1. 1. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction. Risk Factors: Stress: Everyday stress: People reportthattheydrink,smoke,use drugs,gamble etc.asameansof copingwithdailyhassles (suchas romanticproblems,moneyworriesandworkplace stress). Such stressorsmaycontribute toinitiationandmaintenance of addictions,aswell asrelapse even afterlongperiodsof abstinence (NationalInstituteon Drug Abuse). Traumatic stress: Researchhasfoundthat people exposedtoseverestressare more vulnerable toaddictions, especiallychildren(childabuse/deathof aparent). PTSD (post-traumaticstressdisorder) isalsocommonlylinkedtoaddiction. Driessen etal foundthat 30% of drug addictsand 15% of alcoholicssufferfromPTSD.Theyalsofoundthat mere traumawas not enoughtoleadto addiction. Evaluation: Do addictionsdecrease stress? Hajeketal - Despite the factthat manysmokerssaytheysmoke to reduce stress,itactuallyincreaseslevels.Sostressmaybe a riskfactor for smokingbutthe addiction doesnthave the desiredeffect.Although,paradoxically,once asmokerissmokingitmaybecome stressreducingasit reduceswithdrawal cravings. Individual differences: Cloniger stresscreates vulnerability insome butnotall.Suggestedthat there are two typesof alcoholics;one thatdrinkto reduce tension(mostlikelywomenandprone to anxietyanddepression) andone thatdrinksto relieve boredom(risk-takers).Therefore,stressisan explanationforsome butnotall. Peers: Citedas a commonreasonwhyadolescentsinparticulardevelopanaddiction. Eiser et al smokerstendtobefriendsmokers,andvice-versa. McAlister et al Transitiontoincreasedlevelsof smokingare linkedtopeersencouragementand approval,togetherwiththe message thatsmokingisanactivitythatpromotespopularity. Social LearningTheory: Bandura behavioursare learnedthroughobservationof othersand subsequentmodellingof thisbehaviours.Youngpeople are mostlikelytoimitate the behaviourof
2. 2. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction. those withwhomtheyhave the mostsocial contact. Once theyhave startedsmoking,experiences withthe newbehaviourdeterminewhetheritpersists. Social IdentityTheory: Abramsand Hogg thisassumesthatgroup membersadoptthose normsand behavioursthatare central to the social identityof the grouptheybelongto.Inpeergroupswhere the statues as a smokerornon-smokerisventral tothe social identityof the group,individualsare likelytobe similartoone anotherintheirhabits,suggestinganingroup/outgroupworking. Evaluation: Social LearningTheory: manyof the hypothesesconsistentwiththe importance of social contextin smokinghave beensupportedbyresearch.E.g. researchsupportsthe claimthat exposure topeer modelsincreasesthe likelihoodthatteenagerswill beginsmoking(Duncan etal).Likewise there is plentifulsupportforthe claimthatperceivedrewardsuchassocial statusand popularityare instrumental inwhyadolescentsbeginsmokingandremainimportantwhiletheycontinuetosmoke (Eiser et al). Socail IdentityTheory: althoughthereisevidence tosupportthe claimthatadolescentsare motivatedtobeginsmokingbecauseof the stereotypestheyholdof specificsocial crowds(Michell), little isknownaboutthe extenttowhichthese groupsinfluence theirmemberstosmoke.Nordowe knowwhetheradolescentsare impervioustothe demandsof theirsocial groupwhen these evidentlyconflictwiththeirownconcernstomaintainahealthylifestyle. Age: The influence of peersonsmokinganddruguse appearstowane in lateradolescence andthe role of close friends/romanticpartnersbecomesincreasinglyimportantasaninfluence onattitudesand behaviours,especiallythose thatare health-related(Brown etal). It islikelythatthe social crowdmighthave a greaterimpacton smokinganddrug use for young adolescence,whilebestfriendsandpartnersplayagreaterrole lateron. Personality: Neuroticismandpsychoticism: Eysenck proposedabiologically-basedtheoryof personalitybased on 3 dimensions: Extraversion-introversion,where extravertsare chronicallyunder-arousedand boredand therefore seekexternal stimulationtoincrease theircortisol arousal. Neuroticism,where people highinneuroticismexperience negative andunstable emotions,highanxietyandatendency of lowmoods. Psychoticism,whichisrelatedtoemotionalcoldness,aggression,hostility,impatience and impulsivityassufferersreactwithlittleforethought. Francis supported Eysenck ashe founda linkbetweenaddictionandhighscoresonboth neuroticismandpsychoticismtests. Zuckerman supported Eysenck ashe foundthat individualshighinsensationseeking/extraversion have highsusceptibilitytoboredomandseeknovel experiences,whichwouldpredispose themto seekingahighfromaddiction.
