workshops. 3.5m

6. Funds for the provision of Science Equipment. 2m Table I above presents the information on the financial contributions of Age-grades in Ohafia

Education Zone on Secondary School Education.


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Looking at the table, we can see that between 2006 and 2010, the age-grades contributed N2.5m on scholarships to students, N1.5m on sports and Games equipment, N4m on renovation of classroom blocks, N1.5m on bursary awards to students, N3.5m on the building of introductory technology workshop and N

Research Question 2

2m on the Provision of science equipment.

What contributions have the Age-grades made to Secondary School Education in the area of

the provision of infrastructural facilities and equipment?

Data for providing answers to the above research question are presented on table 2 below:

Table 2: Contributions of the sampled Age-grades with regard to infrastructural facilities and

equipment between 2006 to 2010.

S/NO NAME OF FACILITY/EQUIPMENT QUANTITY PROVIDED 7. Classroom Blocks. 34 8. Laboratory Blocks 26 9. Introductory Technology Workshop 22 10. Dormitories 12 11. Fencing of the School compound 10 12. Electricity 8 13. Pipe-Borne Water 11 14. Sports equipment 42 15. Staff Quarters 14 16. Provision of classroom furniture, Desk and chairs

2,112 17. Provision of office Equipment 25 18. Administrative Blocks 10 19. Instructional materials 18 20. Library facilities. 8

Table 2 above presents information on the contributions of Age-grade in Ohafia Education

Zone with regard to the provision of infrastructural facilities and equipment in Secondary Schools.

Looking at the table, one can see that between 2006 and 2010, the age-grades have provided 34 classroom blocks, 26 Laboratory Blocks, 22 Introductory Technology workshop, 12 dormitories, fencing 10 school compounds, supplied electricity to 8 schools, 42 sports equipment, 14 staff quarters. They have provided 2,112 classroom furniture (desks and chairs) 25 office equipment, 10 administrative Blocks, 18 instructional materials and 8 Library facilities.


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Test of Hypothesis

Hypothesis One

There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the Urban and Rural Secondary

School principals with regard to the specific contributions of Age-grades to discipline of staff and

students.

Table 3: t-test for Hypothesis One

Variable N X SD Degree of freedom

Level of signific.

Cal–t Table value

Decision

Contributions of Age-grades to discipline

Urban principals

Rural principals

11

30

2.14 2.32

0.70

0.63

39

.05

0.75

1.96

HO1 is Accepted

Table 3 above presents the t-test analysis of the difference between the mean scores of Urban

and Rural Secondary School Principals with regard to the contributions of age-grades in Ohafia

Education Zone with regard to the discipline of staff and students.

Looking at the table, one can see that the calculated t-value is 0.75 at 39 degrees of freedom and .05 level of significance. Since this calculated value of 0.75 is far less than the table value of 1.96, the sole null hypothesis of this study is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant differences between the opinions of the Urban and Rural Secondary School Principals with regard to the contributions of Age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone in the discipline of staff and students.

DISCUSSION The result of research question one which bordered on the specific financial contributions of age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone to Secondary School Education showed that age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone contributed N2.5m on scholarships to students, N1.5m on sports and games equipment, N4 on renovation of classroom blocks, N1.5m on bursary awards to students, N3.5m on the building of introductory technology workshops, and N

These findings are not surprising since age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone normally levies members and occasionally organize launching ceremonies during which they contribute substantial sums of money for the educational development of their communities. Anyanwu (1980) reported that age-grades in Igbo land contribute to the funding of Secondary education in their communities. The researcher’s personal involvement in financial contributions to Secondary education (as a member of the Adinti II age-grade) supports this findings. In 2006 for instance, the Nkeiruka Age-grade of Amaokwe Item in Bende Local Government Area provided N200,000.00 (two hundred thousand naira) to the community High School, Item to assist in the provision of sports and Games equipment in the school.

2m on the provision of science equipment.


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The second research question which bordered on the contributions of Age-grades on the area of the provision of infrastructural facilities and equipment showed that age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone provided 34 classroom blocks, 26 laboratory blocks, 22 introductory Technology workshops, 12 dormitories, fencing 10 school compounds, supplied electricity to 8 schools, 42 sports equipment, 14 staff quarters. They have provided 2,112 classroom furniture, desks, and chairs, 25 office equipment, 10 administrative blocks, 18 instructional materials and 8 library facilities.

This finding is again understandable since age-grades contributed immensely in the setting up physical facilities and equipment in schools, hospitals and markets in their communities. Egboh (1987) reported that at Abiriba, the Egwuena Age-grade in commemoration of their Igwa Mang Ceremony, built and equipped a Girls’ Secondary School known as Egwuena Girls’ Secondary School at a cost of N85,000.00 (eighty five thousand naira). In 2008, the Udo ji Mba Age-grade completed the construction of a Secondary School block at a cost of over N

There was no significant difference between the opinions of the Urban and Rural Secondary School Principals with regard to the contributions of Age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone in the discipline of staff and students. These findings suggest that the two categories of respondents (Urban and Rural School Principals) shared the same view or opinions with regard to the contributions of age-grades in Ohafia Education Zone in the discipline of staff and students. So, even though their cluster means differed (2.14 and 2.32) by narrow margin, the difference is not statistically significant.

3m and handed it over to the State Government through the Ebem Ohafia Development Union (EODU). It is on record that the Ugomba Age-grade of Ebem Ohafia built a multi-purpose hall of Ohafia High School in Ebem Ohafia. It is also on record that the Unity Club of Amaokwe Item and the Ogarifu Age-grades built the Introductory Technology workshops at the Community High School Item. In Igbere, the Egwuatu Age-grade financed the construction of a dormitory, block at the Igbere Community Secondary School. The Enyimba Age-grade of Amaekpu built 12 classroom blocks at Seminary Secondary School, Amaekpu.

Recommendations

The following recommendations have been made in the light of the findings, the discussion

that followed and various implications which have been highlighted.

1. The Abia State Secondary Education Management Board should encourage and support

age-grades in various communities in the State to contribute their own quota to the financial

management of Secondary Schools. This is necessary since the funding of education is an

enormous responsibility which should involve the responsibility of various agencies.

2. The Abia State Secondary Education Management Board should also continue to encourage

and support age-grades in the provision of infrastructural facilities and equipment in the

State. The Board should realize that infrastructural facilities and equipment constitute one

of the important factor resources for the implementation of instructional programmes.


49 www.ajeds.com

References

Anyanwu, C.N. (1980). Adult Education in Nigeria..Ibadan: Moba Printers.

Basden, G.T. (1966). Among the Igbos of Nigeria. London:Frankcass.

Egboh, E.O. (1987). Community Development Efforts in Igboland. Onitsha: Etukokwo Press

(Publishers) Ltd.

Gibbs, J.C. (1965). Peoples of Africa. New York: Holt, Rinehard and Winston Inc.

Giddens, A, Duneier, M & Appelbaum, R.P. (2005). Introduction to Sociology. New York and London:

W.W. Norton and Company.

Ifemesia, C.C. (1979). Traditional Humane Living Among the Igbos. Enugu: Fourth Dimension

Publishing Co. Ltd.

Mitchell, G.D. (1981). A New Dictionary of Sociology, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

Otite, O. & Ogionwo, W. (2006). An Introduction to Sciological Studies, Ibadan: Hememann

Educational Books (Nigeria) Plc.

Ottenberg, S. & Ottenberg, P. (1960). Culture and Societies of Africa. New York: Random House


50 www.ajeds.com

DIVERGENT DIDACTICS IN THE AGE OF COMPLEXITY THE CATEGORICAL ARCHITECTURE OF KNOWLEDGE’S

OVERCOMING

1Gomez Paloma F., Nicodemo M.

& Sibilio M.

, Sgambelluri R., Ambretti A.,Di Tore S.

Department of Human, Philosophical and Education Sciences – University of Salerno (Italy)

Abstract

Our post-modern society is full of opportunities, environments, processes and very articulate subsystems that make it complex. Complexity is always growing because of the development of technology, which produces a series of subsystems, which articulate people. The development, with the progress, has characterized the historical period of modernity. In this stage, it prevails the idea that education and training can solve all the problems of society. In post-modernity age there is, instead, the primacy of complexity and, therefore, of global market. This phenomenon has implications in terms of educational culture. In this complex society, the educational agencies (family, school) are in difficulty, because there is a social condition where there are many educational proposals. To answer to the needs expressed by this type of society there must be no reference to the curricula focused primarily on the disciplines, but it is necessary to refer to Morin’s "thought that interconnects", which involves new ways of learning. The “knowledge should prefer processes of integration and contamination, bypassing the traditional distinction between content and methods, and these processes should be marked by multidimensional prospects and by reticular logics.”

Learning in the complexity

The theorists of complexity challenge the principles of a knowledge legitimized by "certainties",

saying that the rational knowledge, while valid, must accept the proof of the limit and the plurality

of viewpoints. “The awareness of complexity results in a reflexive fluidity that allows science to be

open to the multidimensionality of the experience”( Chiosso, 2004,p.29)

"The characteristic developments of our century and our planet age was put in front of us,

increasingly and more inevitably, the challenges of complexity."(Morin, 2000,p.6). The

comparison with this reality calls into question and, consequently puts into crisis any simplified

The human reflection

becomes more aware of the risk of versatility, of obscurity and of irrationality and the use of reason

is more cautious.


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approach, especially the causal-linear explanation (cause - effect), and the logic of separation that

has dominated in the positivist paradigm.

According to the vision of complexity, intelligence, the only one able to separate, breaks the

complex of world in disjointed fragments, divisions the problems, uni-dimensionalizes the

multidimensional aspect. Not only the human world, but also the rest of nature to be understood

calls to adopt the principle of complexity, being the real not more compressible in the ordinary

epistemic logics and, therefore, it becomes necessary to break up with the linear explanations, with

the research of predictability and generalizations.

The principle of complexity in a first case, referring to a philosophical category, refers to a

model of internal organization of knowledge that passes the simplified images of knowledge and

history and, therefore, of the reductionism approach of the positivist and rationalist tradition .

In the second case, referring to a category of social analysis, it focuses on a society that is a-centric,

reticular, and has no predetermined hierarchies.(Mortari, 2007,p.53)

Only the demolition of experimental paradigm, understood as a universal method, and the transition

to the plurality of methods (each consistent with the scope of investigation and research) may open

new roads of research and account for the complexity of the processes which people have

experienced. The evolution of society, the growth of people, the history of culture are not static

phenomena, but are subject to conditions of constant dynamism.

The personality that brings us in full paradigm of complexity is that of Morin (2000), who has

dedicated much of his life thinking about the complex, which is all that is "weaving together".

In the late sixties of the twentieth century, following his discovery of cybernetics, systems

and the theory of self-organization, Morin, whilst engaged in the research for a "method", finds

complexity. In this way he realizes that "one knowledge that counts is the one that feeds itself of

uncertainty, and that only the thought that lives is that keeps the temperature of its destruction."

The term "deterministic chaos", indicates a becoming that appears as the result of a complex game

between chance and necessity. It is the transition from a deterministic vision of the world to a kind

of stochastic scientific vision, which requires to scientific reason, the use of the non-conventional

categories as those of “case”, "bond" and "probability."( Mortari, 2007).

(Benkirane, 2007). According to Morin the mission of science, is not to drive out the disorder from

his theories, but to consider it. Chaos would not be the opposite of order, but should be identified as

a precarious situation from which it is possible to develop new and original situations.

Morin (2000) writes:

"Knowing and thinking is not to achieve an absolutely certain truth, it is to dialogue with

Divergent didactics in the age of complexity The categorical architecture of knowledge’s overcoming.: Paloma F.G., Maria N., Sgambelluri R., Ambretti A., Di Tore S. & Sibilio Maurizio

52 www.ajeds.com

uncertainty." The society appears as directed to the uncertainty of the future of people must prepare

to an uncertain world and to expect the unexpected.

So, the "certainty" is replaced by the "possibility" that is able to compare with the sense of limits,

with the not yet clarified, with the multifaceted, the probability, the multidisciplinary approach.

“Knowledge is an uncertain adventure [...]. Knowledge is a sailing in an ocean of doubts through

the archipelagos of certainties.”

Along with the paradigm of complexity also the myth of the explanation and clarification of

the universe falls, while being motivated on the adventure of knowledge. In an educational context,

this means that it is necessary to teach the new generations, and not just to live with shakiness,

diversity, the multiplicity of experiences, and above all it is necessary to free the mind from habits.

(Morin, 2001,p.23)

The vitality of the human mind is in its ability to move in an "ecological" way. The ecological

perspective of the mind and the theory of learning as a process of "self-reflexive" and continuously

adapted to new and unexpected circumstances are two focal points in the reflection of Gregory

Bateson. According to him we must be placed in an ecological perspective, meaning life as a set of

mental processes connected together.

The idea of a mind that, as a unique human dowry, dominates and controls the instruments, objects

and creatures, is exceeded. The human being is not separated from things or from people, on whom

it believes to act.

(Bateson, 1990, p.19)

According to Bateson (1990) what distinguishes humans from other organisms is only the

grade of complexity of their mental operations. Human minds are more complex because verbal

language, and technology, influence our perception and amplifies it. The environmental process of

thought is carried out taking advantage of the thought of others, of those with whom we interact.

Thought compared to other acts behaves as a manipulator, and others, in return, make use of what

we think and do. It is thanks to our auto-reflexivity that life takes shape, that is, through our

thoughts and it configures according to what we wish it would resemble.

The ecological learning is, then, the one located in a relational context, consisting of plots,

dissymmetry, aiming at liberation from the habits, the ability to understand the differences, the

connections and the total change in attitudes and behaviors.


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Learning for interconnection

Our time is characterized by a number of challenges, those are: the challenge of global and

complex, of uncontrolled expansion of knowledge, the weakening of the sense of responsibility of

the principle of solidarity, the risk of a strong regression of democracy. This is seen by Morin

(2000) as the need for a “reform of the thought that interconnects”, able to ensure full use of

intelligence and to lead to an educational reform. Morin in the prospect of this reform relies on

Montaigne, who makes the first purpose of teaching, saying, “a well done head is better than a well

filled head.” Instead of accumulating knowledge it is more important to form a “general attitude”,

put and treat the problems and the development of a second capacity on " organizing principles"

that can connect the knowledge and give them a sense.

Morin, about the first attitude, says that general intelligence is influential, greater is its ability to

deal with special problems and the task of education is to promote the full employment of general

intelligence. The full employment requires the exercise of curiosity (known ability in childhood and

adolescence) that often, is extinguished by the teaching.

Morin calls to support, to encourage the inquiring attitude and to orient it to the fundamental

problems of the condition of our time. It can’t, therefore, be inscribed in a well fixed and

immutable program. It would cultivate the exercise of the doubt: uncertainty is more educational

than certainty because it is not satisfying; it increases the knowledge and teaches to live with the

unpredictability in long term.

Knowing how to shack up and to manage the uncertainty is woven with the awareness of the

human precarious condition, random and complex and it is one of the important prerequisites for

educational success. About the second attitude Morin, starting on the assumption that knowledge

implies separation and interconnection at the same time analysis and synthesis, highlights how our

civilization, and therefore our teaching, has favored the separation and analysis instead of the

interconnection and synthesis. “Just as our way of understanding separates all the objects, it is

necessary to conceive what interconnects them. It closes off the objects from their natural context

and from the collection to which they belong, it is cognitive need to put a specific knowledge in its

context and place it in a set.”

He speaks of "the principle of relevant knowledge 'in the sense that the isolated knowledge of data

and information is not enough, because for them to make sense they must be placed within a

context, but there must also be the effort to see how the knowledge modifies this context .

(,Morin, 2000). Morin also, therefore, relies on the image of

“ecological thought”, which places every event, information and knowledge in a relation of

inseparability with the environment.


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Because knowledge is relevant, education must bring to highlighting: the context, the global

(relations between the whole and parts), the multidimensional and the complex.

That is why we speak of "general intelligence" because it is capable of referring to the complex, to

global context. So the thought is "thinking of the complex," because we must also search the

relationships between each phenomenon and its context.

In the field of education "to understand someone else” 'means to understand the particular

educational needs of the person. It is an empathic understanding, which translates into knowing

how to fall, with conscious intent and ability to return in the guise of the other to see the world from

its point of view. This operation passes through the reconstruction of "world views" of the subjects,

that is, the representations on the basis of their actions. Therefore, the teacher only after rebuilding

the representations that direct the action of the subject can intervene with appropriate educational

interventions.

(Morin, 2000, p.19)Education in carrying

out the mission to promoting the general intelligence of people, it must use existing knowledge,

cross the dispersion and the partitioning of specialized knowledge. Considering Morin’s "seven

necessary knowledge for the future education” it is right to focus mainly on two forms of learning,

to be more precise: education to understand and training to the “identity and terrestrial

consciousness ".

The educator/teacher must implement what Carl Rogers calls "unconditional positive acceptance”,

that is non-judgmental acceptance, which means to not use stereotypes when a subject is evaluated.

The educator/teacher should follow the cognitive phenomenological act of the “open attention" to

the phenomenon, that is, the disposition to capture the phenomenon accurately. The open focus,

which is a passive listening, requires to activate in the mind an “allocentric posture”, that is, the

ability to put in brackets one’s self.

This kind of attention results in a receptive disposition: to develop a relaxed disposition of

mind, since in order for someone to truly speak about himself we have to awake the greatest

attention possible.

About the second knowledge, Morin, in his book "The head well done", believes that people should

learn to live, to share and to be in communion as people of planet, ignoring the fact within a

community. He speaks of a "community of destiny" in the sense that all people are subject to the

same deadly threats. Terrestrial citizenship, then, can be taught only if education is addressed to the

understanding of others, wherever they are.


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But how can you learn in a complex society?

Everything that is related to the society is Paideia, which is all that makes a society complex.

Giuseppe Acone in the " Untraceable Paideia " defines the Paideia as a defined category «societas

sub specie educationis», that is the society is an educational attitude towards the younger

generation. But for Acone, in this complex society, the Paideia is untouchable; this aspect does not

concern the institutional Paideia (peer group, electronic galaxy), because here there is an

educational project, but a "second level of learning" and, therefore, you can meet both educational

and harmful experiences.

This aspect of the untouchable is in the institutional form (family, school and church),

because here there must be necessarily an educational project for young people.(Acone, 2004). The

crisis of educational institutions is accompanied by the decline of knowledge, in fact, the enormous

advances in knowledge, implemented in the field of disciplinary specializations, in the twentieth

century have not only the advantages of division of work, but also the “difficulties in the super-

specialization of the subdivision and fragmentation of knowledge. They didn’t produce knowledge

and clarification only, but also ignorance and blindness.”(Morin, 2000, p.7). It follows that the

mind shaped by the disciplines loses its natural inclination to contextualize knowledge.

The hyper-specialization, or specialization that closes itself without allowing integration into a

global problem, obscures the opportunity to see the global and, therefore, the essential aspect.

But the necessity expressed by our society represents the need to think about its global aspect, the

relationship between the whole and the parts, the complexity of human processes.

The planet is in constant movement, and "requires a multi-centered thought capable of

tending not abstract universalism, but aware of unity / human diversity and human and it requires a

polycentric thought nourished by world cultures.

This is the purpose of education that in the global era needs to work for the identity and terrestrial

consciousness”.(Morin, 2001,pp. 64-65)

It is an agency of education, training, socialization and has a legal value for the society. It has an

economic characterization in the sense that the school in its aspect creates jobs; connected to this,

Niklas Luhmann speaks about the school’s "self-space”.

The education system, and therefore the school, like all its

other sub-systems, has a multifaceted characterization. The school of post-modernity is different

from the pre -modern and modern. It is not an agency of training terminal, as the primary school in

the nineteenth century society was.

(Luhmann, 1991, p.10). The contemporary

school is made by the "ethical pluralism": each student has his/her ethics, his/her opinions and ideas

on religion, so it resets to zero the coefficient of education to increase the instructive.


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Moreover, as Adriano Fabris states in a speech on the journal "Education and life”, there is

the prevalence of a 'technical rationality'. The risk is of the education process being replaced," that

is the training is reduced to the simple transmission of skills and techniques and data. There is a

danger that it is no longer necessary that a person makes this knowledge his/her own, since they can

be recovered from various supports where they are stored.( Fabris, 2010, p.87). In front of all these,

the school must follow the thought of Dewey in "School and Society” since, concerning the

relationship between school and society, he says that school must anticipate and accompany society

When it comes to training it is necessary to refer to the "cultural climate" of the moment: that where

we live today is a condition resulting from technology and, moreover, it has entered into a multi-

disciplinary culture. To answer the needs expressed by this type of society we should no longer

refer to the curriculum focused primarily on the disciplines, but it is necessary to refer to their

"thinking that interconnects" of Morin, which involves new ways of learning.

(Dewey, 1975,p.31).

Consequent to the "dialogical principle", it is necessary to talk terms and perspectives that

appear mutually exclusive but that in reality, at different times, they complement rather than

exclude. The learning process should take place in such a way as to ensure, in addition to

disciplinary control, the intercommunication between different fields of knowledge and research.

There should not be anymore a privileged center to investigate, but resources and attention should

be concentrated focus on relationships with all learning which can establish with what is

contiguous. The disciplines should not be distinguished, or rather, this distinction should be read in

terms of adjacency. The "knowledge should prefer the integration and contamination processes ,

bypassing the traditional distinction between content and methods, and be marked by

multidimensional prospects and reticular logics (Chiosso, 2004,p.38).

It is impossible to ignore how our society is changing, how the growing migratory flows are

profoundly changing its configuration that has multi-ethnic characteristics. This aspect imposes the

need for the school of society to give special attention to the needs of differentiation expressed by

the various people, which must be given from an educational offer of quality that enhances the

diversity of interests and variety of rhythms and learning styles of each.

Intercultural education, in today's educational culture, is an educational purpose, such as social

educational project. Inter-culturality can arise only on the basis of identity and different

memberships, able to meet and communicate to build shared values and must, above all, help the

understanding of differences.( Clarizia, 2002,p. 218). School must recognize a formative

customized offer, a training related to wishes and interests of the person, it is necessary to drop the


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idea of a formative standard offer that does not recognize differences. A correct formative offer

should not refer only to the younger generations, but promote the educational success for all stages

of life.

A society must become accountable to all stakeholders, and all classes, which have not

obtained full independence. The school, in a reality characterized by constant dynamism, is called

continually to change the content of teaching / learning and to challenge the disciplinary structure

and, above all, to move from a model of closed structure, segmented in the fields and committed to

improve the linear thinking, to an opened school, engaged in interdisciplinary research and in the

solicitation of systemic and simultaneous thinking.

