Chapter 6:Chapter 6:

Conditioning and Conditioning and LearningLearning

What is What is Learning?Learning?

A Relatively Permanent Change in A Relatively Permanent Change in Behavior as the Result of Practice Behavior as the Result of Practice or Experienceor Experience..Learning is only through observation.Learning is only through observation.Psychologists main concern is Psychologists main concern is conditioning.conditioning.Limits to LearningLimits to LearningThe Limitations of the OrganismThe Limitations of the Organism1. Biological Predispositions1. Biological PredispositionsNo activity can be learned that the No activity can be learned that the organism can’t & doesn’t have the organism can’t & doesn’t have the capacity to learn.capacity to learn.2. Learning Experiences2. Learning ExperiencesHuman ChoiceHuman ChoiceIgnoranceIgnorance

Types of LearningTypes of LearningAssociative Learning• Two types:Two types:

– Classical Conditioning

– Operant Conditioning

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s Conditioning Experiments

Conditioned the Salivation Response in DogsConditioned the Salivation Response in Dogs

The Pairing of Stimuli over TimeThe Pairing of Stimuli over Time

Pavlov’s ExperimentPavlov’s ExperimentThe natural The natural response is:response is:UCS > UCRUCS > UCRPaired the CS Paired the CS (NS) with the (NS) with the UCS and got the UCS and got the UCRUCRAfter enough After enough pairings the CS pairings the CS or NS produced or NS produced the CRthe CRRepeated pairings over time establishes Repeated pairings over time establishes responses.responses.

Elements of Classical ConditioningElements of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Conditioning (Neutral) Stimulus (CS Conditioning (Neutral) Stimulus (CS or NS)or NS)

Conditioned Response (CR)Conditioned Response (CR)When enough pairings of the UCS & CS occur, this response is When enough pairings of the UCS & CS occur, this response is created.created.

Classical Conditioning uses pre-existing natural responses (e.g. Classical Conditioning uses pre-existing natural responses (e.g. reflexes) and makes them respond on cue.reflexes) and makes them respond on cue.

The Classical Conditioning The Classical Conditioning ProcessProcess

Important TermsImportant TermsStimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization

Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus Discrimination

Extinction (Extinguishing)Extinction (Extinguishing)

Secondary ReinforcementSecondary Reinforcement

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

SuperstitionSuperstition

Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Conditioned Conditioned Emotional Emotional ResponsesResponses – Learned FearsLearned Fears

• Phobia– Intense, unrealistic,

irrational fear of a specific situation or object

• Conditioned Emotional Response

– Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus

– Amygdala becomes more active; produces feelings of fear

• Conditioned Conditioned Emotional Emotional Responses Responses (con’t)(con’t)– DesensitizationDesensitization

• Therapy for CERs• Exposes phobic people

gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

• Hunger PangsHunger Pangs• T-cell ResponseT-cell Response

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningJ.B Watson & B.F. J.B Watson & B.F. SkinnerSkinnerThe Main Law of The Main Law of Behavioristic Behavioristic Psychology:Psychology:What you reinforce, you’re What you reinforce, you’re going to get more of.going to get more of.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Rewards increase a rewarded Rewards increase a rewarded responseresponseCreates a C/E relationship in the Creates a C/E relationship in the environmentenvironment

Operant Conditioning• Response-Response-

Contingent Contingent Reinforcement:Reinforcement:– Reinforcement Reinforcement

given only when given only when a particular a particular response occursresponse occurs

– We learn to We learn to expect that a expect that a certain response certain response will have a will have a certain effect at certain effect at certain timescertain times

Shaping Shaping BehaviorBehavior

Use of Successive Use of Successive ApproximationsApproximations8 Steps:8 Steps:

1.1. Decide on the goalDecide on the goal2.2. Decide which behaviors Decide which behaviors

there are to build fromthere are to build from3.3. Decide on a reinforcerDecide on a reinforcer4.4. Plan the programPlan the program5.5. Begin the programBegin the program6.6. Decide when to shift Decide when to shift

criteria for reinforcementcriteria for reinforcement7.7. If the program is lost, go If the program is lost, go

to an earlier step or add to an earlier step or add a new one and go ona new one and go on

8.8. Continue to the goalContinue to the goal

ReinforcementReinforcementIncreases The Increases The Strength of a Strength of a ResponseResponse

Primary & Primary & Secondary Secondary ReinforcementReinforcement

Positive & Negative Positive & Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

Reinforcement ProceduresReinforcement Procedures

Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules1. Continuous Reinforcement1. Continuous Reinforcement

2. PartialReinforcement

2. PartialReinforcement

Ratio(Number)

Ratio(Number)

Interval(Time)

Interval(Time)

Fixed RatioFixed Ratio Variable RatioVariable Ratio Fixed IntervalFixed Interval Variable IntervalVariable Interval

PunishmentPunishmentThe use of anything that will decrease the strength of a responseUsed to stop a behavior

Conditions for Punishment to work:It must be quick, appropriate, & useful.

Doesn’t work as well as reinforcementCan produce Learned Helplessness

Comparing Classical & Operant Comparing Classical & Operant ConditioningConditioning

Reinforcement is important in bothReinforcement is important in both

Classical Classical Operant Operant Reward Response Reward

In Classical, a C/E relationship must be established between the UCS & CS (NS)

In Operant, reinforcement schedules make the response resistant to extinction

Non-rewarding produces extinction in both

Spontaneous recovery can occur even after an appropriate response has been established

Stimulus generalization & stimulus discriminationStimulus generalization & stimulus discriminationOccur in both

New learning can be based on old learningNew learning can be based on old learningAssimilation – fitting new information into what is already known

Accommodation – refining the data into the current schema

Cognitive Learning• Higher-level

learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipationLooks at the thinking processes underlying learning

Cognitive Maps• Internal

representation of an area, like a city or a maze;

• Underlies ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal

Latent Learning

• Occurs without obvious reinforcement

• Not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided

• Related to higher abilities, such as anticipation

Imitation & ModelingImitation & Modeling

• Also called Also called observational learning observational learning (Albert Bandura)(Albert Bandura)

• Occurs two ways:Occurs two ways:– by watching and by watching and

imitating actions of imitating actions of another person another person

– by noting consequences by noting consequences of a person’s actionsof a person’s actions

• Occurs before direct Occurs before direct practice is allowedpractice is allowed

• Allows skipping of trial-Allows skipping of trial-and-error learningand-error learning

Modeling and the Media• All media provides

opportunities for imitation– Pro wrestling, rap Pro wrestling, rap

music, video gamesmusic, video games

• Typical TV viewers are exposed to a massive dose of media violence – Tends to promote Tends to promote

observational observational learning of learning of aggressionaggression

– Links between Links between aggressive TV and aggressive TV and aggressive behavioraggressive behavior

Modeling and the Media• Media violence does not “cause”

aggression, but makes it more likely, especially if children

• Believe aggression is acceptable problem-solving

• TV violence is realistic• Identify with TV characters • Don’t realize that TV stories and characters

are fantasies

• Video games may desensitize players to violence and allow them to practice violence against other people.