Lingua Franca

Lingua franca (or working language, bridge language, vehicular language) is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue.

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Vernacular

• A vernacular is the native language or native dialect of a specific population, as opposed to a language of wider communication that is a second language or foreign language to the population, such as a national language, standard language, or lingua franca.

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PIDGIN (Tok Pisin-Papua new Guinea)

A pidgin or pidgin language, is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common

At first a pidgin language has no native speakers, and is used just for doing business with others with whom one shares the pidgin language and no other. In time, most pidgin languages disappear, as the pidgin-speaking community develops, and one of its established languages becomes widely known and takes over the role of the pidgin as the lingua franca, or language of choice of those who do not share a native language."(Grover Hudson, Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell, 2000)

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• Hello. Gude. (goo-DAY)

• Thank you. Tenkyu. (TENK-yoo) • You're welcome. Nogat samting. (NO-gaht sahm-ting)

• Excuse me. (begging pardon) Skius. (skyooz) • I'm [very] sorry. Mi sori [tumas]. (mee SOH-ree [too-

MAHS])• Goodbye Gutbai. (GOOT-bigh.)

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Creole

• creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages

• A creole comes into being when children are born into a pidgin-speaking environment and acquire the pidgin as a first language. What we know about the history and origins of existing creoles suggests that this may happen at any stage in the development of a pidgin."(Mark Sebba, Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles. Palgrave Macmillan, 1997)

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CREOLE SAMPLES

English- Portuguese creole• a.mo pe aste sa banan

b. de bin alde luk dat big tric. a waka go a wosud. olmaan i kas-im cheke. li pote sa bay mof. ja fruher wir bleibeng. dis smol swain i bin go fo maket

• a.I am buying the bananab.they always looked for a big treec.he walked homed.the old man is cashing a checke.he brought that for mef.Yes at first we remainedg.this little pig went to market

Conclusion

• Pidgin language is the language of a mixture of two or more languages that form can not be categorized into one of the original language. Pidgin languages are temporary because there is no native speaker. Used in markets, trading centers and others which are visited by native language

• Creole language is a pidgin language which is accepted as the original language that already has-native speakers and it can be said is the mother tongue or first language to a group

fundamental views about Language• Children learn their native language swiftly,

efficiently and without instruction.

• Language operates by rules.

• All languages have three major components:a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.

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3. The theory of Language

Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty (kecakapan/kemampuan) of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)

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What is Language?

• Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students on the basis of notes taken from Saussure's lectures in Geneva, they are:

Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye

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“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”

--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)

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“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”

--Noam Chomsky (1928): Syntactic Structures (1957)

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“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)

“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)

“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)

Language is “the institution (adat/kebiasaan) whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)

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Language Definition:

“Language is a set of system as means of verbal communication.”

It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.

It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.

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4.1 The “bow-wow” theory• In primitive times people imitated the sounds

of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. – Onomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient

evidence for this theory. But they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds.

• This theory lacks supportive evidence.

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4. Origin of language

4.2 The “pooh-pooh” theory• In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter

instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections.

– What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages.

– Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, Oops bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.

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4.3 The “yo-he-ho” theory• As primitive people worked together,

they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.

– We do have prosodic (is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech) use of rhythms in languages, but rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.

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• The by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future.

• One thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.

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5. Functions of language • Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract

sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.

• They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.

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• For Jakobson, language is above all for communication. • While for many people, the purpose of

communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.

In conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: 1. Expressive/emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),2. Conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and

requests), 3. Referential (to convey message and information),4. Poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),5. Phatic (to establish communion with others)6. metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).

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5.1 Emotive/Expressive function

“If an utterance is primarily oriented toward the speaker”

• The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others. – For example, a man may say Ouch! after striking a fingernail

with a hammer, or he may mutter Damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment.

– Exclamations such as Man! Oh boy! and Hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbal response to a person's own feelings.

– Another example: God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. 22

5.2 Conative function

• “If an utterance is primarily oriented toward the addressee”

• The principal one would be questions or commands, as they are focused mainly on the addressee, or vocatives.

• Example: Hey! Rudy.

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5.3 Referential function

• “If an utterance is oriented largely toward a third person, toward the context, or towards events”

• Example: Nepal is sandwiched between India and China

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5.4 Poetic function

• “If the utterance is oriented primarily toward itself-when it somehow calls attention to the very sounds and patterns that are used in its articulation”

• The everyday speech that involves rhymes, alliteration, repetition, parallelism, or other sort of playing around with the sound or structure of words.

• Example: I don’t want to hear you, I don’t want to see you, I don’t want to know you!

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5.5 Phatic communion “If the utterance is oriented primarily toward the channel that carries it, whether the cannel is social or physical”• Phatic communion refers to the social

interaction of language, • Example: Hi, how are you?

Fine, thanks!

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Mrs. P sneezes violently.

Mrs. Q: Bless you. Mrs. P: Thank you.

• We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.

– Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of communication is open if it should be needed.

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5.6 Metalingual function

• “If the utterance is oriented primarily toward language itself, or Our language can be used to talk about itself”

• In Chaer (1995:21) Language can explain the rules of language, the process of learning language.

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• For instance, instead of saying – The lion chased the unicorn all round the town,

• they say – All around the town the lion chased the unicorn.

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• This is the metalingual function of language and meshes with the thematic function of language in functional grammar.– It makes the language infinitely self-

reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.

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General Function of Language• As social tools to communicate

Functions of language in social interaction:

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Advice Command Comparison

Expression of Feeling greeting Information

Instruction Invitation Offer

Opinion Persuasion Praise

Request Transmission of Culture

Warning

Case to discuss

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Below is a list of utterances. Next to each one, write one or more functions that it performs. The previous slide provides some suggestions of functions to help you, but you may not need to use them all and, of course, you can use your own ideas. The first is given as an example. No Utterance Function

1. Come and eat ! Invitation, command, request (any idea?)

2. Good morning, class.

3. Indonesia was unlucky to lose Timor-Timur

4. David Beckham scored a spectacular goal.

5. Nyepi is Balinese day which is celebrated every year.

6. Protective glasses should be worn all the time.

7. DANGER! Live wires.

8. We’re so happy!

9. After you shake hands with the King of Tonga, go down on one knee and clap-this is called ‘cobo’.

10. Buy SCRUB washing powder for the cleanest clothes in Daily mart.