The school should be able to guarantee to each student skills that enable him/her to share the values

of democratic society and civil cohabitation, to make conscious choices, to develop flexible,

creative and divergent thinking. A school that is able to provide a formative offer which is

consistent with the needs of society, must necessarily enjoy a range of a curricular, extracurricular,

educational and organizational autonomy.

The educational institution must differentiate the educational path of each individual,

considering its particular "educational special needs" and share with the student, in addition to

his/her parents, this design/project. Innovation’s challenges of innovation also evidently require

new skills, and above all, the teachers are required to have professional profiles of qualified,

technical skill, able to find in a situation of problem solving the organizational and teaching

solutions and teaching more effectively to many needs. It is necessary that teachers acquire these

skills through consistent training courses to be correlated with educational and teaching research.

Autonomy can now do research and testing also through agreements of aimed network at

optimizing resources and creating a virtuous cycle of comparison and reflection. But this is only

possible if, between all operators there is established an active collaboration, the result of sharing of

cultural and human values. An important role is taken by a manager who is an educational guide,

which to encourage, by appropriate communicative motivational strategies, the active participation

of all.

Noerino Arcangeli, in an article published in "Journal of Education," puts upfront the

performance goals that every manager must achieve. The writer focuses on two skills related to the

activities and functions associated with management responsibilities: listening skills and ability to

make decisions. It is, therefore, a very empathic skills that required to school principal.

"The pleasure of ordinary testing of empathic competence produces a real empathic consciousness

that is very comprehensive and integral".


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What methodology for the future of education?

The schools, in the present society must pay attention to problem of competencies, a term that, in

the planning of curricula, replaced the more usual of contents disciplinary, educational subjects,

disciplines of study. In recent years the focus is on abstract forms, decontextualized and closed of

knowledge; the concept of competence, however, involves the active practice of knowledge into

real problems (in line with the demands of context) and the skills to remodel the knowledge to face

new situations

The concept of competence is presented, then, as knowledge in context and this causes an important

change in education. A considerable contribution comes from the paradigm of 'progressive

education', which is opposed to the traditional model of transmission of the school, because it tends

to produce frail learning that is not applicable to the problems of complex social reality.

(Lerida, 2005,p.167).

"The progressive education has no plans, defined methods, subjects, but it is an educational

approach oriented towards research, towards improving the conditions of learning."

The graduated school is different from traditional school due to two dimensions: the structure of the

curriculum and the organization of interaction in the class.

"A different curriculum "is characterized by subject areas strongly distinct, with clear boundaries

and few connections, while an" integrated curriculum "is marked by a strong interdependence

between the areas of knowledge and the attempt to pass the traditional disciplinary boundaries”

(Paolo, 2009,pp. 12-15)

In the progressive curriculum the teachers build interdisciplinary projects, where students have the

opportunity to carry out long experiences, to develop a method of reasoning to solve the problems,

they can discuss for a long time, showing their interpretations, to face a considerable problem from

multiple perspectives, but in an unified way, that is the knowledge are not confined to one

discipline, but interconnected. The neoliberal school is also characterized by the "dialogic

discourse" that differs from the "monologic" typical of traditional education. (Paolo, 2009,pp 16-

17). In monologic discourse the teacher manages communications and establishes the rules for a

student to speak and, in the formulation of questions, there is a demand for reconstruction of their

models of reasoning.

The dialogical speech, however, is characterized by open communication, in which the teacher

cares less about the content than expected and more about the students’ reflections. It follows that

students have the opportunity to present their ideas and compare them with those of others.


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However, this aspect is not a decreased of responsibility and ability of the teacher, whose

function is to organize the educational activities. The change of education also concerns the subject

of didactics, which emerges from changes in the cultural and social area.

“In a society defined as " of knowledge ", the only goal of the training of individual skills is not

enough and it requires a different formative priority: to pursue the growth and the improvement of

knowledge as distributed social property, put in condition the students to participate to the common

challenge of construction of knowledge”.(

First, teaching in the knowledge society involves every form of "inert knowledge", which is

required in the tasks that have been learned and this is inefficient in the activities of daily life.

Secondly, the teacher in the knowledge society is called upon to help students understand the world

they live in, or involve them in their efforts to create and recreate knowledge, not to reproduce it.

Firstly, to work for the future of the younger generation is to take the responsibility to guide them to

autonomy in the learning process, enabling them to propose goals and manage life paths to achieve

those goals.

Lerida, 2005,pp. 19-21).

Another aspect of education that should be studied is the "heart and mind",( Gomez Paloma, 2009,

p.62), whose study was opened by neuroscience. Emotion is important in learning processes, mainly

because a personalized learning requires the combined effort of the mind and body, the mental and

biological element.

The didactic research could, today, feed neuro-didactics, which would better inform the

teacher about the neurobiological mechanisms that justify the scientific properties with which the

human beings act and interact, advantaging it for intervene in the learning.

Today the school is called to approach to the "feeling" of students and make the learning alive and

exciting. The result is a didactics connected to recall the motivation, to didactics of the discovery, to

the strengthening of team-work."

The operator is required the capacity for empathy, because it's a great opportunity in its role as

facilitator of learning. Empathy or the ability to enter in others, is "offering as mirror that allows the

educator to understand what are the attitudes or behaviors that led him/her to do or say these things

or live these behaviors”. Aims of didactics, therefore, must be given the tools to every teacher for

self-education. These instruments are in all of us, in our awareness that the relation body/learning

help us to bring out”.

The very suitable methodology is the "emotional laboratory", which stands as the important

element of its two essential assumptions:

(Gomez Paloma, 2009,pp 16-17).

• to excite


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• to get excited.

All participants in the process of learning/teaching are involved in an emotional relationship,

because the didactics of the mind cannot elude the didactics of the heart, because the feeling of the

mind is the feeling of the heart.

References

Acone, G., (2004), La Paideia introvabile. Brescia: La Scuola.

Acone, G., (1998), Pedagogia di fine secolo. Torino: Il Segnalibro.

Bateson, G., (1984), Mente e natura. Un’unità necessaria. Milano: Adelphi.

Bateson, G., (1990), Verso l’ecologia della mente. Milano: Adelphi.

Benkirane, R., (2007), La teoria della complessità. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri editore.

Besozzi, E., 82006), Società, cultura, educazione. Roma: Carocci editore.

Chiosso, G., (2004), Teorie dell’educazione e della formazione. Mondadori Università.

Clarizia, L., (2002), Pedagogia sociale e intersoggettività educante. Roma: SEAM.

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WOMEN AND POVERTY: THE NIGER-DELTA EXPERIENCE AND IMPLICATIONS

FOR INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT.

Prof. Nwankwo O.C. Deparment of Educational Psychology Guidance & Counseling

University of Port-Harcourt, Nigeria. &

Onuorah, Maria N. (Mrs), Air force Secondary School, Port-Harcourt. Nigeria.

Abstract This discourse focuses on poverty among women especially the Niger Delta women. Poverty as a concept was discussed as well as its incidence in Nigeria and the Niger Delta region in particular. The paper also highlighted the multidimensional effect of poverty on Niger Delta women and approaches employed in its reduction and consequently emphasizing the constraints as well as challenges in its alleviation. Among the recommendations are that government should improve the necessary infrastructure in the region to enhance agricultural development. Furthermore, development of programs and projects that will facilitate access to credit, educational and training, quality healthcare are suggested.

Introduction On a panoramic view across the length and breadth of Nigeria’s Niger Delta, one pathetic fact meets the eye – poverty, squalor and underdevelopment. Observing through the sprawling towns and villages on uneven dusty roads, swamps, creeks and marshes, it is not uncommon sight to find indigent woman struggling with heavy bundles of fire wood on her head, crying babies behind, strapped over her frail pregnant figure to the back and another tender child held protectively by the wrist as she strides along. What better spectacle sums the pitiable plight of women of the Niger Delta?

The term poverty has a plethora of definitions, but can be defined as a state of deprivation from resources (physical, economic, social etc) which are needed for sustainable livelihood. Although poverty is multidimensional in its causes, its manifestations include lack of income and productive resources sufficient to ensure sustainable livelihood, hunger and malnutrition, ill health, limited or lack of access to education and other basic services, increasing mortality from illness, homelessness and inadequate housing, unsafe environments, social discrimination and exclusion from participation in decision – making system, etc. (Friedman 1996, Kankwanda et al, 2000, United Nations Report on the World Summit for Social Development 1995).

A commonly used measure for defining the incidence of poverty is the head count ratio. This is calculated as the share of the population whose consumption falls below the “poverty line.”

The poverty line is a specified threshold of income or value of consumption for a given country or region below which one is defined as poor. For developing countries, poverty lines are usually calculated as the monetary values of some minimum bundles of consumption of goods and services (food, shelter and health, etc) required for satisfying basic requirements within a particular social context( Rao,1991).


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Incidence of poverty in the Nigeria and the Niger Delta According to statistics, over 50% of Nigerians live below the poverty line (about $39 per capita per month), and the incidence of poverty is more pronounced among rural dwellers that are primarily engaged in the informal sector of the economy and lack access to basic amenities ( Akinyemi & Kassim 2003)

The Niger Delta is the geographic description given to a vast tropical, mangrove and coastal terrain below the river Niger and Benue divide of Nigeria that is rich in petroleum and natural gas. It spans from Ondo State on the west, Akwa Ibom State on the east occupying over 80% of Nigeria’s 853km coastline (Multinational Diaries 2007).

Its inhabitants engage mainly in agriculture and fishing for survival. In spite of the over 50 years of oil and gas exploration in this region, there is still a dearth of basic infrastructure and facilities like roads, electricity, schools and hospitals. Even where they exit, they are ridden with deterioration and decay. To make matters worse, a good percentage of the arable land and water that the people depend on for survival are polluted by oil spillages due to gas and oil exploitation, resulting in poor agricultural harvest and scarcity of potable water.

Considering the foregoing scenario, the plight of the people of the Niger Delta, particularly the women, is better imagined than described. Women of the Niger Delta face a peculiar situation owing to the cultural fact that women bear the burden of providing for the home, caring for their children in addition to attending to normal household chores like cooking, cleansing, fetching water and firewood. This heavy burden is borne by the Niger Delta woman in spite of the fact that she has limited access (when compared to men) to land, credit facilities, education and training. As such, the social burden on the woman is much whereas the means of satisfying them is very limited.

This situation is responsible for the degree of poverty among women in the Niger Delta and the host of other socio- economic and health problems that accompany it.

Effects of poverty on the Niger Delta woman The plethora of socio-economic and health problems facing Niger Delta women today can directly or indirectly be traced to poverty. Some examples will suffices here.

1. As a result of their productive roles, heavy household work loads, low access to clean water and sanitation, low access to good medical care (especially obstetric and gynecological care) and poor nutrition owing to poor income, women of this region face numerous health challenges. Poverty in this region has negatively impacted on the health status of the women. These manifest in the forms of frequent illness, malnutrition, high incidence of maternal and infant mortality and low life expectancy, etc. Infact, available data show that Nigeria has one of the highest rates of maternal and infant mortality rates in the world (UNDP,1997; Blackden & Bhanu, 1995) and according to World Health Organization (WHO), a life expectancy of 47 years.

2. Economic poverty tends to go hand in hand with low human capital resources. United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Report shows that countries with low per capita gross domestic product GDP (of which Nigeria is one) also tend to have low levels of literacy. In particular, women in developing countries, especially in rural areas, tend to have lower literacy rates than men. This is the case of Niger Delta women. Poverty has so seriously affected

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them that not many of them could gain access of formal education. Consequently, the level of illiteracy among the women is very high.

3. Poverty comes with multidimensional fallouts. The inability of women and by extension, parents, to cater for the needs of their children weaken their parental control and as such, these children with unsatisfied needs tend to be drawn into social vices like prostitution, gangsterism, armed robbery, kidnapping and militancy. Poverty among parents generally, including the women of Niger Delta reduces parental control to the extent that children behave the way it pleases them. Social vices might under this situation, be very important and highly cherished by so many.

4. Poverty reduces the capacity of women to access credits, training or educational facilities to better their lot, as well as weaken their influences on the decision-making system dominated by men.

Efforts at reducing poverty

Due to the fact that poverty among women has disturbing implications for children, many international and non-governmental organizations have initiated and funded programmes aimed at alleviating poverty.

At the 1995 Social Summit in Copenhagen, a goal was set to reduce the number of people living in poverty by half by the year 2015. According to the Economic Commission of Africa (ECA), this goal could be reached only if there was 4% reduction in the number of people living in poverty each year. This could be accomplished either through income growth or income re-distribution. Given an annual population growth rate of 2.5%, this would entail an average economic growth rate of at least 7% per annum. Similarly, Blackden and Bhanu (1999) quoted the World Bank as estimating that it would take income rates of at least 5-8% to reduce the number of the poor in Africa. Thus, considering the income growth rates in Africa in recent years, unlike the mid-eighties to the mid-nineties when Africa’s income was stagnant, Africa has experienced some moderate growth. According to the ECA’s Report on Africa for 1999, in the years from 1995 to 1998, Africa’s GDP grew at rates higher than the continent’s population growth rate.

The United Nations developed a system –wide medium –term plan for the advancement of women for the period 1996 to 2012. The elements of the plan reflect a detailed elaboration of commitments made by the United Nations family of organizations with respect to critical areas for action. It outlines the focus areas for subsequent actions in implementing plans in support of the reduction of the burden borne by women in poverty as follow:

1. Emphasis on women in poverty and on the ‘feminization of poverty’ keeping in mind the growing

recognition that empowerment of women is often key to raising the standard of living of the population as a whole and contributes to economics growth.

2. Increase in productive employment for women. 3. Focus on increased access to credit and other productive resources. 4. Focus on adequate social insurance and social security coverage of vulnerable group, such as

workers in the urban informal and rural sector.


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5. Recognition of the links between the social, economic, legal and political spheres of action for effective action to eradicate poverty.

6. Harmony between policy reform and direct intervention. 7. Effective strategic alliance at the local, national and international levels. 8. The importance of efforts of preventing and alleviating the effects of natural disasters. 9. Research and action on gender dimensions of poverty. 10. Further research and data collection to expand understanding of optimum policies and strategies

needed for poverty alleviation among women. 11. Investigate the impact of globalization on women, macro-economic polices and economic

restructuring with a special emphasis on trade policies and on increasing understanding of how various bodies, including women organizations, can intervene in the process of policy making with positive effect.

12. Community development programmes, training and skill formation to assist poor women

especially at grass root level to find employment in the formal and non-formal sectors and to participate in small-scale enterprises.

In addition to the system-wide commitments by the UN in this direction, individual organizations also expressed further commitments in policy statements and other announcements. However, as overall priorities, many included the provision of support for the reduction of poverty and economic empowerment of women.

Likewise, the World Bank has affirmed its commitment to reduce poverty among women by promoting the participation of grass root women’s group in economic policy formulation. The proposed means of doing this was through poverty assessments, poverty action plans and participatory evaluation methods, country assistance strategies, integrating gender into adjustments operations and economic reforms and protecting public expenditures on social services during adjustments.

Other organizations that have expressed their commitment towards supporting the economic empowerment of women, including anti-poverty strategies, sustainable livelihoods, and the impact of globalization are United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), United Nation Economic, Social and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), International Labour Organisation (ILO),United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD) and World Health Organisation (WHO).

Nigeria’s efforts at reducing poverty in the Niger Delta

The plight of the Niger Delta people has become prominent over the past decade owing to the relentless struggle for emancipation from poverty and degraded environmental conditions by many human right activists.


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Though interventionist development agencies of government like the Oil Mineral Producing Areas Development Commission (OMPADEC) had been in existence for sometimes, they made minimal impact on the living conditions of the people. This was due to the numerous cases of abandoned projects as a result of massive corruption, and even where projects were executed, the nature of the projects were in most cases far removed from the needs of the people. With the coming of the Obasanjo administration, a new and better organized body was formed to address the developmental issues of the region named the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC). Presently, this is making determined efforts at making a positive difference for the people of the region but is still constrained by the perennial problem of under-funding by the government. On the whole, these measures have not or yet to directly address the issue of poverty especially among women in the Niger Delta.

Constraint on Alleviating Poverty among Women in the Niger Delta There is a paucity of official records on the degree and level of poverty among women in the Niger Delta and even Nigeria in general. Statistics show that much of women’s burden of work and poverty remain ‘hidden’ to official polices, resources and strategies for reducing poverty. This is because women predominate in non- market, household activities. This arises from the fact that significant amount of work that women perform especially in the areas of subsistence production, domestic and reproductive work tends to be invisible to official circles, hence, much of the women’s unpaid domestic work is not counted. The World Bank reports that over 66% of female activities in developing countries are not counted in the System of National Accounts (SNA). The result of this ‘invisibility’ is that their work tends not be considered in a regular and systematic manner in public policy, nor budgetary allocation.

Other constraints include the lack of financial and human resources; the debt burden which in turn constrains available resources for gender equity programmes; time constraints associated with womens’ fulfillment of their multiple roles; conflicts and civil strife.

Conclusion and Recommendations

1. More research and investigation should be carried out about the nature and level of poverty among women in the Niger Delta in order to help government and many other NGO's and donor agencies articulate and implement practical policies to tackle poverty.

2. Since women feature predominantly in agriculture as a source of employment in the Niger Delta,

government should take giant strides towards improving agriculture and related infrastructure, reducing and controlling environmental pollution as well promoting ways of achieving optimum rewards from the land.

3. One of the fastest ways of making a difference in poverty situation of women is through

programmes and projects that will facilitate their increased access to credit, education and training facilities, quality health care and medical services as well as greater participation in the decision-making processes, especially on matters affecting them. Such government programmes and or well-articulated ones of NGO's and women's groups should be coordinated, well funded and monitored to the letter, ensuring that benchmarks and indicators are set towards achieving the overall goal of poverty alleviation and ultimately, eradication.

4. Gender equality, especially in the work place should be promoted, and concerted efforts should be

made towards reducing conflicts in the Niger Delta since it is the same women that bear the brunt of increased suffering in times of social unrest.


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References Akinyemi, A. & Kassim, S.T. (2003). Poverty as an issue in rural development. International Review of Politics and Development (IRPD). Economic Commission for Africa's (ECA) Economic Report on Africa for 1999. Fried, J. (1996). Thinking Poverty: Empowerment and Citizens' Right. International Social Sciences Journal, No. 148, pp. 161-172 Ijiaya, G. & Ijiaya, M. (2003). Foreign Aid and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Cross

Country Investigation. South African Journal of Economics and Management Sciences, vol. 7(3) Kankwanda M; George L; Legros, H. & Ouegrago H. (2000). Poverty Eradication: Where stands Africa? London: Economical Multinational Diaries, 2007 Olaosebikan, E (2007). That this House May Stand: Towards Rebuilding the Nigerian State, Lagos: Kemson Press. Rao, V.V.B (1991). Measurement of Deprivation and Poverty Based on the Portion Spent on Food: An Exploratory Exercise.World Development, Vol. 19(4), pp.337-353. The Millennium Human Development Report 2000, 2001: Presentation on Nigeria vis-a-vis Globalization United Nation (1995). The Report for the World Summit for Social Development. Copenhagen Declaration and Program of Action 16th-22nd March, pp. 4-112 United Nation Development Program (UNDP)(1996). Nigeria: Human Development Report. Lagos UNDP www.thisdayonline.com


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SCIENCE TEACHING IN NIGERIAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS: THE WAY FORWARD

DR. (MRS) A.U. NWANEKEZI FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, Nigeria Tel: 08032602155 aukezi @ yahoo.com

&

DR. (MRS.) J.C. NZOKURUM FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, Nigeria

Abstract This paper is about science teaching in Nigeria Primary Schools. The paper highlighted teaching science as a process and product. Some methods of teaching science in primary schools were discussed. Problems were identified and solutions proffered among which was, that science in primary schools should be taught as a special subject by teachers who majored in science subjects. However, the paper concluded by pointing out that for the nation to produce scientific literate citizens who will be useful in the society, the process skills which build scientific attitude must be developed early enough while the child is in primary school. Introduction

Primary school education is the basic education given to a child between the ages 5 – 11. It forms the gateway to further education in the life of a child. In the light of this, it becomes important to make learning of science in primary schools real-life experience. A science teacher will not only be knowledgeable in the subject but should also possess the basic and necessary skills with which to impact the knowledge of the subjects to the pupils at this level. Teaching and learning of science is not all about discussion in the classroom throughout the lesson period but also a period of discovery by the pupils. In support of this, Gbamanja (1991) opined that learning science in primary schools involves exploration of the learners’ immediate environment using the sensory organs. Pupils are familiar with most concepts in the school syllabus. Therefore, the teachers’ role is more of facilitator; using varieties of skills to create conducive environment to enhance learning. Science education in primary school forms the foundation for scientific literacy, and as a result should be well taught as to produce desired result. According to Nwanekezi (2004), the success and failure of science curriculum in the secondary school depends on the foundation built in primary school.

Teaching Science as a Product

Traditionally, science teaching and learning in Nigeria primary schools is teacher-centered and the teacher in most cases talks about science while the learners memorize facts ad theories about the universe (Gbamanja. 1991). One can then see the idea of static God-given world reflected in what happened in science classroom; science teaching and learning is dull. unimaginative and not geared towards solving the problems in the society.


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Teaching Science as a Process

Teaching and learning science as a process was not a common practice in Nigeria primary schools, until the planners of the new elementary science curriculum came out with the new methods of teaching to be adopted. Among the various methods of teaching primary science are: the discussion, demonstration, discovery/inquiry, project, laboratory, field trips and the process approach.

Brunner (1961) postulated that a child learns through discovery activities varied out by the child. Brunner felt that the learner should obtain knowledge by himself using materials and learner’s mental processes. According to Brunner (1961), two forms of discovery processes are important:

a) That the learner spontaneously recognizes a new situation that is familiar to one of the elements in

his existing structure of knowledge and he easily assimilates it.

b) That the learner sees a new situation incompatible to the existing structure of knowledge.

Lots of researchers have been carried out on the methods of teaching. The question is, how effective are the use of these methods in teaching/learning science in Nigeria primary school?

According to Onuja (1987), the method of teaching determines the amount of knowledge that learners acquires. When teaching is not effective, the learners grasp little or nothing and this reflects in their future choice of career. One important thing in teaching/learning of science in primary schools is that, pupils should be made to understand how science works, how it is based on analysis and interpretation of evidence. With this, basic skills are developed and interest is built.

Various Methods of Teaching Science in Primary Schools

Before discussing the methods of teaching science, it is important to note that no one method is the best for all lesions at all times. This implies that science teachers should endeavour to understand the available methods and select from them according to the demand of the lesson at hand.