3. 3. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction. Tri-dimensional theory: Clonigerproposed3 personalitytraitsthat predisposed individualstowards substance dependence: Noveltyseeking,where individualssearchfornew experiences(including drug taking). Harmavoidance,where individualsworryandare pessimistic. Rewarddependence, where the extenttowhichanindividuallearnsquicklyfromrewardingexperiencesandrepeats behavioursthathave beenrewarding. Mobile phone addiction: Takao etal lookedatpersonalityandproblemphone usage whichisan additive-like behaviour.Issuedquestionnairesto400 college studentsandfoundproblematicphone userstendedtobe lowinself-esteemandhighinself-monitoring(how people seeyou).Supports the viewthatpeople whoare addictsshare personalitytraits. Evaluation: Causality:one issue withthe conceptof anaddictive personalityrelatestothe fact thatresearchis correlational only.Certainpersonalitytraitsmaybe commonamongstaddicts,butthisdoesntmean theypredictaddictive behaviour.Evenif there isacausal relationship,the questioniswhetherthe personalitytraitorthe addictioncomesfirst. Teeson etal suggesteditisdifficulttodisentanglethe effectsof personalityonaddictionfromthe effectsof addictiononpersonality. Evidence forpersonalityasa cause:research has foundevidence inratsthatpersonalitycomesfirst. Belin et al placedrats ina device where theycouldself-administercocaine.One groupwere sensation-seekersandimmediatelystartedtakinglarge doses.A secondgroupwere highin impulsivenessandstartedwithlowerdosesbuttheywere the onesthatbecame addicted,notthe sensation-seekers. Impulsivityratherthansensation-seeking:ahumanstudysupported Belin et al. Weintraub et al assessedindividualssufferingfromParkinsonswhoare treatedwithdrugsthatincrease dopamine levelstocombatsymptoms.A side-effectisa3.5 foldincrease inimpulse-controldisorders (gambling/sex addiction).Suggeststhathighlevelsof dopamine leadtoimpulsivityandmaycause addiction. Role of dopamine: Buckholtzetal indicatedthataddictionsmaybe more rewardingorpeople with certainpersonalitytypesbecause those people have more hypersensitive dopamine response systems.Theyspeculatedthataheightenedresponsetoananticipated rewardcouldmake such individualslessfearfulaboutthe consequencesof theirbehaviour. Media Influence: Increased Media Usage: The increased importance of the mass media in society has impacted on opinions about addictive behaviours. The increased use of internet and TV, increased sales of celebrity magazines and the development of popular culture means we are bombarded with images that may influence our behaviours with respect to addiction. Celebrity endorsement of certain lifestyles may influence addictive behaviour amongst young people who are particularly vulnerable to the cult of celebrity and perceived glamour.