In some cases, the teacher may need more than a method to teach a lesson. Such combination of methods according to the demand of the lesson at hand is known as ‘eclectic’ method (Obanya, 1980).

Discovery/Inquiry Method

In this method, focus is on how to help learners learn. It is the learner that does the learning and the degree of effectiveness or amount of teaching that has taken place is measured in terms of learning outcomes. This method gives the learners opportunity to discover things themselves instead of being spoon-fed by the teacher. It encourages active participation of the learners in seeking for solutions to question about natural phenomena.

According to Gbamanja (2001), inquiry teaching on the other hand is built on discovery and as both methods seem to be tied up with each other, inquiry is done with a view to finding some answers or reasons why a certain problem exists. Inquiry investigations go further than discovery and so the learner needs to use all his discovery capabilities in order to succeed in true inquiry. Gbamanja (2001) outlined three main types of inquiry problem-solving techniques of teaching which according to him were identified by educators. These are:

Science teaching in Nigerian primary schools: the way forward.: Nwanekezi A.U. & Nzokurum J.C.

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a. Guided inquiry: Here the teacher originates the problem to be solved and also gives clues to

solving the problem.

b. Free inquiry: Students are allowed to discover the problems, and initial both the principles and

solution to the problem.

c. Modified free inquiry: Teacher provides the problem and students solve the problems in their

own way.

Laboratory Method

Gbamanja (2001) pointed out that the concept laboratory work has extended from a science affair to almost all other disciplines. Laboratory work is no more restricted to science alone, the method is now considered as a teaching procedure dealing with primary experiences regarding materials or facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. It involves observation, experimentation or application by individuals or small groups dealing with actual materials. It is not restricted to a hall called laboratory. An environment outside the classroom that provides practical work to give firsthand experience to the learner could be regarded as a laboratory. In the light of this, Schorling and Batchelder (1973) maintain that a good laboratory lesson may be described as one in which:

a. The work is individualized and pupils or small groups of pupils are at work on a problem.

b. The teacher serves as a consultant doing a great deal of work at the pupils elbow.

c. The students live through curtain experiences and emerges with one or more concepts or

principles. Some of the skills are organizational skills, creative skills, manipulative skills and

communication skills.

The Process Approach

The process approach is a very essential instrument in science teaching. It stresses on helping the learners develop process skills through practice. It builds up a scientific character and this is what modern science teaching should try to nurture in the learner. The American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) scheme for primary school science typifies the process approach. The approach capitalizes on the mental processes and skills which are common to various disciplines, particularly science subjects. In this approach, the pupils are encouraged to behave like mature individuals performing the kind of task which leads to reflective thinking and which discovers knowledge through the use of scientific method of inquiry. The development of these skills in learners provides an essential component for the achievement of the goals of general education, even if the child does not continue his studies in the particular subject the manner of thinking already inculcated becomes a basic repertoire of his general problem-solving skills for life.

Even though process skills were designed to develop scientific attitude at the primary school level, it should be an integral part of science teaching at all levels of education. The idea of beginning at the primary school level is that once the skills are developed in the child at that stage, he lives with the attitude. The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) adopted some processes as a basis for building the Nigerian Primary school Science Curriculum. The processes include observation, classification, measurement, counting numbers, communication, raising questions, inferences, prediction, hypothesizing, experimentation, making operational definitions, formulating models, interpreting data, controlling variables and manipulation.


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Considering the various methods of teaching science in primary schools, the question now is, does the

present system of education in primary schools adequately prepare the pupils to solve problems in the

society?

Problems of Teaching Science in Nigeria Primary Schools

Looking at the primary school education in Nigeria today, it is very glaring what the situation is, but for the sake of this paper, some of the problems of primary science teaching in Nigeria will be discussed and solution proffered.

Stoneman (2002) observed that primary science curriculum is too crowded and inflexible, thereby making its content unaccessible and irrelevant to the present day life and the experiment does not work. Many pupils who would have become future scientist; lost interest in science. This could be attributed to:

Lack of Qualified Teachers: What is obtainable in Nigeria primary school system is omnibus classroom teaching; one teacher handles all the subjects in a particular class. Most of these teachers are not science majors. This ‘jack-of –all-trade’ type of teaching does not call for effective teaching in science. Ibrahim (1998) pointed out that the teacher is very central to learning of science in all its ramifications. We can improvise for equipment and other teaching materials but we have not so far found way of doing anything without the teacher.

Inadequate Supply of School Facilities and Instructional Media: According to Yakubu (1998), explosion in the primary school enrolment, inadequate facilities and lack of trained and committed teachers have weakened the primary education system. These also have affected the secondary school science and to an extent, the tertiary instutitions. In most Nigeria primary schools, public schools in particular, the term instructional media is strange. The government vis-à-vis school authorities fail to provide adequate faculties for teaching/learning science. Teachers on the other hands fail to improvise. The question here is, do these teachers refuse to improvise instructional materials or they do not know how to improvise?

Poor Staff Development: Primary school science teachers do not have enough on-the-job-training which will expose them to new trends of teaching modern science. Even when the opportunity is provided for this staff development by the government or other agencies, the actual teachers who need to be developed are not selected. This leads to poor teaching methods and unresourcefulness which have failed to increase the curiosity and self-guided inquiries on the part of the learners.

Inadequate Funding of Primary Science Education: This is a major problem facing the entire education system. In most cases there are no funds for schools to acquire relevant facilities for science teaching and learning. Obomanu, (2009) reported that the implementation of primary school curriculum has not been impressive due to lack of material resources, poor funding, inadequate information on pupils’ textbooks and teachers’ manual.

Poor Method of Assessment: method of assessing learning outcome is basically on the cognitive

domain ignoring affective and psychomotor domain.

Conclusion

Primary school which is the springboard to further education is neglected in Nigeria. If the foundation is faulty at this level even remedial programmed may not be of help in future. For the nation to produce


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scientific literate citizens who would be useful in the society, the process skills which builds scientific attitude in the child must be developed early enough while the child is in primary school.

The Way Forward

For science education the primary school level to achieve its objectives, the primary school science curriculum should be reviewed to make it more activity-oriented. Training and retraining of primary science teachers should be a top priority of education sector since teachers are the implementers of the curriculum. When there is opportunity for the retraining, the school authority and the State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) should see to it that the primary science teachers are selected for the workshops. This will expose the teachers to modern trends in science teaching in primary schools.

Science in primary school should be taught as a special subject by specialized teachers who majored in science subjects. Science at this level should also be taught in science laboratory where the pupils will be exposed to the processes and skills of scientific literacy. Adequate funds should be released for science equipment and other facilities. Monitoring committee should be set up to see how this money is spent. Primary science materials such as pupils’ textbooks and teachers’ handbooks should be reviewed periodically to meet with the modern trends in primary science teaching and learning.

Method of assessing learning outcomes should be improved. Since cognitive achievement is scored numerically, affective and psychomotor achievements should also be aloted marks and not only grades.

Teachers and pupils should be encouraged to use variety of valuable resources offered by Information Technology (IT). One product of technology, the internet, can be used extensively for science teaching. Primary science teachers can design collaborative learning environments. In this way, science learning can become more effective, motivating and interesting.

Some new technological applications which can be used to enhance teaching and learning in primary science room are:

Simulator, which is a device that produces the operating characteristics of real equipment. This

can assist the teacher and pupils to get experiences in application which are dangerous to try in

real life situations.

Hypermedia software. This connects elements of a computer system such as texts, movies,

pictures and graphics through hypertext link.

Microcomputer Based Lab (MBL). Sometimes referred to as probeware has proven to be useful in

science classroom. MBL consists of a type of instructional software tool accompanied by special

hardware sensors that allow scientific data to be collected and processed by a computer. With this

the pupils can enjoy carrying out experiments easily where measurement of phenomenon such as

light, temperature, voltage and speed are required.


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References

Brunner, J. (1961). The act of Discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 3(1), 21-32. Gbamanja .S.P.T. (1991). Modern Methods in Science Education in Africa. Owerri; Totan Publisher. Gbamanja, S.P.T. (2001). Essentials of Curriculum and Instruction: Theory and Practice. Ado-Ekiti: Hama

Global Publishing Company. Ibrahim, S. (1998). The Teacher, his welfare, motivation and status. The Nigeria Principal Journal of

ASCOPSS. Vol 5 (1), 2 -8. Nwanekezi, A.U (2007). Effects of Individualistic Learning Strategy on Students Interest in Agricultural

Science. Journal of Technology of Education in Nigeria (JOTEN). 11 (1) 17 – 19. Obanya, P.A.I (1980). General Methods in Teaching. Ibadan: Macmillan Publishing Company. Obomanu, B.J (2009). Classroom and Laboratory Management for Effective Teaching and Learning of

Integrated Science in schools. Paper presented at the capacity building/training workshop on how to teach integrated science in Port Harcourt.

Onuja, J.E. (1987). The Causes of Poor Performance of Secondary School Students in West African Schools Certificate Biology in Oyu L.G.A Unpublished PGDE Project. Ado-Ekiti University Library.

Stoneman, C.F (2003). Journal of Association for Science Education, 2 (01) 7-9. Yakubu, M. (1988). Cracks in the Ivory Tower. Jan 18, 1988, pp. 10-16.


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ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AS TOOL FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN NIGERIA

Abidoye A. SARUMI, Ph.D. Department of Adult Education,

University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

[email protected]

Abstract In this paper, it is established that Adult and Non-Formal Education is an instrument that has been used and being used to achieve sustainable national development in Nigeria. It is in the light of this that the paper discussed viable justifications and case studies on how Adult and Non-Formal Education has been responsive to the societal needs of Nigerians. These justifications include adult literacy in the context of lifelong learning, fostering social change, poverty reduction; acceptance of new information and aiding rural development. The relevance of adult education programmes, structures and methods as embedded in continuing and remedial programmes, democracy and good governance, civic education among others were established. The paper went further to establish the fact that some CBOs, NGOs and external funders, including University Village Association (UNIVA) based in the Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan have helped in the reduction of poverty as it encourages community members to participate actively in its multi-component literacy programmes and offers seed fund to participants in literacy classes situated in both urban and rural areas. Same could be said of IFESH, Pro-Literacy International among others while the Centre for Literacy Training and Development (CLTDPA) based in the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria runs adult education programmes that have helped the wider public. The Traffic Literacy programme of Pro-Literacy, USA and UNIVA Nigeria has impacted positively on the behavioural pattern of bus drivers. The paper concluded that Adult and Non-Formal Education has been responsive and still being responsive to societal needs in Nigeria, and that all stakeholders in education, Adult and Non-Formal Education, including all tiers of government in Nigeria should give the needed political will to support the enhancement of Adult and Non-Formal Education in the country. Other stakeholders including Community Based Organisations, the organised private sector, individuals, communities and NGOs should put adult education forward as a strengthened strategy for enhanced and repositioned sustainable national development in Nigeria.

Key words: Adult and Non-formal Education; Sustainable national development; Nigeria; University Village Association; Community Based Organizations.

Introduction

According to Oduaran (2000) corroborated by Omolewa (2006), since 1928 when Edward O. Lundeman made more explicit, the meaning, purpose, scope and methods of adult education, in his book entitled, ‘‘The Meaning of Adult Education,’’ the discipline and profession of adult and non-formal education has witnessed a significant improvement and transformation. This is with its multi-component structure and


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programmes such as continuing education, lifelong learning, open learning, experiential learning, community development, community relations, conflict and peace studies, and adult literacy education, among others. Adult Education has a long standing curriculum that is prone to flexibility and a well laid out structure and pattern for professional development.

Moreover, lending credence to the above position, Sarumi (1998) submitted that the discipline of adult and non-formal education has been extensive with chances of inculcating and accommodating more programmes. As the implications of the thought being aired in the more developed parts of the world do not have much meaning for Africa, the hues and cries about globalization, post-modernism and post-fordism among other concepts make very little sense. The peculiar situation in Africa, especially in Nigeria reveals the growing incidence of HIV/AIDS, lawlessness, hunger and poverty, illiteracy, marginalization, exclusionism, non result-oriented and inept political leadership, corruption, ethnic crises and social injustice. Others include political violence, growing rate of sophisticated crimes, pandemic and endemic diseases, teenage prostitution, threat to orderliness and cohesion in the context of national development, increasing rate of unemployment among younger people, non-functional education, socio-economic immobility and terribly designed economic systems.

Furthermore, Africa’s experience at the threshold of a new century is of terrible disappointment in spite of the little ray of hope for a brighter future which has implications for adult and Non-Formal education. In times like this and with our peculiar situation in Nigeria, it is pertinent for any discipline to be people-driven/people-oriented, as this will serve as panacea for progress, since Africans are not unaware of the global challenges such as post-modernism, lifelong learning, learning societies, globalization, internationality and cooperation (Leicester, 2000; Hunsen, 2000; Wain, 2000; Oduaran, 2000, 2006, and Omole, 2001). Needless to say that adult and non-formal education has to be more responsive to the needs of the society, hence it is necessary to examine the discipline by reassessing its goals and objectives, problems, prospects and relevance and, as well reinvigorate its relevance to sustainable national development in the 21st

Moreover, there is no doubt that Nigeria has come a long way in the comprehension and application of adult and non-formal education to development. Development has been experienced in Africa; hence the dire need for different disciplines to provide justifications of how they have positively impacted their societies with a view to serving as a challenge to us. It is in the light of the aforementioned that this paper examined the concept of education, the concept of adult and non-formal education status and structure of adult and non-formal education in Nigeria, legislation and policies in adult and non-formal education. Other concepts examined are national development, and adult education programmes for sustainable national development among others.

Century (Omolewa, 2000).

The Concept of Adult and Non-Formal Education in Nigeria

An attempt at the definition of adult and non-formal education will be helpful in the understanding of this discourse. Akinpelu (2008) has done a sound conceptual analysis on adulthood that varies from one society to the other. The criteria used in arriving at adulthood include chronological considerations such as legal age set by various countries. Nigeria sets voting age at 18, whereas in some other countries it is 21; physical maturity coupled with ability to execute social responsibilities. In some instances, physiological and biological indices are used as criteria. These include mental development, self-concept and ability to solve problems. Based on this, adult education literature is replete with many definitions. A synthesis of these interpretations as reported by Ojeme (1988) and corroborated by Omolewa (2008) shows that adult education is used to refer to:

Adult and Non-Formal education as tool for achieving sustainable national development in Nigeria.: Abidoye A.S.

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• Something people need and want as long as they are alive regardless of the amount of their previous

education (Tugbiyele, 1975).

• A process whereby persons who no longer attend school on a regular and full-time basis undertake

sequential and organized activities with the conscious intention of bringing about changes in information,

knowledge, undertakings, skills appreciation and attitudes for the purpose of identifying personal and

community problems (Liveright & Haygood, 1978).

• The process whereby men and women (alone, in groups or in institutional settings) seek to improve

themselves or their society by increasing their skills, knowledge or their sensitivities; any process by which

individuals, groups or institutions try to help men and women in these ways (Houle & Houle, 1970).

• Activities that cover many of the subjects learned at school for those who never had the opportunity. As it

applies to everyone without exception, we can all learn more, hence a widening access strategy and a

second chance provider for those who have never been to school, those who have just attended primary

school and those who have attended secondary school or university (Nyerere, 1971).

• Lifelong education, which is any type of education that could be provided for adults that will make them

cope with the problems emanating from the fast changing social world order (Omolewa, 1997, 2001, 2008).

The consensus on the ultimate aim of adult education is to help all and sundry to make the best of life by

providing a means of:

• Remedying earlier education defects through its widening access strategy,

• Acquiring new skills,

• Upgrading oneself vocationally,

• Increasing one’s understanding of the world, and

• Personality development.

The above submission attests to the fact that adult education deserves attention, recognition and adequate funding as a viable educational strategy for realizing sustainable national development. Adult and Non-formal Education is a multi-disciplinary subject. As the official interpretation of adult education in Nigeria shows, it has educational, cultural, economic, vocational, remedial, aesthetic and political and empowered goals, hence the rational curriculum experience selected from varying contents in the passing of adult education curriculum in Nigeria.


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The above contextual and conceptual analysis show that adult education is a comprehensive form of education for adults covering all aspects and categories of adults, all categories of education, and using a variety of methods. To avoid confusion arising from the various definitions, UNESCO (2001) defined adult education comprehensively as follows:

The entire body of organized education process, whatever the content, level and method, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges and universities as well as in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adults by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional qualifications or are turned in a new direction, bringing about changes in their attitudes or behaviour (p. 6).

According to Olagunju (2008), adult education is the education provided for people considered as adults by their community, while non-formal education is the education provided outside the formal school system. Adult and non-formal education thus encompasses education for children of school age, youths and adults. There are children and youths who have never attended formal school before, there are those who have once attended but withdrew and are now interested in continuing with their education. Adult and non-formal education therefore, provides literacy, numeracy, life and vocational skills, among others, to adults, children and youths.

Moreover, there is doubt that Adult and Non-Formal Education has not been accorded adequate recognition, as it is always treated as the poor cousin of formal education in all ramifications including funding, recognition, implementation strategies, weak structures, among others. But that is not to say that all hope is lost as adult and non-formal education is mentioned the in National Policy on Education (2004). Therein the establishment of adult education structures such as state agencies for adult and non-formal education, the apex literacy body the National Commission for Mass Education (NMEC), skill acquisition centres, vocational adult education centres is mentioned. Others are the community vocational educational centres, extra-mural centres, professional continuing education programmes, among others.

The Concept of National Development

Akintayo (2004) corroborated by Olagunju (2008) sees development as a process in which something passes by degrees to different stages, especially a more advanced or mature stage. National development depicts unwavering advancement in the social, economic and political spheres in the lives of the citizenry. Egeonu (1990) avers that development should be seen as man-centred, implying conscious and planned efforts to improve the intellectual, moral, social, cultural, economic and political situations facing the people at both the community, state and national levels. On the other hand, Babawale (2008) perceived development as improving and refining that which is already in existence and adapting it to improve and reform that which is already in existence and adapting it to contemporary requirement, including finding solutions to new problems or new forms of solutions to old problems. Both definitions imply creative responses to social, political, and economic affairs. Hence, sustainable development can be defined as a deliberate and systematic policy of ensuring the survival of a state in such conditions that the social, economic and political necessities that are imperative for the enjoyment of the good life and ensuring the greatest good for the greatest number are available now, without constituting a denial of the capacity of being able to enjoy the same benefits to generations yet unborn.

Furthermore, Bhola (1979) submitted that:

Development is the development of the people in the society. Development means knowledge among people. It means newer attitudes among them, new skills of production and management, new ways of organizing work and participation in political decision-making. All these need education.


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Okeem (1995) submitted that development:

involves movement from small size to large and more complex size, non-maturity to maturity, dependence on other to self-reliance in the major aspects of life: social, political, economic and cultural spheres. Development however, does not end. It goes on in cycles to a higher and better one, it is continuous. Moreover, development involves capacity building and empowerment of the individuals to better equip them to function efficiently and effectively in their areas of endeavour. Indices of human development include a long and healthy life measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two third weight) and the average years of schooling (with one third weight), and decent standard as measured by mean score. These indices set out ‘knowledge’ (with schooling and literacy as the indicators) as being one of the key capabilities of human development. This implies that lack of education or high illiteracy debars easy access to information, and makes an individual unable to make informed decisions (UNDP, 2000). Hence, education and access to information are vital for human development.

The framework for development policy is anchored on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies (NEEDS), among others, in Nigeria with a view to addressing the need to close a considerable part of the global distribution gap through eradication of extreme poverty and hunger.

The MDGs

The goals of the millennium include:

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education,

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women,

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality,

Goal 5: Improved maternal health,

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases,

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability, and

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development.

These goals have been adopted by most donors or international organisations controlling the budgets of most poor countries thereby giving the MDGs the viable attention in the political economy of UN declaration. Hence achieving the MDGs is a monumental challenge for which adult and non-formal education must play a significant role to achieve full success.


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Adult and Non-Formal Education, and Sustainable National Development

According to Oduaran (2000), Africa’s experience at the threshold of a new century is of grave disappointment in spite of the few signs of hope for the future, which has implications for adult and non-formal education. In times like this, it is normal for any discipline that is people-driven and responsive to calls for stocktaking. Hence, this sub-heading would unravel and discuss the various contributions of adult and non-formal education, and national development to sustainable development, employing practical examples and case studies.

Akinpelu (1992) corroborated by IFESH (1996), now (Leo Sullivan Foundation and Pro-Literacy International (both in the United States), submitted that people are the subject as well as the object of development. In essence, people bring about development and development reflects on people. Development has more to do with enriching human resources and human potentials rather than building mere structures such as highways, elegant buildings, sky-scrappers and other super structures. The real indices and bane of development include economic, political, social, cultural, economic, moral and social change, among others. Therefore, the relevance of Adult Education to national development will be established with practical examples and case studies.

Several literatures have established that adult literacy aids national development in all ramifications as adult and non-formal education also aids rural development and transformation. It also fosters social change, promotes poverty reduction and acceptance of new information globally, information and global knowledge in the context of lifelong learning. According to Oyekola (1993), one of the components of adult and non-formal education, namely adult literacy, assists in the development of a nation in all spheres of human endeavour as it liberates the nations from moribund forms of beliefs, attitudes, and practices. Literacy enhances functional literacy in any vocation that one may be engaged in. Akinpelu (1990) lent credence to the relevance and values of literacy that apart from benefiting recipients economically, it reacts to the complete and fundamental capabilities of the human person so that he becomes self-actualized innovative and creative. As development is not all about super infrastructure but development of individuals which in turn forms the human capital that positively impacts on the nation.

Moreover, literacy education expands the consciousness and horizon of man, increases his power of thinking, and enables him to improve his environment and society in the context of education, aiding development. Various adult literacy programmes of multi-components nature, with literacy serving as the apex programme, including income generating ventures, health education, democracy and good governance, civic education, skills acquisition, backed up with micro credit in the context of lifelong learning that abound in the country apart from literalizing millions of people have empowered people for national development. This is because people’s minds are capable of development.

Literacy helps rural development and transformation, and makes the rural dwellers literate through changed attitudes, knowledge, values, technical know-how, jettisoning ignorance and superstition. Further benefits of literacy include acceptance of change and new farming techniques, exposure and acceptance of new but improved seedlings for effective agricultural practices for productivity. Functional literacy projects of the University of Ibadan, Ibadan/UNESCO/FGN (1967) carried out among Oyo North Tobacco farmers is one of the convincing case studies (Oyekola, 1993). The participating farmers become literate. And thus, they accepted education as a strategy for improving their vocation of tobacco growing, enrolment in adult literacy classes, health standard and environmental sanitation. The farmers were more able to accept the strategy of taking one’s development seriously, now that it could only be realized through self-efforts. They were now more able to do modern record keeping, formation of a larger network to improve their vocation and establish collaboration with the external publics. The field work carried out by Sarumi (2004) on the Oyo North Tobacco growers and the environs confirmed that all these benefits are still intact for attaining sustainable development.


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Furthermore, literacy such as workers’ literacy programme has encouraged sustainable professional continuing education. Continuing education programmes of the Nigeria’s universities, notably the extra-mural studies programme of the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria and its Special Training Programme (STP) have added more benefits to the wider public (Adegoke, 2002).

Adult literacy also promotes social change which includes politics, religion and the use of social amenities. Others are adaptation to global phenomenon, as no nation can reduce ignorance, social injustice, poor sanitation, political domination, political violence, ethnic violence, corruption, bad leadership, among others, as long as literacy is relegated to the background.

Moreover, adult and non-formal education, vocational and skill education programmes that abound in the country have helped to reduce poverty. A poverty reduction programme one is familiar with is that of the University Village Association (UNIVA) founded by the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. UNIVA runs a poverty reduction programme that encourages community members to participate actively in its multi-component literacy programme. The organization offers seed money to participants in literacy classes situated in both urban and rural areas. The support of IFESH, now Leo-Sullivan Foundation and Pro-Literacy International based in the United States of America are commendable as this has helped people out of poverty through the establishment of small-scale enterprises, acquisition of knowledge of how one can make soap, detergent, tie and dye, batik, candle, pomade, stove thread among others. The UNIVA, Ibadan Gbekuba Vocational Adult Education Centre, along Apata Ganga road, Ibadan serves this purpose among the wider public. The vocational adult education programmes have helped in the area of collective responsibility, formation of network and cooperative association, enhanced community relations among other numerous benefits. The success recorded by UNIVA experiment has encouraged the department again to set up similar vocational adult education centres where Ibadan University Community members and the wider public acquire skills in sewing and embroidery, candle making, soap making, computer literacy, stove-thread and bead making, At the end of the training, learners are certificated, which is a good omen for an improved ‘Town and Gown’ relationship.

Furthermore, adult and non-formal education programmes such as adult literacy, civic and democracy programme, rural literacy, continuing education, remedial education programme, to mention but a few, have helped to address the problem of social injustice and non-democratisation of education that abound in Nigeria. Literacy offers those who did not attend school at basic level opportunity, with widening access to further education. Continuing and remedial education offers the second chance that adult and non-formal education is meant to promote. Again adult education programmes such as nomadic education programme of the Universities of Sokoto, Maiduguri, Port Harcourt being run in collaboration with the Nomadic Education Commission based in Kaduna, have helped to improve the welfare of the margninalised cattle rearers and migrant fishermen in Nigeria; and the conflict and peace studies programme of the University of Ibadan have offered strategies of handling conflicts and ethnic violence, among others.

Akinpelu (1990) has in one of his studies confirmed that adult education programme such as democracy and good governance, political education would help to reduce political manipulation and domination, political violence, electoral malpractice using the strategy of education, and methods of adult and non-formal education in particular. The university is also responsive in this area as the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan has submitted proposal to the Distance Learning Centre of the University for Diploma in Political and Civic Education that encourages flexibility in admission criteria. When fully on course the programme will train and re-train politicians, political office holders and their likes. It will also promote good values and patriotism for sustainable national development. Adult and non-formal education programmes such as civic education promote social dialogue among people, including social responsibility. It empowers beneficiaries to play more effective roles in matters of local culture, healthy and


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positive relationships that promote peace, equity, happiness and security within communities for an enhanced quality life.

The political education component of adult education create the necessary awareness to make informed decisions, choices, understand political parties and their motives through their manifestoes, such an education allows beneficiaries to play healthy politics, make people easier to be led and more difficult to be misled. People now vote by choice not by emotion. They can even aspire to hold political and leadership positions at some levels of government, at village and ward levels. Such a situation will eventually lead to genuine democracy and good governance.

The community development programme has helped to develop the leadership traits/styles from bottom to top for an enhanced community and national development. The change that has taken place in the leadership mantle of some states in Nigeria through litigation has shown that people wish to be respected, while there is hope for genuine democracy and good governance in Nigeria.

In the area of moral development, behaviour, attitudes, changed values are promoted through the wider civic education programmes of adult and non-formal education, for an enhanced patriotism, as morally erect citizens are to respect and actualize the norms and values of the society. Adult education with its flexibility component and its goals of individual and collective good incorporate in its programmes knowledge and skills in rationalizing and behaving in ways that make for the good of the learner and the larger society

Needless to say that adult and non-formal education programmes embedded in adult health education established that education is the only vaccine to HIV/AIDS. The Centre for Literacy, Training and Development in Africa (CLTDPA), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria’s HIV/AIDS programmes has helped the wider public, notably the training and re-training of care-givers through its Diploma in HIV/AIDS/STDs Programme, using the open learning mode.

The Pro-Literacy International in collaboration with the Department of Adult Education and UNIVA traffic literacy programme for the rank and file of the National Union of Road Transport Workers (NURTW) in Oyo State has reduced political violence and unruly behaviours of commercial bus and taxi drivers. The reckless driving of both drivers and motorcycle (‘Okada’) riders that posed a lot of challenges to the health of riders and riders through numerous accidents have been reduced.

Other areas through which adult education has been responsive to sustainable development include: cultural literacy, access to technology and scientific culture, acceptance of global information and knowledge, good health especially preventive measures, effective family planning to discourage and reduce over-population and its attendant consequences, empowerment programmes to combat poverty, diseases and injustice, including provision of widening access as social justice for sustainable national development.


One is emboldened to submit that adult and non-formal education is a very relevant discipline and profession that has contributed and is contributing to national development in Nigeria. It has also been seen that some key personalities in Nigeria have explored the methods and structures of adult and non-formal education to reach the height of their careers. There have been convincing justifications that the discipline should be extensively funded and promoted; hence, all tiers of government in Nigeria should give the needed political will to support the enhancement of Adult and Non-formal Education in the country. Other stakeholders including Community Based Organizations (CBOs), the organized private sector, individuals, communities, non-governmental organizations and Islamic, traditional, and Christian organizations, among


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others, should move adult education forward to serve as a strengthened strategy of recording an enhanced and repositioned sustainable national development in Nigeria.

References

Adegoke, R. A. (2002). An Evaluation of University of Ibadan Extra-Mural Studies Programmes between 1989/1990 and 1998/1999 Sessions. University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis.

Aderinoye, R. A. (2008). Literacy and National Development. Being the text of a lecture delivered at the World Literacy Day Programme organized by Agency for Adult and Non-Formal Education, Akure, Ondo State.

Aje, Y. (2008). Impact of the Roman Catholic Mission Vocational Training Programmes in Economic Empowerment of Beneficiaries in Selected Centre in Ibadan. Ecclesiastical Province of Nigeria, Ph.D Post-Field Report, Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Akande, J. O. (2006). Eradicating the Triad Scourge of Illiteracy, Poverty and HIV/AIDS in the Nigeria Society: Implications for Adult and Non-Formal Education, in Adult Education in Nigeria, Vol. 12, June.

Akinpelu, J. A. (1990). Adult Literacy and National Development in Literacy Voices, Ibadan Nigerian Baptist Convention, Vol. 1, No. 2.

Babawale, G. O. (2008). Culture, Politics and Sustainable Development: Lessons for Nigeria in Contemporary Issues in Sustainable Development: Lesson for; and Challenges to Nigeria, Ibadan Postgraduate School, University of Ibadan, Vol. 1.

David, A. (2007). Education or Banking in Adult Education and Development, Bonn, Germany. Douglas, W. M. (1999). Literacy and Economic Development. In D. A. Wagner, L. V. Richard & V. S. Brian,

(Eds). Literacy An International Handbook, Oxford: Westview press. Kazeem, L. K. (1992). Adult Education Practice of the Ansaruli-Islam Society, Ilorin, Kwara State, An

Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Univesity of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. North, M. A. and Tabotralip, J. E. (2006). Redressing the Social Alienation of Migrant Fisher Folks through

Quality Execution of Policies – The Millennium Development Goals Imperative in Adult Education in Nigeria, Vol. 11, 2006, January.

Oduaran, A. (2000). Introduction: An Overview of the State of Adult and Continuing Education in Africa, in S. Indabawa, A. Oduaran, T. Afrik and W. Shirley (Eds.) The State of Adult and Continuing Education in Africa, Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, University of Namibia in Association with The Institute of International Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association IIZ/DVV, Bonn, Germany.

Okeem, O. (1985). An Assessment of Adult Education Personnel of the Problems of Adult Education Programmes in Selected States of Nigeria, 1976 – 1983. International Journal of Lifelong Education, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 239 – 257.

Olagunju, D. (2008). Relevance of Adult Education, to National Development. Being the text of lecture delivered to National Association of Adult Education Students (NAES), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Omolewa, M. A. (1993). Literacy and its Relationship to Economic Development and Quality of Life. Being the Text of a Paper Presented at the Roundtable Workshop on University Outreach and Grassroots efforts in Literacy and Education 1st – 4th

Omolewa, M. A. (2000). Setting the Tone of Adult and Continuing Education in Africa, in S. Indabawa, A. Oduaran, T. Afrik and W. Shirley (Eds.) The State of Adult and Continuing Education in Africa, Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, University of Namibia in Association with The Institute of International Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association IIZ/DVV, Bonn, Germany.

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Omolewa, M. A. (2001). The Challenge of Education in Nigeria, Ibadan, Ibadan, University Press. Omolewa, M. A. (2003). University and Community Wedlock and Partnership: A Vision for the 21st

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Century. Being the text of a Faculty discourse delivered at the Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ibadan, August, 6.


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Oyekola, F. E. (1993). The Influence of Adult Literacy Education on Rural Development: A Case Study of Oyo North (1965-1990). Ibadan, Unpublihed Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Sarumi, A. A. (1998). Expanding the Scope of Adult Education Curriculum in Nigeria: A Dire Need for the Integration of Guidance and Counselling Services, in International Journal of Lifelong Education, Vol. 17, No. 6 (November – December), pp. 411-422.

Sarumi, A. A. (2007). Reinvigorating Literacy Learning and the Current Educational Systems with the Values of Indigenous Education and Schools in Achieving the Millennium Development Goals. In Pakistan Journal of Social Science, Vol. 4, No. 4, September.

Sarumi, A. A. and Ojokheta, K. O. (2009). Repositioning the Town Gown Relationship for Sustainable National Development in Nigeria, in History of Education Journal. (Forthcoming)

UNESCO (2001). Literacy and Non-Formal Education in the E-9 Countries. Paris UNESCO. World Bank (1995). Priorities and Strategies for Education Sector Policy Paper, Washington, DC World Bank.

Adult and Non-Formal education as tool for achieving sustainable national development in Nigeria. Abidoye A.S.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND THE ACQUISITION OF SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS: IMPLICATIONS FOR GENDER BALANCING IN

NIGERIA.

Nbina, Jacobson Barineka (Ph.D). Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology

Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt , Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study was a survey design in which the researcher investigated the differences between gender and the acquisition of science process skills among junior secondary school students. The subjects were randomly drawn from 17 junior secondary schools within six LGA of the existing 23 LGA in Rivers State of Nigeria. The subjects consisted of 236 males and 234 females. Results showed that females significantly performed better than males in all the science process skills investigated except manipulating and interpreting data in which males excelled although the performance of males and females in the two science process skills mentioned were below average. Both male and female students also exhibited below average performance in communicating. Such difference might be related to sex stereotyping among males and females and non-provision of adequate materials and equipment for instruction. There is need for equal opportunity to male and female students and provision of materials and equipment for hands-on activities in schools. Introduction

Science has proved indispensable in the improvement, development and civilization of mankind. For any nation to develop technologically there must be massive and qualitative education that is based on the use and manipulating of resources by learners. This therefore calls for learning of science as a process. Science as a process involves the acquisition of science process skills and inculcation of scientific attitudes, which will help in finding solution to practical problems (Njelita, 1997).

Science process skills are processing strategies which a scientist brings to bear in solving problems (Champagne and Klopfer 1981 in Njelita 1997) Gagne in Finley (2008) viewed science process skills as not only the foundation of scientific inquiry but also the intellectual skills needed to learn concepts and broad principles used in making valid inductive inference. In effect therefore science process skills could be acquired when science is learnt by inquiry and discovery methods. The science process tasks to the complex ones and from concrete to abstract.

Science process skills help in the development of creativity in learners and as such as indispensable in the manufacture of new products. Hence Ali (1986 in Njelita 1997) stated that the manufacture of soap, detergent, batteries, magnet and so on which are needed in everyday life are possible if science processes are purposefully planned and utilized inn the teaching and learning of science. As a result of the significance of science process skills, the acquisition of science process skills is included as one of the goals of primary science teaching (FRN, 2004). It is therefore necessary that at the primary school level where the foundation for science learning is laid acquisition of science process skills is essential. At this state pupils are at their formative age hence skills acquire at this level are carried to other situations later in life.


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The issue of parity and disparity on the acquisition science process skill among male and female learners has become an important focus for research for some years. Some of these studies have found gender disparity in science process skills acquisition in favour of males (Saaporo, 2007, Nwosu, 2005 and Okeke, 1989). However, Nnachi (1989), found his in faovur of females while Nwosu (2009) was neither in favour of male nor female. Gender differences in science process skills acquisition are inconclusive. This study therefore intends to determine the influence of gender on science process skills acquisition among junior secondary school students.

One research question was posed to be answered in the course of this study: To what extent would males compare with females in science process skills acquisition?

This null hypothesis was postulated for testing in the course of this study:

There is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female pupils in science process skill acquisition.

Method

The research was survey design. The population of this study consisted of all the junior secondary school students in six local government areas out of the twenty-three local government areas of Rivers State. The population of the study comprised 4697 students in number. The sample consisted of 236 males and 234 females from the 17 junior secondary schools randomly from six local government areas selected.

The instrument used for data collection was Performance Test of Science Process Skills (PTSPS) constructed by the researchers. The PTSPS consisted of seven test of practical, eight multiple choice, seven filling in, four diagrammatic representation and three descriptive questions all make up a total of twenty-nine process skills investigated were classifying, observing, interpreting data, formulating model, inferring, hypothesizing, manipulating and communicating. These science process skills were the ones pupils were expected to acquire on leaving primary school. The questions in the instrument were constructed from the content area of the core curriculum for integrated science from J.S.S. 1 – 3. Table of specification was eight science process skills under investigation. The selection was done across the content area to ensure that the evaluation indicated the students’ level of acquisition of the science process skills after secondary education; hence the instrument was administered close to end of the academic year.

The validity of the PTSPS was determined by giving the instrument of five science educators, namely, three from Rivers State University of Education, Port Harcourt, and two from University of Port Harcourt, and one expert in measurement and evaluation in the same university graduates and specialized in chemistry and biology education respectively also validated the instrument. The test items which were approved were taken and those not approved were restructured and revalidated.

The reliability of the instrument was determined by administering the PTSPS to forty junior secondary students at the practicing School, Port Harcourt that was not included in the study. The split half method using Kuder-Richardson formula K-20. The reliability coefficient of 0.92 was obtained.

Each item on the PTSPSs carried one mark and the total score obtained in each science process skills was converted to percentage. The level of performance on the science process skills were classified thus – 55% and above indicated high of above average performance, 40%-54% indicated medium or average performance. Below 40% indicated low performance. The above approach on level of performance was used in order to show the extent the students have acquired the science process skills investigated.

In each school visited students were provided with question papers, answer sheet, materials and apparatus to be used. The questions were read out for the subjects for easy understanding and those

Relationship between gender and the acquisition of science process skills: implications for gender balancing in Nigeria.; Nbina J.B.

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they found difficult to understand were explained in mother tongue. The subjects were observed as they manipulated the right thing. Finally, they recorded their results on the answer sheets provided.

The raw scores obtained from PTSPS were used in computing the mean for each science process skill according to gender. The total score for all the science process skills for each gender was used in computing the overall means, standard deviations and z-value. The z-value obtained was used in testing the null-hypothesis.

Result

Research Question

To what extent would males compare with females in the acquisition of science process skills?

Table 1: Mean scores of PTSPS on Male and Female

Gen

der

Obs

ervi

ng

Cla

ssifi

catio

n

Inte

rpre

ting

data

Form

ulat

ing

mod

el

Infe

rrin

g

Hyp

othe

sizin

g

Man

ipul

atin

g

Com

mun

icat

ing

Male 50.62 62.76 54.59 41.66 49.36 33.05 26.78 29.29

53 66.04 54.18 46.31 53.19 35.47 25.90 37.07

Table 1 shows that females had higher mean scores than males in observing, classifying,

formulating models, inferring, hypothesizing and communicating.

Male obtained higher means scores than females in interpreting data and manipulating. Males and

females exhibited low performance in hypothesizing, manipulating and communicating.

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the mean scores of males and females in their

acquisition of science process skills.

Gender Total score No of

subject

Mean SD z-cal z-crit

Male 82667.30 236 350.59 110.85 2.16 1.96

Female 86076.77 234 371.70 103.71

From table 2, the calculated z-value is greater than the critical z-value, hence the null-

hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is upheld, there

is a significant relationship between the mean scores of male and female in their science process skills

acquisition and it is in favour of female.


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Discussion

The result of this study is in line with the findings of Nnachi (1989) who identified that female acquired more science process skills than male between the ages of 11 and 13 on the contrary Okeke (1989) Saaporo (2007) and Nwosu (2005) reported that male students significantly achieved better than their female counterparts in science process skills acquisition. They attributed the difference in performance on sex stereotyping which involves male and female students showing interest in subjects relevant to the roles they are expected to perform in the society. This could be true because their researches were in physics and chemistry respectively. Students might have started identifying their inclination in those subjects. In the present study, the pupils are still in their formative stage and at this stage they have not started seeing the subject, integrated science, as being relevant to only male learners. Hence female distinguished themselves in some science process skills more than made. In any case male learners performed better than their female counterparts in manipulating and interpreting data although their performance in the science process skills were below average but it indicated male inclination to handling of tools and mathematical computation.

Implication and Recommendations

In order to enhance gender balancing students should be encourage working hard in integrated science and other science related subjects. Teachers should expose learners to acquisition of science process skills equally by providing them with necessary materials and apparatus for hands-on and minds-on activities. There is need for teachers to use a variety of instructional strategies and materials that will interest learners equally. Learners should be exposed to manipulation of equipment so that gender stereotyping which is a gender barrier to science learning would be completely abolished in order to break gender differences in science, technology and mathematics education. Pictorial representations in texts should not be gender bias. Learners should be told stories of men and women that had succeeded in science, technology and mathematics as a way of motivating them.

Reference Danagogo, W.S (2009). The Effect of Teacher Sensitization of Secondary School Students Level of

Acquisition of Science Process Skills Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Federal Ministry of Education (2004). Core Curriculum for Primary Science Lagos: Iduma Printing Co. Finley, F. N. (2008). An Empirical Determination of Concepts Contributing to Successful Performance

of a Science Process. A Study of Mineral Classification. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 19,(8)689-696.

Njelita, C. B. (1997). Primary School Pupils Level of Acquisition of Science Process Skills in Anambra State. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

Nnachi, R. O. (1989). Acquisition of Science Process Skills Among Junior Secondary School Students in Anambra State Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Nwosu, V. E. (2005). The Level of Acquisition of Science Process Skills Among Chemistry Students in Awka Education Zone. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

Okeke, A. U. (1989). Acquisition of Science Process Skills Among Secondary School Physics Students. A case Study of Special Science Schools in Anambra State. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis.University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Saaporo, S.K (2007). Assessment of Science Process Skills Possessed by Senior Secondary School (SSS) Students. Unpublished B.Sc.(Ed.) Project.University of Port Harcourt.

Relationship between gender and the acquisition of science process skills: implications for gender balancing in Nigeria.: Nbina J.B.

88 www.ajeds.com

IMPACT OF WORKPLACE LEARNING ON ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AMONG

INDUSTRIAL WORKERS IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA

Babajide, Elsie Omolara (Ph.D.) College of Human Resource Management

Osun State University Ago-Iwoye, Ogun

Tel: +2348033829100 , 08079598568 Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper aimed at investigating the impact of workplace learning on workers’ commitment in South -West Nigeria. This was for the purpose of ascertaining the impact workplace learning has on workers’ commitment. The survey research design was used for the study. A well structured questionnaire titled ‘Impact of workplace learning on workers commitment questionnaire was used for data collection. The instrument was validated and the reliability coefficient was ascertained at Cronbachs alpha level of 0.85 at 0.05 level of significance. The results showed among others that there was significant relationship between workplace learning and workers commitment, and that gender does not have any impact on workplace learning. It was recommended therefore that workplace learning is a very important phenomenon therefore human resource managers should implement workplace learning in their day to day activities.

Key words: Workplace learning, workers commitment, job commitment organizational commitment

Introduction

Education and training of workers is no longer seen as being solely in the realm of educational institutions. Education and training has increasingly been viewed in terms of broader system involving workplaces. The increasingly competitive nature of the economy, the demographic occupational and work place change have had a significant impact on the nature of the workplace. This has made the need for skill level of workers to be developed (John & Hawk,.2002).

Workplace learning was perceived by the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA, 2002) as learning or training undertaken in the workplace usually on the job, including on the job training under normal operational conditions. In essence workplace learning has been aimed at necessary innovative capacity in enterprises effectiveness.

Mithell and Zubrick (2001) also noted that the advent of global economy has changed the nature of products and services as well as technologies. Holliday (1998) also saw workplace learning as the processes and outcomes of learning that individuals, employers and groups of employees undertake under the auspices of a particular workplace. Both the processes and outcomes of learning involve changes in the meanings that individuals and all employees apply to their work place. By implication learning in the workplace involves changes in feelings and values knowledge and understanding and skills that have learning come about as a result of individual and groups of employees being both willing and able to satisfy individual, group and whole work place.

Holliday (1994) presented five conditions of workplace learning and how these conditions promote the workplace learning of teachers. These five conditions are self, personal meaning, action, collegiality and


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empowerment. Holliday (1998) notes that the conditions interrelate synergically in that they each enhance the ability of the others to promote the learning process. They are also symbiotically related.