4. 4. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction. Media and addictive behaviour: Social LeaningTheory: Bandura suggeststhatwe may model ourbehaviouronthatof someone whomwe respect,or wouldlike tobe like,orwhoisinauthority.The mediacanact as a source of thisobservational learningbyprovidingmodelswhich teenagers mayseektocopy.Ittherefore followsthatexposuretomediamessagesaboutaddictive behaviourcanprovide direct reinforcementforwhetherornot a personrakespart inthose behaviours. Sulkunen lookedat140 (whichwasreducedto51) scenesfrom47 filmsthatportrayeddrugs, alcohol,nicotine,gamblingandsex.Foundthatmostof the films(America Beauty,Trainspotting, Human Traffic) tendedtofocusonthe positive effectsof addictions,the contrastof funand enjoymenttothe mundane nature of normal life andparental hypocrisy. Waylen lookedat360 topUS filmsbetween2001/2005, foundthat teenswhowatchedthe films involvingsmokingweremore likelytostartsmoking. Evenaftercontrollingforsocial factors (whetherparents/peerssmoked),stillfoundasignificantrelationships. Gunasakera etal lookedatthe 87 most popularfilmsof 1985-2005. Use of cannabisfeaturedin 8%, tobacco 68% and drunkenbehaviour32% of the films.Concludedthatportrayal tendedtobe positive andthe dangersof associatedbehaviourssuchasunprotectedsex were notconsidered. HOWEVER Boyd disagreesandbelievesthatfilmsdoconsiderthe negative effectsof addictions, listingphysical deterioration,prostitution, rape,theft,murderandmoral decline suchasstealing fromfriendsandfamily. Influence of media: Althoughpreviousstudiesconsiderthe actual portrayal,relativelyfew studiesconsiderthe extentto whichtheyinfluence attitudesandbehaviour. Sargentand Hanewinkel lookedatthe effectsof filmportrayal of smokingon4384 adolescents betweenthe agesof 11-15. Theyquestionedthematthe start andend(12 monthslater) of the study.Those hadtakenup smokinginthe interveningtime oftencitedthe influence of smokingin filmsasa contributoryfactor(self-report). Byrne filmsplayamajor role indeterminingourideasabouta range of topics,particularlythose we dontnormallyencounter.He believesthatfilmscreate outstereotypedview of whatitisto be an addict.He likensthistothe personsview of ECT,learnedthroughitsnegative portrayal inOne FlewOverThe CuckoosNest andnotits actual application. Media, creativity and drug use: There are casesof drug-use influencingthe media,notthe otherwayaround,mainlyfoundin popularmusic.]BrianWilson,the creative dudebehindthe BeachBoys,attributedmanyof hisideas to cannabis. Belli statedthatWilsonsaddictiondevelopedas a resultof hisstress/creatively,ashe feltmore creative high.The bandsfame came fromthe use of LSD, notcocaine,whichbecame a
5. 5. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction. self-medicaterwhichthe mediachangedfromarecreational use toanaddictionbecause of the stress. The BeatleswentthroughanLSD phase whichinfluencedwritinginlateralbumssuchasSergeant PeppersLonelyHeartsClubBand,Lucyinthe Sky withDiamondsandthe White Album. Some of John Lennonsworkwasprobablyinfluencedbyheroin.HistrackColdTurkeyonthe albumShavedFishwasabouthisexperiencescomingoff heroin. Role of media in changing addictive behaviour TV isan ideal mediumforsendingmessagesonalcohols,drugsandgamblingsdangers.Notonlyis it accessible,butitalsoallowscampaignstobe focusedatcertaingroup. Psstthe reallyuseful guideto alcohol 6 part BBC 30 minute TV seriesin1989. Bennettet al in 1991 concludedthatit increasedpeoplesawarenessof alcohol relatedissuesbuthadlittle orno impacton theirbehaviourof consumptionof alcohol. Drinkingless?Doityourself!:Krameretal assesseditseffectiveness,foundthatthe intervention groupwere more successful thana control at achievingaloweredrisklevel foralcoholism,which was maintainedfor3monthsafter. EVALUATION:the studyinvolvedaninterventiongroupthat watchedthe seriesanda control group onthe waitinglisttoreceive treatment.The intervention groupreceivedweeklyvisitsfromresearcherssothe extraattentionmayhave workedinfavourof positive outcomes.Also,the control groupknew theywere gettingthe treatment,somayhave postponeditsbehavioural chance,artificiallyinflatingthe magnitude of the differences. Frank: usedtoinformyoungpeople aboutthe dangersof taking drugs.RecentlyFrankhas introducedPablothe dogdrugmule.The ads are designedtodispel the myththatcocaine isa glamorousdrug. US drug campaignfailure: Mostevidence suggeststhatmostsimilar campaigns inthe pasthave failedtogetthe message across.Between1998-2004, $1 billionwasspentonUS anti-drug campaigns,whichseemedtofail: Johnston etal - suggestedmayhave actuallyincreasedcannabisuse (inferredthateveryone butyou was doingdrugs so everyone started). Hornik et al suggested,givenall the anti-drugmessageswhichUSyouthsare exposedtoo,andthe fact that the message inthe campaignwasnot novel,itisunsurprisingiseffectswere minimal. The US Office of Substance Abuse Protection - hasgivenguidelinesforwhatfilmsshouldshow and howto presentdrugs.Theyshouldshow addictsnegatively,show harmful effectsandnevershow and recreationaldruguse.