Workplace learning is beneficial because it helps provision of good and skilled manpower for the organization. It improves existing skills and increases knowledge. Learning at work is defined as observed changes in workplace behaviour tribute to new knowledge and skills (Loogard & Hunt 2004), and takes place in the context of use and application (Palvi & Pawrin, 2005).Workplace learning can be improved through professional development schemes, personal guidance and support, groups’ learning sessions, work- based problem solving and access to courses outside the workplace. To be effective, any intervention must be tailored to the specific workplace and the particular workers concerned. The workers need to be helped, supported and provided with learning challenges (Hodkinson, 2008).

There are various barriers to workplace learning. Some of these barriers are, in all work places, any learning done by workers always has to take second place to the main functions of the firm. Hodkinson(2008) also reported that a young trainee was learning to work in the horse industry. She works in a stable and ran rides for tourists. Quite often planned learning had to be abandoned because a ride had to be taken out. Generally, employers do not release workers from productive works so they are not allowed to do workplace learning. Argument has always been that workers learning is essential to the success of a firm but it has been seen that factors such as, the stock market (for private firms) the buoyancy of the economy, the market in the products or services being provided and, findings and state or national government set targets all influence productivity and financial success more than this learning of workers.

In the context of organizations, workers commitment has been perceived in different ways. It has been conceptualized as loyalty to identification with the involvement in a job, organization or profession, (Saturino and Emmalmo,1998). Commitment has been respectively identified as important to identified or understanding work behaviour and performance of employees in organizations (Parter& Smith, 1976: Rusbu & Farnell, 1983).

Employee commitment has also been perceived as an employee’s level of attachment to some aspects of work (Miutheveloo, Rajen & Raduancbe, 2005).

Organizational commitment can be perceived from different angles and these are employees’ loyalty towards the organization, and employees’ intention to stay with the organization.( Herscovitasg & Meyor, 2002;Baruch, 1998; Hagan & Nelson, 2001). Job commitment on the other hand refers neither to the organization nor to ones career but to employment itself. People who are committed to work hold a strong sense of duty towards their work and place intrinsic value on work as a central life interest (Mottaz, 1998).

As regards organizational commitment of Nigerian workers, there are diverse opinions among researchers. Some researchers believed that Nigerian workers are not committed to their organizational goals (Akintayo & Babajide 2003; Olugbile 1996). Others believed that they are committed to organizational goals but it is the organizations that do not show commitment to the plight of the workers (Alarape & Akani 2000).

The literature reviewed in this study focused on the relevance of workplace learning to organizational goal achievement. Also the influential role of commitment to understanding of workplace behaviour was also reported in literature. However in Nigeria, the central factors of commitment such as motivation and satisfaction on the job have been investigated.

Meanwhile little or no efforts had been exerted on workplace learning as it affects organizational commitment among the workforce. There is therefore the need to investigate the relationship between workplace learning and organizational commitment among workers in Nigeria using empirical verification approach.

Impact of workplace learning on organizational commitment among industrial workers in South West Nigeria: Babajide E.O.

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Statement of the problem

This study investigated the impact workplace learning has on organizational commitment among industrial workers in south west Nigeria. This was for the purpose of ascertaining the relevance of workplace learning to workers commitment to organizational goal achievement in South-West Nigeria.

Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested:

(1) There is no significant relationship between workplace learning and workers organizational

commitment in selected work organization in Nigeria.

2) There is no significant difference between organizational commitment of respondents with high

education and those with low education on the basis of work place learning.

(3) There is no significant difference in male and female respondents’ organizational commitment based on

workplace learning.

(4) There is no significant difference between organizational commitment of respondents who have spent

above ten years and those who have spent below ten years.

Method

The survey research design was used to investigate the relationship between workplace learning and organizational commitment among industrial workers in South- West Nigeria.

The population for the study consisted of all workers in the four randomly selected industries in South West Nigeria. Two of these industries were product industries (Nigerian Breweries and Lever Brothers) while two others were service industries First Bank plc and.

A total of 192 respondents were selected for the study using purposive stratified sampling technique. The purposive sampling method was used to select respondents who were not casual staff. Only permanent workers in the industries were sampled. Also, the stratified sampling method was utilized to select respondents to reflect the state of product and service industries.

The instrument used for the study was a set of structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into two sections.

Section A contains items relating to personal data of respondents such as age, sex, marital status, educational qualification etc, while Section B contains items that measures how workplace learning affects workers commitment.

The instrument was validated with the assistance of experts in of questionnaire construction. The content and the construct validity of the questionnaire were scrutinized and various suggestions given were incorporated into the final draft of the questionnaire.

The reliability of the questionnaire was ascertained by using pilot study method. Twenty copies of the questionnaires were administered in a service industry which was outside the selected industries in South-West Nigeria. The data collected was analyzed using Cronbach alpha formular at 0.05 level of confidence. Thus Crobach alpha 0.85 was obtained .

Data was collected personally by the researcher with the help of three trained research assistants. The researcher obtained permission from the personal managers of the selected industries. The respondents were assured of confidentiality of the information to be supplied. Two hundred(200) copies of


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questionnaires were administered but one hundred and ninety two(192)were completely filled by the respondents and they were utilized for the purpose of the study.

Method of Data Analysis

The data collected was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment correlation to test hypothesis one. Hypothesis two, three, and four were tested with the use of t test, statistics method. All the hypotheses generated for the study were tested at 0.05 alpha levels.

Results

The results of the data analyzed for the study were presented on the bases of hypotheses generated for the study.

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between workplace learning and workers organizational commitment in selected work organization in South West Nigeria.

Table 1: Summary of correlation table of analysis showing the relationship between

workplace learning and workers commitment.

Variables Mean Std. Dev

N r P Remark

Workplace learning 55.82 6.089 192

23.21

000

Sig Workers commitment 10.03 1.54

It is shown in table 1 above that there was significant relationship between workplace learning

and organizational commitment of workers (r= 670; P<0.05). The null hypothesis is rejected. It finally

reveals that the learning experiences and skills acquired through workplace among the respondents learning

has fastened organizational commitment.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in male and female respondents’ organizational commitment based

on workplace learning.

Table 2: Summary of t test Analysis Showing Male and Female organizational commitment.

Sex No Mean Standard Deviation

df t P Remark

Male 121 21.23 9.36 190

.035

.932

Not significant P>0.05

Female 71 20.61 8.66

Total 192

Table 2 above shows that there was no significant difference between male and female respondent in their

commitment. This means the organizational goals (t (190) = 0035; p> 0.05). The finding reveals that both


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male and female respondents were equally committed to organizational goal achievement. Hypothesis two

was therefore accepted.

Ho3 There is no significant difference in organizational commitment of respondents with high education

and those with low education

Table 3: Summary of t test Analysis of organizational commitment of Respondents with High

Education and those with Low Education based on Work Place Learning

Qualification N Mean Std. Deviation

df t P Remark

Workplace NCE B.Sc, HND

42 150

22.74 23.41

6.65 5.81

190

2.55

.002

Significant (P<0.05)

Table 3 above result that there is a significant difference in organizational commitment of respondents with

high education and those with low education based on work place learning. (t (190) = 2.55; p<0.05). The

finding indicate that respondents with high education are mere committed to organizational goal

achievement them, those respondents with low education Hypothesis three was therefore rejected

Ho4

Table 4: Summary of t test analysis of organizational commitment of respondents who have spent over ten years experience and those below ten years

: There is no significant difference between organizational commitment of respondents who have spent

above ten years and those who have spent below.

Year of experience N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error vean

T P Remark

< = 10 years > 10 years

125 67

21.69 22.07

9.19 8.93

190

-.418

.676

Not Significant (P>0.05)

Table 4 above shows that there is no significant difference between organizational commitment of respondents with 10 years of experience and those below 10 years experience of (t (190) = .4185; p> 0.05). Finding indicated that both respondents with 10 years of experience and those below 10 years were equally committed to organizational goal achievement as facilitated by Work Place Learning. Hypothesis four was therefore accepted.

Discussion of findings

Four hypotheses were formulated and tested. The findings revealed that there is a significant relationship between workplace learning and commitment of workers to organizational goal achievement. The findings also revealed that there is no significant difference between organizational commitment of respondents’ (workers) with high education and those with low Education. There is no significant difference in male and female respondents’ organisational commitment based on work place learning. These findings can be backed up with the findings of Rajarden and Raduan( 2005) who reported that a significant relationship


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exists among gender, educational qualification and employees’ commitment at workplaces. The authors asserted further that employees who are committed to work have a strong sense of duty towards their work and place intrinsic value on work as a cultural life interest. This implies that Work Place Learning foster improved employee motivation which in turn leads to higher organizational commitment.

Evans et all (2006) submitted that workers usually take work as a normal and important part of the working culture within the firm. They concluded that the employers and senior staff value learning and see learning as an important aspect of their work. However, Sheufima (2007) posited that for effective work place learning to take place the conditions for work must be encouraging, he identified the conditions requisite for organizational commitment as comprising of the environments, situations, circumstances, states of being that affect promotion, and other facilities available for workplace learning for workers or employees . These conditions according to Adler and Corson (2003) and Akinyele (2007) if not properly considered foster differences in workers level of commitment to their organization..


This study established that there is significant relationship between work place learning organizational commitment among industrial workers in and workers job commitment if workers would be more committed through work place in south west Nigeria. The finding emphases that Work Place Learning would have a great impact in the overall general development of the organization. This is because, as an extension of formal education, Work Place Learning goes beyond the confines of schools and institutions in formal learning.

The implication of this to effective management of organization and growth is that managers and human resource administrators will need to continually engage workers in continuous work place learning in order to facilitate organizational commitment among the workers force.

Recommendations

The issue of s gender bias would also be eradicated as the study has established that there is no significant difference in male and female respondents commitment based on workplace learning. Workplace learning programmes should be designed for both male and female workers as these groups of workers are both committed to the organizational goals. Low or high education should not be a barrier to exposing workers to workplace learning because in general people are supposed to be committed to their jobs in spite of their educational qualification. However new demonstration such as, E Learning approach to learning should be introduced in order to empower employees towards coping with new challenges in an age of technology

References Adler, R. & Corson, D. (2003). Organizational commitment, employees and performance – chartered accountants Journal of New Zealand, 82(3): 31-33. Akinyele, S. T. (2007). Satisfaction: An effective tool for workers commitment to work, Research Journal of Business Management. 1 (i) 72-79. Alarape, A. I. & Akinlabi, F. M. (2000). Influence of perceived organizational support & discretionary treatment on work attitude of industrial workers. African Journal for Psychological Study and Social Issues. 5(1), 23-36.


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Australian National Training Authority (2000). A national marketing strategy for VET: Meeting client needs, 2002 a, A glossary of VET terms, available at (www.anta.gov).

Arnenakis, A. (1999). Ethnics program pose potential threats. Internal Auditor, 56 (2): 12. Bard, K. (2002). Employee ownership and affective organizational commitment: employee perceptions at

fairness and their preference for company shares over cash. Scandinavian Journal of Management.

Bard K., (2002). Employer ownership and affective organizational commitment employee perceptions of

fairness and their preference of company shares over cash. Scandinavian Journal of Management. Baruch, Y., (1998). The rise and fall of organization commitment: Human Systems Management, 17: 135-

143. Figgis, J. , Alderson, A., Blackwell; A., Butorac, A., Mithell, & Zubrick, A. (2001). When councils

enterprises to value training and training and what does not? A study in using case studies to develop cultures of training and learning, NEVER, Adelaide.

Hagen, A. & Nelson, A.M, (2001). Approaches for creating employees commitment in organizations: A

cross-sectional study. Global competitiveness, a (1): 672. Herscovitch, L. & Meyer, J. P., (2002). Commitment to organizational Changi: Extension of a three-

component model Journal of Applied Psychology 87:474-487.

Hodkinson (2008). Improving workplace learning: Learning cultures the key. Mhfml:fill://f: improving % 20 workplace % 20, learning % 20 cultures the key.

Holliday, R. (1994). Teachers as learners: A case study of conditions that promote teachers professional learning. A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of New England, Australia.

Holliday, R. (1998). Workplace learning module 1: Foundational concepts, module 2: Foundational concepts topic 3-7; module 3: facilitating workplace learning. Wagga. Wagga; Charles Sturt University.

Iverson, R. D. & P. M. Buttigieg, (1999). Affective, normative and continuance commitment, can the right kind of commitment be managed? J. Manage stud., 36:307-333.

John, R. & Hawke, G., (2002). Case studies of organizations with established learning cultures, NEVER, Adelaide.

Meyer J. & L. Herscovitch (2001). Commitment in the workplace: Towards a general model- Human Resources manage. Rev. 1: 299-328.

Mottaz, C. J. (1988). Determinants of organizational commitment. Human relations, 41: 487-482.


http://www.anta.gov/�

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Olugbile, O. (1996). Nigeria at work: A survey of the psychology of work among Nigerian Guaranteed

Trusted Bank Plc. Lagos. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lagos.

Porter, L. W., Crampton, W. J., & Smith, F. J. (1976). Organizational Commitment and Managerial turnover: A longitudinal study. Organizational behaviours and human performance. 15: 87-98.

Poter, L. W., R. M. Sleers, R. T. Mowday & P. V. Boulion, (1999). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turn-over among psychiatric technician Journal of Applied Psychology 159: 603-610.

Rajen Miutheveloo & Raduanibe Rose (2005). American Journal of Applied Science 2 (6) 1078-1081.

Retallick, J. (1993). Workplace learning in the Professional Development of Teachers-Commission Report No. 24 by the Schools Council at National Board of Employment, Education, and Training, Canbeira, Australian Government Printing Office.

Rusbult, I. E. Farrel, D. (1983). A longitudinal test of the investment model: the impact on job satisfaction, job commitment, and turnover of variations in rewards, costs, alternatives, and investments. Journal of applied psychology, 68 (3) 429-438.

Sheufima Sacehenand (2007). Workplace learning for information, professionals in a changing information environment council .


96 www.ajeds.com

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF COMPETENCE ACQUIRED BY GRADUATES OF THE

UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMME OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

NSUKKA

OLAOSEBIKAN, BENJAMIN TUNJI Ph.D. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION,

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI, MAIDUGURI, P.M.B. 1069,

BORNO STATE, NIGERIA [email protected]

&

ORUNABOKA, TAMUNOBELEMA TAMMY Ph.D. DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN KINETICS AND HEALTH EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION,

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

Abstract This study assessed levels of competence acquired by graduates of undergraduate Physical Education Programme of the University of Nigeria Nsukka, for: teaching Physical Education, administering sport, coaching sports, performing Physical and occupational therapy activities. Survey research was involved in the study. Competence Test Items in Physical Education (CTIPE) was an instrument used for data collection. Results revealed that level of competence acquired by the graduates of the programme were slightly low (40-49%) in administration of sport, coaching, physical and occupational therapy, but low (below 40%) in the teaching of Physical Education. Inference drawn from the result of the findings indicate that while on the programme as students in training, the graduates did not acquire adequate competences for purposes of sport administration, coaching, performance of physical and occupational therapy. Also, level of competence acquired for teaching Physical Education is rather low. Generally, the findings of the study require that the undergraduate Physical Education curriculum of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka should be revisited with a purpose of making the curriculum objectives more achievable through appropriate curriculum delivery mechanisms.

Introduction

The current undergraduate Physical Education programme of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN)

established in 1991/92 session was meant to achieve the following objectives:

(i) offer students the opportunity for the acquisition of the necessary skills and competences for successful

teaching of Physical Education in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions;


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(ii) prepare students for effective organization and administration of sport in institutions like sports

councils/commission as wells as in the community;

(iii) equip students with knowledge and skills of coaching sports;

(iv) produce qualified high level manpower to serve in rehabilitation institutions as Physical and occupational

therapists and health counselors; and

(v) equip students with appropriate skills and competences for individual survival and contribution to national

goals and aspiration through Physical Education.

The achievement of these objectives was meant to place the graduates of the programme on vital national jobs in Physical Education, sport and recreation as in teaching, administration of sport, coaching, physical and occupational therapy. The curriculum serves as an input into the training of the undergraduate students on the programme. The process of achieving the intentions of the curriculum is judiciously guided by the approved admission and academic regulations of the senate of UNN. The first batch of graduates of the current undergraduate Physical Education Programme was produced in 1993. Since then, the department of Health and Physical Education of UNN has been producing graduates from the programme on annual basis.

There appears to have been no empirical data on the performance of the employed graduates of Physical Education Programme of UNN since the first batch of graduates was released into the labour market in 1993 on their fitness into current available diversified jobs in Physical Education activities. For example, according to Amusa and Toriola (2003). The focus of training in Physical Education at present has shifted from merely producing participant (athletes) and teachers to preventive health, health and wellness of individuals, prevention of major risk factors of life and so on. Hence, there is adoption of nomenclatures and programmes such as Human movement studies, Biokinetics, Human kinetics, Sports Exercises and Nutritional Science, Kinesiology, Sport and Physical Rehabilitation Science.

The acute shortage of information in the university on the level of competence acquired by the graduates beside the classes of degrees awarded by the senate of the university as classification of academic achievement to students might have denied the programme necessary plans for improvement. This situation has therefore necessitated the present study.

The purpose of this study was to determine the levels of competence of graduates of the undergraduates Physical Education of UNN in teaching of Physical Education; administration of sport; coaching of sport; physical and occupational therapy.

Methodology

The following four research questions guided the study:

1. What level of competence did the graduates of undergraduate Physical Education of UNN acquire for

teaching Physical Education in schools and colleges?

2. What level of competence did the graduates of undergraduate of Physical Education Programme of UNN

acquire in administration of sport in the field?

An assessment of the level of competence acquired by graduates of the undergraduate physical education programme of the University of Nigeria Nsukka.: Olaosebikan B.T. & Orunaboka T.T.

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3. What level of competence did the graduates of undergraduate of Physical Education of UNN acquire for

coaching sport?

4. What level of competence did the graduates of undergraduate of Physical Education Programme of UNN

acquire in Physical and occupational therapy activities for functioning in the field.

A 90 item competence multiple choice task item, that is, Competence Test Items in Physical Education (CTIPE) was developed by the researcher for collecting data on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired by graduates of undergraduates Physical Education programme of UNN in teaching, administration of sport, coaching, physical and occupational therapy. Each multiple choice test item has four options where one is correct and the other three are distractors. Seven experts from Physical Education, Test and Measurement validated the CTIPE.

One hundred and thirty nine (139) copies of the CTIPE were administered on graduates of the programme with the help of six research assistants, one in each state of Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi, Abia, Imo and Delta. The researcher and lecturers from the programme who volunteered assistance contacted few other graduates who work outside the six states personally. Graduates were required to tick their position on each item on CTIPE. Ninety-nine (99) copies of the questionnaire were retrieved for analysis.

Frequency counts and percentages were involved in the analysis of data. In taking decision on the level of competence acquired, the following is applicable.

% Score Remarks

70 and above very highly competent

Highly Competent

Competent

Slightly Competent

Below 40 Low in competence

Results

The data for answering research questions 1,2,3 and 4 are in table 1,2,3,and 4 respectively.

Research Question 1

What level of competence did the graduates of the undergraduate Physical Education Programme

of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka acquire for teaching Physical Education in schools and Colleges?

The data for answering research question 1 is presented in Table 1.


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Table 1

Level of Competence Acquired by the Graduates of Physical Education for Teaching

(N=99)

Competence

S/NO Item f % Remarks

1 Structuring a course in Physical Education 12 12.12 Very Low Competence 2 Designing a course unit in Physical Education 26 26.26 Very Low Competence 3 Planning a lesson on Physical Education 31 30.81 Very Low Competence 4 Selecting instructional resources for teaching Physical Education 25 25.25 Very Low Competence 5 Developing instructional materials 26 26.26 Very Low Competence 6 Applying basic instructional materials in teaching 29 29.29 Very Low Competence 7 Utilizing visual aids in teaching 32 32.32 Very Low Competence 8 Using educational technology for teaching 45 45.45 Very Low Competence 9 Employing variety of teaching methods 40 39.89 Very Low Competence 10 Directing learners physical activities 49 48.99 Very Low Competence

Average % Competence 31.66 Data in table 1 revealed that the percentage competence score of the graduates of undergraduate Physical Education Programme of University of Nigeria, Nsukka ranged from 12.12-48.99%. This indicated that with reference to teaching, the graduates are slightly competent in two areas of teaching as reflected in items 8 and 10 in Table 1. The graduates are very low is competence in eight of the items in teaching as contained in Table 1 above. Generally, as observed from the table, the graduates are incompetent in teaching.


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Research Questions 2

What level of competence did the graduates of undergraduate Physical Education Programme of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka acquire in the administration of sport in the field?

The data for answering research question 2 is presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Level of Competence Acquired by the Graduates of Physical Education for Administration of Sport

(N=99)

S/No Item Competence Remarks f % 1 Maintaining sport facilities and storage rooms 58 58.09 Competent

2 Planning sport activities 44 43.94 Slightly

competent

3 Organizing sport schedules 67 66.67 Highly competent

4 Coordinating sport schedules 67 66.17 Very Low

Competent

5 Evaluating exercise and sports performance 33 32.53 Very Low

Competence

6 Providing health services for the players 35 35.35 Very Low

Competence

7 Implementing welfare packages 35 35.35 Very Low

Competence

8 Problems in sport management 43 43.44 Slightly

Competent

9 Understanding organization behaviour 44 44.45 Slightly

Competent

10 Personnel administration in sport 41 41.42 Slightly

Competent

Average % Competence 46.87

Data in Table 2 showed that the percentage score of the graduates of the undergraduate Physical Education ranged from 32.53 - 67.17%. This indicated that with reference to administration of sport, the graduates are highly competent in two items as reflected in items 3 and 4. The graduates are competent in item 1. They


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are slightly competent in 4 items that is items 2,8,9 and 10. The graduates are very low in competence in 3 items, that is, item 5,6, and 7 as contained in Table 2. Generally, as observed from the table, the graduates are slightly competent in administration of sport.

Research Question 3

What level of competence did the graduates of undergraduate Physical Education Programme of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka acquire for coaching sport in the field?

The table for answering research question 3 is presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Level of competence Acquired by the Graduates of Physical Education for Coaching Sport

(N=99)

Competence


1 Utilizing skills, tactics and strategies as appropriate in each sport 41 41.41 Slightly

Competent 2 Training in special areas of sport 40 40.40 Slightly Competent 3 Minimizing potential risks inherent in sports participation 45 45.45 Slightly Competent 4 Utilizing social psychological aspects of coaching 46 46.46 Slightly Competent 5 Employing growth, development and learning

psychology 46 45.96 Slightly Competent 6 Employing exercise science for training,

conditioning and nutrition 41 41.41 Slightly Competent 7 Recognizing the need for professional growth

and development opportunities 31 31.31 Very Low Competence 8 Sustaining interest in group learning through

teaching and coordinating methods 46 45.96 Slightly Competent 9 Sport facility management 58 58.09 Competent 10 Leadership in recreation and leisure processes 36 36.37 Very Low Competence

Average % Competence 43.28

An assessment of the level of competence acquired by graduates of the undergraduate physical education programme of the University of Nigeria Nsukka. : Olaosebikan B.T. & Orunaboka T.T.

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Data in Table 3 revealed that the percentage score of the level of competence acquired by the graduates of the undergraduate Physical Programme for coaching sport in the field ranged from 31.31 – 58.09%. This indicates that with reference to coaching of sport the graduates are competent in one area of coaching as reflected in item 9 in Table 3. The graduates are slightly competent in seven areas of coaching as indicated in Table 3. The graduates are slightly competent. The graduates are very low in two of the areas as reflected in items 7 and 10 of Table 3 above. Generally, as observed from the table, the graduates are slightly competent in coaching of sport in the field.

Research Question 4

What level of competence did the graduates of the undergraduate Physical Education Programme

of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka acquire in Physical and occupational therapy activities?

The data for answering research question 4 is presented in Table 4

Table 4

Level of competence acquired by the Graduated of Physical Education in Physical and Occupational

Therapy (N=99)

Competence


1 Therapeutic and leisure practices 55 55.55 Competent 2 Supervision and management of recreation and

leisure services 62 62.62 Highly Competent 3 Coordinate of group and community recreational programmes 14 14.14 Very Low Competence 4 Inspiring and mobilizing recreational participation 65 65.65 Highly Competent 5 Evaluating patient to establish physical ability 42 42.42 Slightly Competent 6 Planning physical therapy work out 36 36.36 Very Low Competence 7 Employing physical skills and procedures to

influence psychological states 40 40.40 Slightly Competent 8 Applying knowledge of mobility evaluation

procedures 36 36.36 Very Low Competence 9 Interpretive understanding of referral advice

of specialists 44 44.44 Slightly Competent


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10 Supervising and monitoring patients on rehabilitative programme 35 35.35 Very Low Competence 11 Planning intervention strategies for rehabilitation 42 42.42 Slightly competent 12 Counseling Patients for relief 40 40.40 Slightly Competent 13 Supervising patients on specific rehabilitative activities 37 37.37 Very Low Competence 14 Administering prosthetic devices on patients 48 48.48 Slightly competent 15 Employing technological therapeutic devices to alleviate condition of patients 55 55.55 Competent Average % Competence 43.6 The data in Table 4 revealed that the percentage score of the level of competence acquired by the graduates of the undergraduate Physical Education Programme of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka in physical and occupational therapy activities ranged from 14.14 – 65.65%. This indicates that with reference to providing services in physical and occupational therapy, the graduates are highly competent in two areas of physical and occupational therapy as contained in items 2 & 4 in Table 4. The graduates are averagely competent in two areas of the items on physical and occupational therapy, which is items 1 & 15, as contained in Table 6 above. They are slightly competent in six areas, while they are very low in competence in five areas of physical and occupational therapy activities as contained in table 4 above. Generally, as observed from the table, the graduates of the undergraduate Physical Education of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka are slightly competent in providing services in physical and occupational therapy in the field.

Discussion

Findings on the level of competence acquired by the graduates in the undergraduate Physical Education programme of the University of Nigeria for teaching in schools and colleges is from very low competence to slight competence (12.12 -48.99%) in items that constituted the teaching competence. The graduates demonstrated very low competence in eight (8) items, while they demonstrated slight competence in two. The findings of the study can be interpreted to mean that the graduates of undergraduate’s physical Education did not acquire much in the strategies or methods and techniques of teaching while in the University. The teaching practice Programme is expected to compensate for any deficiency in the acquisition of teaching methods and techniques. If the teaching practice had been effective on the graduates while they were in the university, one is likely to observe in the employed graduates a higher competence in teaching than what the study found out. The findings of this study are in agreement with that of Agwubike (1985) who reported on the low performance of professional competences by agricultural science teachers in Bendel State. The findings of this study is also consistent with findings of Suhr (1987) who found out that special education graduates were more competent in some areas of the curriculum than others. The level of professional competence of the employed graduates can be associated to a number of variables. To a great deal, the admission criteria of the University of Nigeria and its department of Health and Physical Education provide sufficient evidence on the level of ability before a candidate commences study. Finding of the study by Ferguson and Womack (1993) noted that the quantity and quality of education courses that the prospective teacher is exposed to impact on his level of teaching effectiveness


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more that his core or subject matter area of emphasis. Therefore, this finding must have implications for the level of competence exhibited by the employed graduates in teaching, administering sport, coaching of sport, physical and occupational therapy activities. In other words, probably with the low level competence of graduates of Physical Education in teaching, the students that these graduates are teaching are most likely to have very little understanding or knowledge in the content of Physical Education that they are exposed to by the teacher in areas like administration of sport, coaching of sport and in physical and occupational therapy.

The findings of the study on the level of competence acquired by the employed graduates in administration of sport in the field in the South East revealed that it is from low competence to high competence. The finding may still be a continued reflection on the low level of competence of the employed graduates’ teaching methodology and techniques. This statement is made due to the observation that if a teacher cannot impact effectively through approved methodology of teaching what he has acquired, he may also find it difficult to make others learn effectively knowledge, skills and attitudes in other aspects of Physical Education. Therefore, teaching methodology is meant to help the teacher deliver strategically knowledge, skills and attitudes to students and other trainees. Findings from the study of Boardman (1985) suggested that the acquisitions of relevant and high level competence are particularly critical in effective performance of a professional. The employed graduates of Physical Education in administration of sport job positions are professionals that require knowledge and competence in such areas as planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting and evaluation, all are essential areas in administration of sport that can guarantee high level competence.

Findings on the level of competence acquired by the graduates for coaching sport in the field is low (43.28%). This finding possibly reflects further the earlier observation the researcher made on the low level competencies acquired by the employed graduates in teaching. What the researcher is saying is that the coaching competence exhibited by graduates of the undergraduates Physical Education programme is low. Which means that this observed level of competence is probably what they can impart on the field as an indication of what they have acquired, but inability to teach using various strategies and techniques of teaching, such as planning, organizing and implementing had been identified as a major factor in the effectiveness of the graduates in the field. Therefore, these may also have their own effects on coaching competence. That is, a very good coach is likely to be a good teacher.

Findings on the level of competence acquired in physical and occupational therapy activities by the employed graduates for providing services in the field is low (43.60%). This finding indicates that the employed graduates did not acquire much competence in physical and occupational therapy activities while in training which could have enhanced them in providing effectives services. The finding may be associated with the absence of specific and directional courses in this area in the undergraduate Physical Education programme of the University of Nigeria. Nevertheless, the score 43.60% indicated that graduates must have some ideas or must have interacted with some related activities in this area in other courses they have taken. Specifically, the curriculum for the undergraduate Physical Education Programme revealed that students were exposed to some few courses in health and safety education, anatomy, kineisiology, physiology and athletic injury care. Knowledge and skills in this curricula areas are likely to have accounted for the level of competence acquired by the graduates in physical and occupational therapy.


The study provided information on the level of competence of graduates of the undergraduate Physical Education programme of UNN in the four objective areas of the curriculum. The objective areas include teaching of Physical Education, administration of sport, coaching of Sport, Physical and occupational


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therapy. Based on the findings on the levels of competence acquired by the graduates, there is an urgent need to put in place retraining need policy through which the retraining needs of the graduates can be met. Policy on retraining needs should be directed at employed graduates of the Physical Education Programme for enhanced effectiveness. Such retraining needs could be met through short duration in-service programmes that be can facilitated by Physical Education experts in the Health and Physical Education department of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Also, emphases should be placed more on practical activities and the acquisition of high-level skills by the students in the professional areas in the undergraduate Physical Education programme to make the graduates more relevant in professionalism in Physical Education, sport and recreation.

References

Agwubike, C.C. (1985). A competency based approach to the improvement agricultural science teacher preparation programs in Bendel State of Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Cornell University. Dissertation abstracts International 46,07

Amusa, L.O.& Toriola, A.L. (2003). An evaluation of human movement studies curriculum of Nigeria tertiary

institutions: In moving sports in Africa into new frontiers, 8th

All Africa Games Pre-Games Scientific Congress.

Boardman, N.N. (1985). Competencies essential for effective teaching: perceptions of educators and parents as a basic for teacher education curriculum planning. Unpublished Dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University. Dissertation Abstracts International 46, 10.

Ferguson, P., & Womack, S.T. (1993). The impact of subject matter and education course work on teaching

performance. Journal of teacher education, 44(1): 55-63. Suhr, P.L. (1987). An analysis of the attainment of life skill competencies by high school, special education students.

Ed. Dissertation Abstracts International volume 48, No. 4, October 1987. The George Washington University.


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SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT – AN APPRAISAL

DR. (MRS) JOSEPHINE A. ONYIDO

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT &

OGEH, OBITOR M DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

Abstract

The paper states that every child in the school comes from a family either monogamous or polygamous one. Consequently, the family background of the child informs the child negatively or positively to school activities within or outside the classroom.

The paper stresses that high income, parent’s attitude to education of their children, the educational background of parents, parents’ perception of life, family life, speech pattern and feeding habits are all indices that determine socio-economic background of an individual.

Introduction

With the change in the needs of the societies, educational institution has taken over many responsibilities which use to be those of the family.

However, this does not mean to say that the family has no part in the education of the child. On the other hand, schooling is best for children when there is some degree of harmony between the school and the home. The home is the first school of the child. The child receives greater percentage of his orientation from the home before going to the school. And it is the orientation so received that determines the performance of the child in the school (holding other variable constant), even to the personality development of the child.

The Family

Family pattern shows a fascinating variation from society to society, and person from one society who become involved in the family patterns of a different society generally react in a predictable ethnocentric manner. In the most primitive societies, the family was the only social institution. Within the family all the business of living was fulfilled, with development of human societies, other institutions emerged and developed to minister to specific needs of the society which were hitherto under the auspices of the family. Put differently, the development of society gave rise to occupational specialization and institutional


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differentiation. Thus the economic, the religion, and the educational institution etc emerged because the family could no longer contain these functions, and so the school emerged.

According to Horton et al (1983 p. 212) “The family is a kinship grouping which provides the rearing of children and for certain other human needs” the human child is for a long time dependent for its biological and social survival upon the adult members of the family. In other words, the family affords the medium for primary socialization. Similarly, Ivor Morris (1975, p. 102) posits that “ every normal adult belongs to a family of orientation in which a man is born and reared, and which will include his father, mother, brothers and sisters. And he also belongs to the family of procreation which he establishes by his marriage and which includes his wife and children.

Invariably, every child in the school comes from a family either monogamous or polygamous one. Consequently, the family background of the child will also inform his/her attitude and response (negatively or positively) to school activities within and outside the classroom, some families are more exposed to social amenities or “social goods” that facilitates the proper upbringing-socialization of the child. While some are poorly exposed, this being the case differences in socio-economic background of a family will invariably make for differences in the socialization of children all other things being equal.

Just as all fingers are not naturally equal, some are of high socio-economic status, while some are of low socio-economic status. Different scholars have proffered explanations to justify the reason for social inequality and/or why some are socially and economically placed than others.

This can now account and support the position of Daubey et al (1984 p. 21) in maintaining that for a child to excel in his academics, some degree of harmony is needed between the school and the home of the child.

SOCIAL DARWINISM: “The theory of natural selection and individual differences.”

In the book, “The origin of species”, discussing reason for individual differences, Charles Darwin posits that human race had gradually evolved from lower orders of life as a result of progressive adaptation to the environment, “that of the many individuals of species which are periodically born, but a small number can survive” This he argues, is as a result of genetic differences inherited from either parents. These individual differences are of high importance because they afford material for natural selection in other word; this natural selection is made possible by the struggle Herbert Spencer called “survival of the fittest”.

From the forgoing, they concluded that this struggle to survive, with the strongest surviving, culminated to inequalities of species and among the human race.

According to him (Darwin), inequality is a natural phenomenon. A situation where those organism that are better adapted to the environment survive better and reproduces their species in greater number and stronger than others who are poorly adapted. He went on to say that those species of organism which are genetically superior are better placed to survive, adapt and reproduce themselves in a harsh environment even in a normal environment.

He further linked achievement in all human endeavors to genetic inheritance that culminated to their differences, holding all other variables constant.

To him, differences in socio-economic background is a natural determined phenomenon were some are better placed to acquire the “Social goods more than others”.

Inequality in human society, differences in educational achievement, the haves and have not’s etc are all as a result of nature. Based on this argument, we can now understand why society is naturally arranged into different social class. “Persons and their families are associated with different social classes.” (Kafur et al 1977).

Socio-economic background and educational achievement – an appraisal: Onyindo J.A. & Ogeh O. M.

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The School and the student:

Apart from the family, the school has become extremely important agent of socialization in Nigeria and other developing countries. For many children, the school produces a transitional experience from the values and behaviors of traditional life into those required in the modern sectors society. The school is supposed to continue from where the family stopped in the orientation of the child. But in most cases, you discover that the child is empty.

On the other hand, most of our schools today can no longer meet up to the challenge before them. Besides, the excessive materialist tendencies on the part of most of the teachers, (to make ends meet) the standard of most of our school is nothing to write home about.

The schools are poorly equipped; ranging from laboratory equipment, school desk, stationeries and even chalk to write on the board. Consequently, the school heads resorts o levying the students (Development levy) for the purpose of providing all the aforementioned amenities lacking in the school.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT

According to Boocock (1972), the most important predictor of achievement in school association with the family is socio-economic status. He argues that the higher the socio-economic status of pupils’ family, the higher we expect his school achievement to be.

Quoting Charles Darwin, he went on to say that families differ vastly in terms of significance in social order. Some families have more prestige, money and power than other families. Some have wider experience and knowledge of the working of the education industry, urbanity, and politics” (Dubey et al).

Consequently, some families are therefore in a better position to help members of the family, whether this is in the experience or schooling or any other important social institution. Durbey maintained that educational achievement has direct relationship with socio-economic status and that it is always consistent.

He went on to say that no matter whether our measures of status of occupation of the father, education of parents, income of the family, or a combination of this “Socio-economic status remains the most important predictor even in the face of that significant variable-ability”. Similarly, different kinds of experiences are associated with different socio-economic status, and therefore, may be reflected in ability differences.

Socio-economic background is also associated with a very complex number of variables; it is related to other family characteristics, such as family size.

Socio-Economic Status Family Structure and Achievement:

Research in other countries shows for example, those children from lower socio-economic background homes, where the family is large, and start school with a verbal disadvantage. This is assumed to be because such children have less frequent interaction adult since mother and other siblings are working. This is due to the fact that different forms of communication opportunities are available to children of different status. Many scholars believe that family size is negatively associated with achievement in Nigerian schools.

Other aspects of family structure besides size are associated with achievement in school. For example, U.S.A. academic achievement is positively related to a relatively egalitarian or democratic family structure.

It was found that children of authoritarian parents associated with particular religious and ethnic backgrounds were related to negative achievement orientation.


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According to Bookock (1972) “Parental dominance when it is extreme tends to discourage children in school. It is also believed that most families with harsh tough command are associated with low socio-economic.

Recent studies carried out reveals that middle and upper class families tend to give more freedom to their children in participating in decision making as part of independence training. Parents of middle class children are more available for guidance and consultation.

On the other hand, children from lower classes are raised in conditions of greater restrictions, control is more directly exercised. Therefore, their can be little or no room for innovation or risk taking. Similarly, in large lower class families, there is less time available for adults who put in long hand hours of manual labour to be guide to their children or to allow them experiment. A tight command seems to be the best way to manage such house hold. This authoritarian set of relationships, however is not the most useful for learning in school. “A child is expected to be responsible, independent and to take initiative; he is expected to take some risk in other to learn”. (Dubey).

Recent researches in Nigeria reveals that the pattern of behavior established in the home have direct carry-over to the school. Children from similar social background tend to have learning problems in common.

It was also discovered that higher socio-economic status families are smaller and parents have more time with there children. Most middle class parents. Both father and mother, take more time with their children when they are at home. In terms of the material environment, parents of the relatively higher classes are able to supply their children with more opportunities to those things which aid their learning in school. Additionally, have more appropriate knowledge, having themselves gone to school, they know what kind of experiences to provide for their children.

Thus from the objective perspective children coming from “better off” home environment will have advantages in learning due to prior and continuous experiences resulting from the opportunities provided in their more privileged circumstances.

Writing on education and social class, Horton et al (1984 p. 312) maintained that social class and education interact in at least two ways. Firstly a higher educational achievement. Secondly, the amount and kind of education affects the class rank secured. In another development, taking a point of departure from Charles Darwin, Paul B. Horton maintain that academic achievement is not necessary informed by the socio-economic status of the parent but goes to say that “ academic achievement depends upon a combination of hereditary ability, motivation and effective learning of fundamentals.”

To him, good, poor, or mediocre students may come from any social background “but low achieving students disproportionately come from lower class homes.” He went on to say that some students with lower class background do quite well in school work but that many of these students never graduate.

From the foregoing, we accept the facts that while a high or good socio-economic background is necessary or a contributory factor to academic achievement, it is not enough to make for student success. Hereditary, motivation ability and even the teachers, all add to make for student academic success. After all some studies revealed that some students from good socio-economic background don’t tend to struggle an/or be motivated to succeed as children from low socio-economic status. Some relax hoping to inherit the wealth of their parents. They end up becoming drop outs.

Besides family background it was discovered that over crowded school curricula can hamper students’ performances his socio-economic background notwithstanding. It was also discovered that in societies (Nigeria included) where education is seen as the vehicle for upward mobility, achievement derive (motivation) is even high among the children from low socio-economic status than children from high socio-economic status. Most parents of low socio-economic status are ready to spend their last dime for the education of their children. It was also discovered that holding other variable constant, that a bad pear group can disrupt a sharp students from a high socio-economic status from succeeding. Therefore, it is not


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enough to say that because one is from a high socio-economic status family, he is bound to excel in his academics without holding all these other variables mentioned above constant. Be it as it may, we cannot also pretend to ignore the major contributory facto (good socio-economic background) to academic success.

Even in countries (Nigeria included) where the government decided to offer free education to students, at certain levels, it was still discovered that the proportion of successful students who were from high socio-economic background were more than those from low socio-economic background. This equality of educational opportunity is not something that can suddenly begin at the age of five when compulsory education begins. Both physical and mental damage may have been done to the child in his early infancy to such an extent that very little that the school can do will be really effective in equalizing this opportunity, (Morrish, p.130).

On a similar note, Musgrave has emphasized that the claims which schools make concerning their impact upon children’s character are probably both extravagant and unfounded “… .The real prime and lasting influence is in the home, and if there is deprivation here material, mental, spiritual, these will be some form of deprivation in the child’s personality”

Dr. John Bowlby concluded that observations of severally deprived children demonstrated that their consciences and their potentialities were not developed. He linked this with the child’s earliest years, it was the mother who acted “as his personality and conscience.” The child was not exposed to other amenities that would have developed his reasoning faculty. He maintained that such deprivation were mainly from children of low socio-economic status background.

Dr. J.W.B. Douglas in another study of parental socio-economic background on the educational achievement of the child reveals that parents with high socio-economic background are more interested in their educational welfare. They tend to pull them ahead of others. He says that:

The children who are encouraged in the work by their parents are, it seems at an advantage both in the relatively high scores they make in the test and the way they improve their scores between eight and eleven years (Douglas 1967 p.86)

In other words, parents act as stimulants to the success of their wards in the school. He maintained that children in the higher social strata tend to have higher measured I.Q than children in the lower social strata.

Musgrave (1968) discussing the early socialization of the child, also maintains that measured intelligence (I.Q) varies directly with the size of the family. He went on to say that this tendency operates at each social class level because parents of low IQ have large families and since there is a correlation (of about 0.5) between the IQ of parent and child, the children of these larger families will tend to have a low IQ. This is because their children are given little or no attention at their early age to develop their inherent intellectual capabilities; which is also one of the characteristics of low socio-economic class. In a similar study, it was also discovered that besides the size of the family, difference in value can also affect children educational achievement; “the quality of live in the family have direct bearing on success at school …” (Musgrave 1968).

Conclusion:

From all that has been discussed in the paragraphs above, it is clear that a high income enables parents to give their children the educational advantages that money can buy. It is a great help to a child to live in pleasant surroundings, provided with educational toys, to go to good or private schools with high staffing ratio, to receive stimulating experiences that foster academic excellence. In other words, this is what Max Weber meant when he said that “such children are receiving better life chance than the children of poorer parents.”

However, it must be pointed out that high income is not the only determining factor of a good socio-economic background. Other variables like parents attitude to education of their children, the educational


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background of parents, parents perception of life, family life; how their leisure hours are spent, speech pattern, feeding habit etc, it is all these indices mentioned above that add up to determine somebody’s socio-economic background. All these indices mentioned above also contribute to the child’s personality formation, which also informs his acquisitive spirit positively or negatively. (Musgrave, 1968).

In his book “Protestant Ethics and spirit of capitalism.” Max Weber, maintains that protestants communities are more acquisitive conscious than none protestants communities. This he maintains was as a result of the prevailing ethics in protestant communities; where it was believed that success in material wealth means an act of God’s recognition and a stepping stone to eternity with God. Based on this philosophy, people strive to succeed in all their endeavors and to give arms as to please God, and keep treasures in heavens. Of course it is believed that only the few Selected, (Ala Darwin or Ala Weber) can find themselves in this group. Thus, the circle continues and gap remains as it has been.

References

Boocok S.S. (1972). An introduction to the sociology of learning. Houghton Mifflin Boston.

Douglas, J.W.B. (1967). The home and the school. Panther publishers.

Dubey D.L; Edem, D.A & Thakur, A.S. (1984). An Introduction to Sociology of Nigeria Education.

London: Macmillan Publishers.

Horlon, P. B. & Hunt, C. (1983). Sociology (5th

Kafur, L. (1977). Attitudes of Parents and Success in School, Unpublished thesis, Ahmadu Bello

University, Zaria.

edition). London: McGraw Hill International Company.

Morris, Ivor, (1975). The sociology of education: An introduction. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

Musgrave P.W, (1967). Family, School, Friends and Work; a Sociological Perspective. Educational

Research. Vol. 9; 75-86.

Musgrave P.W. (1968). The sociology of education. London: Mathuem Publishers.


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HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND NEW

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER

ODU, Kennedy Oji (Ph.D.) Senior Lecturer, Department of Technical and Business Education

Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria.

Abstract

The importance of science and technology education cannot be over-emphasized. Human capital development in science and technology education are the gateway to a scientific, technological and progressive society. They are also the bedrock upon which modern scientific, technological and advanced nations are based. Science was featured in very few secondary and teacher training schools in Nigeria between 1859 and 1929. The major subjects taught were astronomy, chemistry, physiology, geology and botany. These were later systematized and then changed first to Nature study and later General Science. Technology education teacher training in Nigeria started in 1962 with the establishment of the department of Vocational teacher education at the University of Nigeria Nsukka under the supervision of Michigan State University U.S.A at its formative years. Human capital development in science and technology education is faced with a lot of challenges such as retraining of science and technology teachers, dearth of qualified technology trainers, inadequate funding among others. This paper addressed how these challenges could be forestalled for successful implementation of human capital development and also the new responsibilities of the teachers for science and technology education in Nigeria.

Keywords: Prediction, traditional evaluation, evaluation feedback, composite mark, random assignment, randomized cluster. Concept of Science

Science may be looked at as a human enterprise. It is primarily and usually connected with finding out about the human environment (Buseri, 1995). Inomiesa (1993) sees science as “the what”, “the how”, and “the why” of everything happening in our environment. Science (Inomiesa, 1997) is made up of two important parts. These are products (knowledge) and processes (methods). The products usually deal with the facts, concepts, laws, principles and/or generations and they come to us in the form of classificational, correlational and theoretical concepts.

Historical background of Science education in Nigeria

Science was featured in very few secondary and teacher training schools in Nigeria between 1859 and 1929 (Inomiesa, 2010). The major subjects taught were astronomy, chemistry, physiology, geology and botany. These were later systematized and then changed first to nature study and later General science.


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The first schools in Nigeria were established by private bodies – the missionaries. So initially, government did not take part in the establishment and running of schools. What the government did was the engagement of teachers that were later handed over to the missionaries. It was much later that government established a number of schools of which few of them taught science subjects. Following this, tribal groups, community affiliations and a number of town union associations established their own schools run on the terms established. In the second half of the 19th

Presently (Inomiesa, 2003) observed that science is taught as biology, chemistry and physics. The syllabus has been increased tremendously. Some of the teachers teaching in these schools can be said to be qualified. They hold the following degrees: B.Sc, HND, B.Sc (Ed). B.Sc. Plus NCE or B.Sc plus Postgraduate Diploma in Education.

century, three patterns of schools emerged. These were: the grammar schools; the teacher training and the pastor training institutions; the vocational and agricultural schools. The teaching of science in secondary schools was very elementary. There were fewer schools and fewer students than now doing science. There were very few science teachers especially those qualified to teach science others were Advanced Level and Certificated Grade I and II teachers from the Teacher Training Colleges. Sizeable and well equipped laboratories existed to make science more real and practical.

Concept of Technology Education

Technology education which is synonymous with technical education, industrial technical education and industrial arts is defined by the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) as an aspect of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. Technology education is further understood to be:

• an integral part of general education;

• a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work;

• an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship,

• an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable development;

• A method of alleviating poverty.

Goals of Technology Education in Nigeria

The goals of technology education according to the National Policy on Education are:

a. provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and business particularly at craft,

advanced craft and technical levels;

b. Provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial and

economic development;

c. Give training and impart the necessary skills to individual who shall be self-reliant economically.

Human capital development in science and technology education: challenges and new responsibilities of the teacher: Odu K.O.

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Science and technology are related in the sense that science is the input while technology is the output. Technology education is the teaching and learning of technology subjects in order to acquire practical skills.

These definitions are the perceptions of the author

Human Capital Development in Technology Education

Human capital development in technology education is very vital to national development. Hand tools, machines, instructional materials, infrastructural facilities may be available in abundance but without the trained manpower that will man these facilities, learning cannot take place in the school.

According to the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004), no education system may rise above the quality of its teachers. Therefore, human capital development in technology education is paramount to sustainable development. Human capital development according to Ogbaunya and Usoro (2009) is a process of improvement that embraces all those activities that are geared towards the growth and improvement of skills, knowledge and attitude of personnel. A teacher who is not currently in tune with modern trend is dangerous to the system. Staff development in terms of continuing education appears rather very poor, haphazard, politicized and lack continuity. Dryaklor (1994) asserted that teachers need to be retrained two to six times in lifetime to keep abreast with changes in his profession. The initial attempt by the Federal Government of Nigeria to retrain technical teachers was a failure because such teacher under Technical Teachers Training Programme (TTTP) never came back and even those that came back settled on greener pasture.

Any government that encourages its citizen to be creative and innovative must be conscious of the quality and quantity of teachers in the system. Maduewesi (2005) stated that the issue of human capital development is perhaps the upper most concern of educational planners and administrators while Onwuka and Gladys (2010) defines human capital development as the process of attaining professionalism through acquisition of necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes for competence and effective performance in the job.

Human capital development in Nigeria has metamorphosed tremendously. Currently, categories of teachers practicing it include B.Ed/BA/B.Sc, M.Ed., Ph.D, NCE and TC II (almost in extinction) Nigerian Certificate of education (NCE) is the minimum teaching qualification in Nigeria. There are bodies in-charge of teachers’ preparation in Nigeria. The National Policy on education (FRN, 2004) charged the following bodies with the responsibility of human capital development at various levels: Colleges of Education, Faculties of Education, School of Post-Graduate Studies, Institutes of Education, National Teacher’s Institute and Schools of Education in Polytechnics. The Federal Government charged the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria with the responsibility of registration of professional teachers and with institute standard. These are efforts to make human capital development efficient. Despite the process made so far in human capital development there are still problems. Most of the bodies charged with the preparation of programmes still produce teachers with inadequate skills to fit into the contemporary society. Obanya (2002) noted that teacher preparation programmes are still based predominantly on traditional practices. Most teacher preparation programmes neglect creativity, innovativeness, risk taking which are ingredients of entrepreneurship education.

Brief History of Human Capital Development in Technology Education in Nigeria

Technology education teacher training in Nigeria started in 1962 with the establishment of the Department of Vocational teacher education at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. This department relied heavily on the Michigan State University, U.S.A for technical and material support during its formative years. Later, the Federal Colleges of Education (Technical) at Akoka and Gombe were established while institutions such as the Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Institute of Management and Technology, Enugu; Kaduna


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Polytechnic, Kaduna and Ibadan Polytechnic Ibadan also ventured into the area of technical teacher training as parts of their programmes. In 1979, when the new educational system required all secondary schools in the country to offer technical subjects, these institutions proved to be grossly inadequate to meet the nation’s needs for technology education teachers.

The paucity of technology education teachers and their critical nature to the successful implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system of education became apparent after the Federal Government had procured technical equipment and distributed them to secondary schools. For many years, some of these equipment remained locked up in their containers some were stolen while some others were misused and destroyed. Consequently, in order to enhance successful implementation of the 6-3-3-4 education system and prevent further wastage of the equipment already procured, the Federal Government entered into bilateral agreements with the governments of United States of America (U.S.A) for the training of technology education teachers. Tailor (1986) reported that the projection was for the nation to produce 500 technology education teachers yearly over a period of ten years.

Starting form 1980, young Nigeria were sent abroad to be trained as technology education teachers. Many of those sent were holders of the NCE, B.Ed/B.Sc,, HND, FTC and their scholarship was for a minimum of two years leading to at least bachelors degree in technical/technology course; some of those sent also went for masters degrees in technical/technology courses. The technical teacher training programme in America continued for about ten years (1980-1990) before it was phased out.

In 1992, the Technical Teacher Training Programme (TTP) which was run in America was domiciled in Nigeria owing to the deregulation policy that led to the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). The Federal Government could not foot the bill for the training of the technology education teachers in America. According to (Olaitan, 1994) the value of the naira embarked on a sharp decline and by 1990, ten naira hardly exchanged for one dollar. The domestication of the Technical Teachers Programme in Nigeria was approved by the then Honourable Minister of Education and Youth Development, Professor Aliu Babatunde Fafunwa.

The programme took off in January 1992 with an initial intake of 500 students placed in four institutions including University of Nigeria Nsukka and Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. The second set of intakes made up of a total of 545 students were placed in programmes in January 1993 and this is a signal that the nation might now achieve the goal of self-sufficiency in human capital development in technology education but this was, not true. The following challenges (Olaitan 1994) confronted the implementation of the Technical Teacher Training Programme in Nigeria.

1. Insufficient Material Resources for Training: With the take off of the domesticated TTTP,

participating institutions have had to take on more students than available machines, equipment and other materials can adequately cater for. With good management skills, some of these institutions were able to maximize the use of available resources. However the fact remains that these institutions would do with more material resources most especially those that would replace obsolete equipment.

Some of these institutions were able to maximize the use of available resources. However the fact remains that these institutions would do with more material resources most especially those that would replace obsolete equipment.

2. Dearth of Qualified Technical Educators: There is a severe shortage of suitably qualified technical

educators in both the participating institutions and other institutions that have been marked for involvement in the programme in future. Moreover, some of the existing technical educators or


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teachers were either trained on obsolete equipment or have worked with such equipment for so long that their skills need to be updated. The training and re-training of technical educators is therefore of paramount importance in the success of the domesticated TTTP.

3. Release of Participating students for TTTP: There were complaints from some students that their

participation in the TTTP does not receive the full support and co-operation of some of their heads of institutions. As a result, some of these students were not released fully for the programme even when they have been accepted and duly placed. This situation could be very frustrating to both the students concerned and co-ordinators of the TTTP. Heads of Institutions should help in releasing the participants since they will return to them after their training to comply with the terms of their agreements.

4. The need to extent the programme to applicants who are not already teaching: Most participants of the TTTP are those who are already teaching. At best these students would become more competent technical teachers. However, for successful implementation of the national policy on education, it is equally important to increase drastically the number of technical teachers in the system. Thus, the extension of the TTTP to young school leavers and to the unemployed should be explored for the purpose of increasing the number of technical teachers now on the field.

5. Use of the Quota System for Selection of Students in TTTP Programme: The need to increase the

quality and quantity of technical teachers cuts across all states of the federation. As a result the quota system must be seen to be effective in the TTTP programme. All states of the federation must be represented in the programme.

Challenges of Human Capital Development

Human capital development or the recruitment and training of technology teachers that would man the various technology education programmes in different levels of our institutions may encounter some difficulties if urgent remedies are not taken.

Re-training of Technology Teachers

Some existing technology teachers were either trained on obsolete equipment or have worked with such equipment for a long time that their skills need to be updated. Therefore, training and re-training of teachers is very vital for successful implementation of teaching and learning strategies in schools.

Retraining means receiving in-service education. It implies subjecting, or exposing an individual to further teaching and practice after the initial training. It may also be taken as improving the teacher. Our society is dynamic. Our needs, values, aspirations and expectations change from time to time. Knowledge, skills and methodologies also change as a result of research, since education is the fastest tool for socialization and propagation of culture and teachers are tools used to implement the teaching-learning process, all technology education teachers should be retrained on a regular basis. Dryaklor (1994) asserted that teachers need to be re-trained two to six times in their lifetime to keep abreast with changes in his profession.

The Avenues for retraining technology education teachers according to Iwuanyanwu (1998) include

i. Attending and participating actively in seminars, conference and workshops;


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ii. Belonging to some professional associations where the teachers can meet with experienced colleagues

to exchange ideas and talks about new happening and development (innovations) in the teaching

subjects and professional teachers’ education.

iii. Departmental or in-house seminars, conferences and workshops where senior colleagues help the

others to improve their lots.

iv. Higher training through part-time programmes, sandwich programmes and full time study leave with

pay.

The purpose of retraining of technology teachers is to improve their qualities, expertise or competence,

efficiency and effectiveness.

* Dearth of Qualified Technology Education Trainers

Trainers of technology education are very few in all levels of technology education. Factors which hinder good human capital development could be traced to the acute shortage of suitably trained and qualified teachers. According to Akpan (2001), the reason for the shortage could be traced to unattractiveness of the teaching profession such that it is difficult to recruit and retain technical teachers at all levels of educational system. For instance in the junior secondary schools in Delta State, a total of 698 vocational/technical teachers are available for teaching the pre-vocational subjects for the 2007/2008 session (Akpotu and Okonta 2010). Out of this number, 673 (96.4%) are qualified while 25 (3.6%) are unqualified teachers (Akpotu and Okonta, Ibid). according to the authors the students/teachers ratio is 155:1. details of the number of vocational/technical teachers currently available in junior secondary schools are shown in the table below.

An Analysis of Available, Required and Differences between Available and Required Number of Vocational/Technical Teachers

Pre-Vocational subject Areas

No of student Per

Subject

No of Available

Voc/Tech. Trs.

Student/Tr Radio Per

Subject

Overall student/ Tr Ratio

No of Required

Trs.

Differences between

Available & Required Trs. Q NQ

Intro. Tech 20,061 63 3 318:1 502 439 Practical Agric 23,558 208 16 113:1 589 381 Bus. Studies 24,454 189 4 129:1 611 422 Home Econs 24,724 184 1 134:1 155:1 618 434 Local Crafts 7,039 11 1 640:1 176 165 Computer Edu. 4,362 18 0 242:1 109 91 Total 104,198 673 25 2,605 1,932 Grand Total 698

Source: Computed from fieldwork in (Akpotu & Okonta, 2010)


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Comparing the ratios obtained per subject to the National Policy on Education’s standard of 40:1, it can be rightly inferred according to (Akpotu and Okonta, 2010) that there are inadequate numbers of vocational/technical teachers in junior secondary schools in Delta State. To buttress the study of Akpotu and Okonta, that there is inadequate technology education teachers to handle technical subjects, the NERDC report of the state of demand and supply in 1997, revealed that about 270,000 vocational technical teachers nation wide representing 74% of total need were not available (Aina, 2000). This signifies that only 26% of such teachers are on ground.

Inadequate Funding

Technology education is capital intensive and cannot be adequately implemented with poor funding. Technical and applied skills could not manifest from ordinary reading of handouts and pictures of stimulated tools and equipment (Olaitan 1996). Due to poor funding, workshops are either empty or stored with outdated tools and equipment. This problem has greatly reduced the quality of human capital development in technology education.

Poor Workshop Organisation

Teacher trainees are faced with problems of workshop organization as they find it difficult to translate theories imparted into practical experiences. They cannot effectively impart skills as the training environment is not the functional working environment. It must not just be any kind of technology education but a right type of education with workshop facilities for creativity, hardwork and discipline. This will guarantee quality human capital development. What is described as workshop in most technical trade areas is only a classroom with few tools and equipment and where the workshop is available, it serves as a number of units, thereby providing limitations for practical exercises. As ascertained to Idika (1997), one of the major reasons why some technical teachers leave the teaching field could be the non-provision of adequate training facilities such as laboratories, workshops and classrooms.

Inadequate Instructional Materials

The quality of education in Nigeria has fallen in the area of facilities for learning. Odukwe (2003) observed

that from primary school to tertiary institution the facilities, infrastructure and learning aids are no longer

available. This signifies that the population of the teacher trainees admitted out-weighs the capacity of

facilities available. Fajemirolum (2003) asserted that the situation appears so bad in the universities that

more than ten technical teacher trainees were regularly assigned to one instructional material with

equipment in a crowded workshop. This may hinder good interaction and opportunity for effective

workshop experiences.

Strategies for Improving Human Capital Development in Technology Education

Technology has created innovation in industry, segment and component of the society, economy, and culture yet has not done so much in human capital development. The following measures are suggested to improve human capital development.


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The Use of ICT in Teaching and Learning

In order to be relevant in the information age, the teacher training institutions should stay current as a successful teacher should keep pace with changes in their field and with times. Teacher training institutions should be equipped with Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to assist the teacher learn how Information and Communication Technology is being used. ICT tool has the ability to shift focus of classroom teacher-centred to student-centred learning. This allows students to actively participate in classroom transaction as they produces and share knowledge. Usoro and Ogbuanya (2009) maintained that ICT is also a catalyst for paradigm shift to new training approaches within an organisation. Companies and industries have now begun to look beyond traditional classroom instruction to meet their training need.

Entrepreneurship Training

To improve business technique in technical teacher education, entrepreneurial skills of marketing skills, financial management, self-motivation, time-management, administrative skills, professional skills and innovative skills should be intensified and emphasized to the total development of the individual trainees. (Hisrich, Peters & Shepherd, 2008).

The training for entrepreneurship according to Nwaokolo (2003) must be in addition to the usual skills training in any of the technology areas since a typist, for example without adequate typing skills is not likely to succeed even when encouraged to open a business centre. It is therefore, important that the introduction of entrepreneurship education will involve the finance of all technology graduates in this manner. Perhaps it is important to stress that in a period of mass unemployment and declining economic fortunes, only the best can survive. The foregoing has pointed out and dealt with curriculum implication of entrepreneurship for technology education.

Application of Appropriate Methodology in Teaching Technical Subjects

For quality human capital development in science and technology education this paper advocates constructivist philosophy in pedagogy. The emerging theory of constructivism may have implication for science and technology education in this century. It would help in the preparation of workers for entry into and advance in the workplace as the 21st

Curriculum Innovation

century requires an educational programme that provides not only job skills as science and technology education did through out the 1900s but also higher order thinking, problem solving and collaborative work skills (Ogbaunya and Usoro, 2009).

The curriculum of science and technology teacher training institution should move away from the traditional courses to embrace computer installation and maintenance, graphical arts, petrochemical, instrumentation, food technology, land surveying, metallurgical technology, glass and telecommunication technology and so on. The curriculum of science and technology education should focus more on creativity education. Often industries and colleges reject products of science and technology education whose training was based on the outdated method of developing skills i.e. “Do as I do and repeat after me”. To this end, science and technology education training institutions should shift focus to curriculum that acknowledges particular set of talents and attempt to enable the trainee discover and develop his particular sets of potentials.

Provision of Training Facilities

Science and technology education according to Egboh (2009) cannot be effectively implemented in schools without workshop facilities, laboratories, functional tools, studios and equipment with constant supply of electricity. The state and the federal government of Nigeria should intensify effort to supply and replace


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outdated tools and equipment, expand the existing workshop, laboratories and training facilities to ensure that science and technology education environment depicts the working environment.

The New Responsibilities of the Teacher in Human Capital Development

In the 21st

century, a lot of responsibilities are demanded from the teachers in human capital development. These responsibilities according to the author of this paper are:

• Teachers Being Knowledgeable in information and Communication Technology (ICT): The intention of the Federal Government of Nigeria to introduce computer education in the teaching curriculum suggested that science and technical teacher trainee should be provided with enabling environment that encourages individualized learning, which is one of the modern approaches for learning of science and technology. In human capital development, the use of ICT will enable the trainers to get more effective results in his teaching. Similarly, teaching and learning becomes easier.

• Improvement on Teaching Strategies: Arubayi, Nworgu, Akpochafor and Odu (2008) suggested the following teaching strategies in science, technology and vocational education that will enhance skill acquisition among teachers and learners in Nigerian secondary schools.

a. Concept formation

b. Real Life Application

c. Job-related skills acquired by learners

d. Demonstration

e. Equipment, care and maintenance

f. Diagrams/illustrations/Drawings

The author defined the sub-scales below:

• Concept Formation: This deals with all the ideas coming from the teacher and learners culminating in the formation of what the topic/object of discussion is.

• Real Life Application: This evaluates the ability of the teacher to make the learner relate what is learnt to everyday activities in his environment and beyond. Real life application makes reference to the implication of the concept to real life/possible future careers.

• Job Related Skills Acquired by the Learners: The topic or subject matter should offer various skills to learners which they can use in the world of work.

• Demonstration: This sub-scale explains all the teacher does in the class/laboratory/workshop or studio to engage the attention of the learners to him/her in order to replicate the procedure and process involved in an experiment/workshop practice etc.

• Diagrams/Illustrations/Drawings: These sub-scales emphasize teacher’s use of drawing/diagrams as it relates to the topic and stressing the importance of accuracy in spelling, labeling and neatness of diagrams.


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Conclusion

Human capital development in science and technology education is essential to human and educational development. Unfortunately, a lot of challenges are facing this important issue concerning technology education. These problems are: retraining of science and technology teachers, dearth of qualified technology education trainers, inadequate funding, poor workshop organisation and inadequate instructional materials. The following strategies are recommended by the author of this paper to make human capital development in science and technology education successful. These are: use of ICT in teaching and learning, entrepreneurship training, application of appropriate methodology in teaching science and technology education subjects, curriculum innovation and provision of training facilities.

REFERENCES

Aina, O. (2000). Nigeria Technical and Vocational Education in the Near future. Keynote Address at National Seminar on Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria held at National Centre for Women Development, Abuja.

Akpan, A.A. (2001). Technical Skills Acquisition among undergraduates during industrial work. Akpotu, N.E. & Okonta, V. (2010). An Assessment of Human Resource Need for Pre-Vocational

Education in Junior Secondary Schools in Delta State. Paper Presented at the 2010 Annual General Conference of Institute of Education, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.

Arubayi, E; Nworgu, B.G., Akpochafo, W. & Odu, K.O. (2008). Manual for Monitoring Curriculum

Contents of Subject Inspection in Senior Secondary Schools. Inspectorate Division, Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja.

Buseri, J.C. (1995). Principle of Science Education and Teaching. Port Harcourt: BUCIL Ltd (Publication

Division). Dryaklor, N. (1994). The Scientific and Technology Revolution. It’s Role in Today’s World. Moscow:

Progress Publishers. Egboh, S.H.O. (2009). Strategies for Improving the Teaching of Science, Technical and Vocational

Education in Schools and Colleges in Nigeria. Paper Presented at the one day Intensive Nationwide Training/Workshop Organized by the Centre of Science, Technical and Vocational Education Research Development, Jos and Proprietors of Private Schools in Delta State held at College of Education, Warri, Nigeria.

Fajemirolum, C.T.O.B. (2003). Curriculum Innovations for Sustainable Technology Education in Nigeria:

Training and Retraining of Nigerian Technologist. Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT) 1(2) 46-51.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. 4th

edition Yaba: NERDC Press.


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Hisrich, R.D. Peters, M.P. & Shepherd, D.A. (2008). Entrepreneurship. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc.

Idika, V. (1997). Factors that Influence Retention of Technical Teachers in Abia State Secondary Schools.

Unpubl ished M.Ed. Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Inomiesa, E.A. (1993). “Developing Primary School Science Test for Continuous Assessment of Primary

Six Pupils” Review of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Vol. 13 pp.115-126. Inomiesa, E.A. (1997). “Secondary Schools’ Evaluation of Secondary School Chemistry Teachers”. Studies

in Education: 1 (2 & 3). 46-70. Inomiesa, E.A. (2010). “Teaching of Science in Nigerian Secondary Schools: The Beginning, the Present

and the Future”. 20th

in the Series of Inaugural Lectures of Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. Abraka: University Printing Press.

Iwuanyanwu, C.N. (1998). The Need for the Pre-Service and In-service Education Experience for the Pre-School Teacher. The Asaba Educator: Technical and Science Journal 1 (1), 26-31.

Maduewesi, E.J. (2005). Bench Marks of Global Trends in Education: Benin City Dasylva Influence

Enterprises. Nwaokolo, P.O. (2003). Recent Experiences in Educational Alternatives in Africa. The Post-Primary

Technology Education Case. Related Thoughts in Vocational Education. The Developing World Experience. Pp.116-128.

Obanya, P.A.T. (2002). Revitalizing Education in Africa: Lagos: Sterling Holden Publishers Nigeria

Limited. Odukwe, M. (2003, October, 10th

). Standard of education has Fallen, Punch Newspaper. Pp18-19.

Ogbaunya, T.C. & Usoro, A.D. (2009). Quality Teacher Preparation for Effective Implementation of Technical Education in Nigeria. Nigerian Vocational Journal 14(1), 41-51.

Olaitan, S.O. (1994). Domestication of the Technical Teacher Training Programme and its Implications for

Sustainable Economic Development. Journal of Technical Teacher Education 1(2). 10-14. Olaitan, S.O. (1996). Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria (Issues and Analysis). Onitsha: Noble

graphic Press. Onwuka, E.M. & Gladys, O.U. (2010). Development and Validation of Entrepreneurial Skills Assessment

Inventory of Youths. Unizik Orient Journal of Education. 5(2), 167-175. Tailor, G.A. (1986). Presidential Address, NATT Conference, Kaduna.


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CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN NIGERIA

Nwile, Befii Charles

Department of Educational Management University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected] Phone no: 08033133519

Abstract This paper discussed the challenges and prospects of educational planning in Nigeria. Some of the challenges identified were unreliable and inadequate statistical data, administrative, political, economic, cultural and sociological constraints. Globalization and ICT were also identified as factors that must be taken seriously in educational planning since they have the ability to influence, positively how education should be planned henceforth. It was recommended, among others, that only professionally qualified educational planners should be given the task of planning education, since the future of generations of Nigerians living and yet to be born is too important to be an experiment for political jamboree. Key words: Challenges and prospects; Educational planning; Nigeria. Introduction Educational planning in Nigeria gained prominence in the 1960s when it became integrated into the

National Development Planning. The integration of educational planning was the direct result of the Ashby

Commission Report of 1960 which recognized the role of education in national development (FRN, 1960).

Ever since, Nigeria have adopted education as an instrument “par excellence” for national development and

had come up with a National Policy on Education which currently is at the fourth edition (FRN, 2004). The

above clearly shows that educational planning has gained increased attention in Nigeria.

To properly anchor our discourse, it is pertinent to know what `Planning` and indeed ‘Educational

Planning’ truly are. There are various scholarly definitions of the word ‘Planning’. However, this paper

aligns itself with those forwarded by Newman and Agabi. Newman (1963:136) defines planning as ‘the

process of determining in advance, what is to be done, including classification of goals, establishment of

policies, mapping out of programmes and campaigns and determining specific methods or procedures and

fixing day to day schedules’. Agabi (1999:3) sees planning as ‘a process which essentially involves

deciding in advance the specific future course of action to be adopted with a view to optimizing the use of

limited organizational resources towards desirable and specific goal attainment. It is a conscious and

deliberate process of systematically influencing future actions in a specific field of human endeavour, to

achieve predetermined objectives’. Following Agabi’s line of argument, we have come to see planning

used in such contexts as National Planning, Economic Planning, Fiscal Planning, Financial Planning,

Family Planning, Educational Planning etc. Our focus here is on Educational Planning.

There are many conceptions and theories as to the meaning of the term ‘Educational Planning’,

however the definitions by Beeby (1967) and that of Agabi (1999) more succinctly and comprehensively


mailto:[email protected]�

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captures what we see Educational Planning to be. Beeby (1967) in Agabi (1999:5) defines Educational

Planning as:

the exercise of foresight in determining the policy, priority and cost of an educational system, having due regard for economic and political realities, for the system`s potentials for growth and for the needs of the country and of the pupils who served the system.

On his own part, Agabi (1995:5-6) sees Educational Planning as:

a systematic process by which a given society consciously and in a rational manner, decides the course of action and pattern the growth and development of the educational system towards accomplishing the present and future educational needs within the constraints imposed by the resources mix.

As crucial as educational planning is, and its long recognition in national development, it is faced with a lot

of challenges. The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the challenges facing educational planning

in Nigeria with a view to proffering measures of curbing these bottlenecks.

Theoretical Framework

The thrust of this work is to ascertain the role played by education as an instrument for growth and

development in Nigeria. Realistically speaking, education in Nigeria is saddled with the task of providing

the basic tools for the future growth and stability of the nation in general and the individual in particular.

Education is also an investment. Premised on these facts therefore, the most appropriate theory on which

this study can be hinged on is the `Human Capital Theory` postulated by Garry Becker in 1962. Becker

(1962) posits that greater and better individuals and aggregate investments in learning activities directly

lead to greater societal economic benefits.

Lewin(2008) is of the view that through the 1970s and 80s educational planning in most

developing countries was grounded on the core set of prepositions about the relationships between

knowledge, skills productivity, growth and economic development that are known as Human Capital

Theory. Human Capital Theory talks about types of investment in human capital through education and

training; their impact on productivity, earnings, income distribution and other factors related to

development. Human Capital Theory is the most cogent and rational perspective for explaining the

relationship which exists between education on the one hand, and employment on the other and remains the

dominant set of assumptions underlying planning in most developing economies, Nigeria inclusive.

Issues and challenges of Educational Planning in Nigeria

Nigeria, just like other developing nations believe in the prophecy of education in national development,

hence it adopted education as an instrument ‘par excellence’ in national development (FRN, 2004). The

belief in the prophecy of education in national development brought about educational planning activities

which resulted in increased educational expansion. The matters arising from the increased expansion in the

educational system of Nigeria have given rise to emergent issues and challenges in educational planning in

Nigeria. These emergent issues include; the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the system and inability of

education to match with the changing needs of the society; the adoption of the sectoral planning approach;

Challenges and Prospects of Educational Planning in Nigeria: Nwile B. C.

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shortage of educational places, inadequate resources and misallocation of fiscal resources, rising cost of

education, waste in the system, declining quality and relevance of service, and unemployment of the

educated among others (Nwadiani, 1995).

Education is a sub-system of the wider society with other components like economic, social-

cultural and political subsystems. Unfortunately, the systems approach is not often adopted in educational

planning process. In most instances, educational planning does not take cognizance of the peculiar needs of

the society. It is for this reason that most of those who graduate from the system cannot easily get

employed. This shows that there is a system gap between what goes on in schools and the type of work that

awaits those who graduate from schools. Most educational policies and programmes are planned without

cognizance of the socio-cultural, economic and political conditions of the times. This is responsible for the

failure of educational plans and policies in Nigeria.

Another major issue and challenge in educational system planning in Nigeria is shortage of school

places despite expansion.

A UNESCO survey cited in Agi and Adiele (2009:181) reveals as follows:

A shortage of space currently exists in all the sub-sectors of the educational system. The expansion of the education system mainly through the introduction of universal basic education has put pressure on educational facilities that did not expand at the same rate as school population.

The universalisation of primary education in 1976 and recently in UBE Act 2004 gave rise to rapid

population growth in the schools. Despite government’s commitment to universalize education, school

places have not been able to match the demand for places. The problem appears to persist at all levels of the

education system. This has further resulted in uncontrolled expansion of private schools in the education

sector. Nwadiani (1995) had observed that the cause of the above problem was the inability of the

government to provide the required resources for education in the right quantity and quality. This according

to him `has given rise to the pattern of educational crisis attendant on the expansionist educational policies`

in Nigeria.

The qualitative expansion of the educational system without due regard to the rate of expansion of

the economy has led to the production of large army of school leavers that the economy cannot absorb. This

situation is further reinforced by the adoption of the social demand approach in educational planning at the

basic level of education in Nigeria. In addition to the above, there are other recurrent problems in education

which pose serious challenges to educational planning.

Okeke (1989) had identified constraints which pose serious challenge to educational planning in Nigeria as

follows:

1. Dearth of essential data

2. Policies

3. Political constraints

4. Administrative constraints

5. Economic constraints

6. Legal framework


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7. Sociological constraints

8. Cultural constraints

In a similar study by Nwadiani (1995), nine other challenges facing educational planning were also

identified. These include:

1. Setting the cart before the horse syndrome

2. Poor functional differentiation

3. Weak database

4. Population explosion

5. Inadequate resources

6. Depressing economy

7. Unprogressive administrative tradition

8. Politics

9. Lack of public support.

Fabunmi (2004) also highlighted some areas of challenges to educational planning to include:

political factors, economic constraints, data problems, manpower problems, administrative bottlenecks,

cultural problems, inadequacy of planning facilities, inappropriate information system, high illiteracy level

and global influence.

Agabi (1999) equally reiterated the impediments of educational planning which present major challenge to

planning of education as follows: vicissitudes of political policy environment, low capacity for educational

planning, methodological defects, statistical deficiencies, financial and other material resources constraints.

It is important to consider some of these challenges.

High degree of wastage

In the Nigerian educational system, there is a high degree of wastage because of poor planning and

ineffective implementation strategies. The manifested forms of wastages are failures, repetition and dropout

among learners. Study by Nwadiani (1995) revealed that the dropout rate from Nigeria’s primary schools

range from 37.4% to 51.7%. Lots of factors have been identified as being responsible for the high wastage

ratio. These include: Learning environment, the teacher factor in terms of his relationship with and ratio to

learners, school organizational climate etc. Confirming the roles of these factors in student’s dropout rate,

Iyamu (1992) asserted that many school dropouts were victims of hostile school environment, some of

them saw the school as grim, joyless places with petty and oppressive demands, rules and regulations.

Nwadiani (1995) strongly believes that the manifestation of forms of wastage in Nigeria’s educational

system is the direct result of poor educational planning strategies.


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The challenges of poor Quality of Education

Since independence in 1960, the country has witnessed tremendous expansion in the number of educational

institutions in all the levels of education. But what has worried both internal and external observers of the

Nigerian education system is that the quality of education provided keeps deteriorating. The causes of the

falling standard in Education in Nigeria are many and varied. Fagbamiye in Adesina (1981:147) in his

comments on the declining quality of Education in Nigeria said:

other areas of crisis are the consistently declining quality of those we send every year to the classrooms to train the minds of the nation resulting in low quality products, the relative imbalance that exists between the expansion of the educational system and enrolments in teacher training institutions, overcrowded classrooms, poor and shoddy inspection and supervision of schools, misguided decisions on education, obsolete teaching techniques, poor and inadequate physical facilities and finally lack of systematic planning particularly at state and local levels where the bulk of the nation’s educational programmes rest.

Besides the poor quality of education provided, there is a growing disparity between the education

offered and the changing need of the emergent Nigeria. There are clear indications that the standard of

education in Nigeria is poor; the system is so bad that the product of the system at all levels cannot be said

to have fulfilled any aspect of the stated objectives in the level and type of education they claim to have

acquired. This phenomenon has rendered most of them vulnerable to unemployment. Agabi (1999:221)

agrees with this view when he stated that:

Educational systems in most of the LDCs have for long been oriented towards values that are ill-suited to the world of work. The craze for credentials has rendered such education and training too academic. This has created a serious deficiency in the level of vocational skills acquired by graduates of higher educational institutions. The obvious result of this is that these graduates cultivate a foreign taste as well as distaste for ‘blue collar’ jobs and rural employment. This implies that manpower-training programmes in these countries are yet to be tailored to meet national needs and priority. The growing level of ‘uneducated unemployables’ … attest to this.

This situation pose serious challenge to educational planning if education is to stimulate overall national

development as envisaged in the National Policy on Education.

The challenge of poor participatory planning

The involvement of stakeholders and educational planners in educational planning in Nigeria has been

ineffective and problematic. It is this factor that accounts for the poor definition of educational objectives in

Nigeria. Educational objectives are not based on systematic need assessment. The level of participation in

educational policy planning and implementation is usually restricted to government personnel. There is

poor integration of technocrats, parents, representatives of all the tiers of government and all stakeholders

in educational sector; hence there is poor implementation of plans.

Lack of accurate data

Educational planning relies on statistical data for meaningful planning. For example, we need accurate data

on child birth to plan for places in school; we need enrolment figures to plan for teacher demand etc.

Unfortunately, in Nigeria, the culture of educational planning has been without accurate data. The

challenge of accurate and unreliable data has been highlighted by Okeke (1989), Nwadiani (1995), Agabi


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(1999) and Fabunmi (2004). Data of all kinds are used in projections and therefore they form the basis of

administrative decisions. But when official decisions are based on faulty data, genuine problems cannot be

solved.

Inadequate human and material resources for planning education

Human and material resources play vital roles in educational planning activities. In Nigeria, there is acute

shortage of professionally trained educational planners. As rightly observed by Nwadiani (1995:165),

currently educational planning divisions of ministries and boards of education in Nigeria are staffed with

non-educational planners. Often times the professional educational planning experts are not involved in the

planning process even when they are sometimes available due to political reasons. This is why educational

planning has not been effective.

Besides human resources, material resources such as classrooms, equipments, furniture and other

instructional materials needed in the system are very inadequate to promote any meaningful planning. The

available facilities are over-stretched and poorly maintained.

Despite the scarcity of material resources and poor funding the budgetary allocations to education

in Nigeria has never exceeded 11% of the federation amount. This is in sharp contrast to the United Nations

recommendation of 26% of Nations budgetary allocations to be allocated to education. The situation is

worsened by the fact that in most cases, activities that do not promote teaching and learning are given prior

attention leading to educational finance wastage. The major challenge here is that ‘we have the desire but

lack the capacity, the willpower and the wherewithal for successful educational planning’ (Agabi, 1999:9).

Defects in methods used in planning education

Most of the methods adopted in planning education in Nigeria are either inappropriate or outdated. For

example, the Ashby Commission Report of 1960 was based on forecasting methods, the various UPEs and

the current UBE programmes were based on forecast and projections that hardly fell within the actual. It is

for the reason of poor planning techniques that the planned programmes were not able to adequately

forecast or anticipate the enrolment and teachers demands that followed. Besides poor methods or

techniques in planning education, educational planners lay too much emphasis on quantitative projections

and hardly get involved in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of planned educational projects.

Blurred administrative and policy framework

In Nigeria the legal and administrative structures that define the responsibility of technicians to plan, and

administrators to implement are in most cases not clear and specific (Agabi, 1999). This has resulted in

fussed technical and administrative decisions thereby creating conflicts and inter-personal rivalries among

officers involved in the two distinct task areas. The national capacity for educational planning is further

reduced by placing decision-making responsibility on political office holders. These political office holders

demonstrate lack of capacity for policy advice and expertise when taking policy decisions.


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In addition to the above, policy guidelines in Nigeria are not clearly defined for educational

planners. This constitutes a serious problem and leaves the planners with no clearly defined area of

technical expertise. The planner under this circumstance is compelled to devise methods to deal with value

choices which may not be technically bounded.

Time constraints

There is a divergent time scale and value judgment between planners and the politicians. While the

planners are primarily concerned with long term plans and how these can be reasonably implemented, the

politicians are more interested in the immediate and vote-catching plans. This is so because the politicians

have short time span to stay in the office. This situation does not augur well for meaningful educational

planning and posed a serious challenge.

Political constraints

Political considerations sometimes pose serious problems to educational planning decisions. These

influences border on religious, economic, regional, state or even professional considerations. The decision

of location or siting of projects based on level of support enjoyed by a politician from a particular

community accounts for the project enjoyed by members of that community. Politics constitute a

significant challenge on the planning of education.

Prospects of Educational Planning

One of the cardinal duties of the educational planners is to seek to foresee the future of the nation they are

planning for. Prediction of what Nigeria will look like 20 years from now is a difficult task. With an

unstable political system on one hand and agitations from such geopolitical zone as the south-south who

claim that they produce the wealth on which the nation’s economy thrives, yet are marginalized, benefiting

little or nothing while others feed fat on the oil which nature has graciously put on their soil. Threats of

secession and for better treatments by some ethnic societies are real. We have come to hear of such

movements as “MOSOP” (Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People), “MASSOB” (Movement for the

Actualisation of the Sovereign State of Biafra), “OPC” (Oodua Peoples Congress) etc, asking for equity,

fair play and justice. Faced with this problem on the political angle and the fluctuating Nigerian economy

prevalent on oil prices, the educational planners are expected to have visions about different scenarios, and

to identify both desirable targets and dangers which can be reduces or avoided based on effective planning.

Several factors will influence educational planning in Nigeria in the near future.

1. Globalization

Basic Education is today a global issue which requires conscientious plans that will balance the demands

and pressure that globalization generates. Commenting on this factor Bray (2008:16) says:

Concerning the scale of education, the world is today further advanced towards the goal of universal primary education than at any time in history. Among the forces which have promoted this achievement are the EFA targets and the millennium development goals. It is already clear that the objective of universal primary education will not be achieved in every country by 2015, and one task for IIEP is therefore likely to remain focused on reaching the unreached.


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To Lewin (2008:9):

The challenge of planners is to step outside the straight jacket of EFA and the MDGs, revisit their form and substance with the benefit of some hindsight, way with national development strategies that must balanced needs for growth with the delivery of rights.

2. Information Technology

Technological advancement and use of internet, personal computers and mobile telephones are

advantageous to Educational Planners. Supporting this view, Lewin (2008:10) says:

Information technology and cheap, local, portable and powerful computers continue to transform the technologies of planning and data capture and analysis. New kinds of school mappings have become possible using GPS Technology. Decentralised access to educational planning data on schools, teachers, and students for local use is feasible. National data sets and projections can be made available to wider audiences. Assessment data allows detailed performance analysis down to the level of individual candidates, and facilitates the generation of school league tables and insight into school effectiveness. New information technology facilities, new forms of micro-planning at the local level are now available. It also makes it much easier to explore data in different ways, not least explore distribution and equity issues below national level.

Useful and valuable as information technology is, it has its demerits. Bray (2008:5) opined that:

Reliance on technology, it must be added, brings new vulnerabilities. Children no longer use books because everything can be looked up on the internet which are vulnerable if their computers are hit by viruses, power-cut or technical problems and in this sense learning may be vulnerable in a parallel way to crops that have in adequate biodiversity… . Moreover, the quality of information in the internet is less carefully screened than that in the published books, and can be both misleading and of questionable social acceptability across different cultures… Further, the technology only provides tools, and education system still need people who operate within structures.

The duty of the educational planner, faced with this divergent situation is to proffer a means and medium of

amalgamating the use of both the technological and the traditional way of teaching, and assessing students

in Nigeria.

3. PLANNING EDUCATION BOTH AS A RIGHT AND AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ADVANCEMENT.

The UBE law in Nigeria, in conjunction with EFA and UNESCO advocate Education For All as a human

right and as an end in itself. On the other hand, most parents and families would prefer education to be

linked to economic advancement and improved standard of living. One challenge facing the educational

planner is to help bridge the gap between these expectations so that expanded education has adequate

quality and sufficient dovetailing with other components of social and economic development.

4. PLANNING EDUCATION TO COMBAT CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES

In recent times, contemporary issues such as global warming, international terrorism, HIV/AIDS, kidnaps,

scarcity of basic commodities including food; economic meltdown, failed banks and instability in oil prices

are some major challenges facing the entire world today. The educational planner must take cognizance of


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these vile attributes and provide in his detailed plans, means and ways of combating these negative

antecedents that threatens the world.

Conclusion

Educational planning has come a long way in Nigeria. This is demonstrated by the growing commitment of

government towards the expansion of education at all levels. For education to continue to play its role in

Nigeria, its planning cannot be underestimated. Unfortunately, in Nigeria educational planning activities

are constrained by a lot of factors which pose serious challenges to educational planning. The removal of

the identified bottlenecks and the demonstration of genuine commitment by government will create

conducive atmosphere for planning education. It is important to note that as Nigeria becomes more

developed and advanced technologically, the duty of the educational planner will become more complex

and diversified. The educational planner in Nigeria need to make valuable use of scientific methods and

modes of thinking to provide for the fast changing needs of the polity.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are considered necessary:

1. The educational planner must identify the challenges facing educational planning in Nigeria with a

view to tackling these problems.

2. Only qualified and competent (educational) planners should be allowed to plan education in

Nigeria.

3. In planning education, political and ethic sentiments must be played down as these factors will

negatively affect planning.

4. Projections in educational, economic and socio-political matters should be based on accurate data

as faulty projections will adversely affect all facets of development of the country.

References

Adesina, S. (ed.)(1981). Introduction to Educational Planning. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press Ltd. Agabi, O. G. (1999). Introducing Educational Planning. Owerri: Springfield Publications. Agi, U. K. & Adiele, E. E. (2009). Educational Management. Port Harcourt: Rhodi Pub. & Publishing

Company. Bray, M. (2008). Evolution in the field of Educational Planning: Four Milestones in the work of IIEP.

Retrieved December 8, 2009 from http//www.iiep.unesco.org/filesadmin/user. Fabunmi, M. (2004). Perspectives in Educational Planning. Ibadan: Odum Prints and Pack. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Hallack, J. (1977). Planning the Location of Schools. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organisation. Hoy, W. K. & Miskel, C. G. (1978). Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice. 3rd

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Ize-Iyamu, P. I. (1992). An Analysis of Pupils Wastage In Bendel State Primary Schools between 1982 and

1987. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of Benin: Benini City. Lewin, M. K. (2008) Four decades of Educational Planning: Retrospect and Prospect. Retrieved December

8, 2009 from http//www.iiep.unesco.org/fileadmin/user. Nwadiani, Mon (1995). Issue and Problems in Educational Planning and Implementation in Nigeria. In V.

F. Peretomode (ed). Introduction to Educational Administration, Planning and Supervision. Lagos: Joja Publication Ltd.

Okeke, B. S. (1989). Educational Planning in Nigeria – A Social Process Approach. Lagos: Joja Press Ltd. UNESCO, (1968). Educational Planning. A survey of Problems and Prospects: Working Paper for

International Conference on Educational Planning. Paris: UNESCO. Uwazurike, C. N. (ed). (1991). Educational Planning and National Development: A Nigerian Perspective.

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