Oceania

African Art and Architecture

The Influence of Tribal Cultures on Western Art

The South Pacific

• Benin• Asante• Yoruba• Senufo• Mende• Kuba• Samburu• Igbo

Australia

AFRICA

• Melanesia• Polynesia• Micronesia

PART ONE - Oceania

• Oceania encompasses the people indigenous to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.

• The area is often broken down into four separate regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Australia, and Melanesia.

Island Cultures of the South PacificThis exquisite and exceedingly rare sculpture, discovered in a cave in the early 1960s, was made more than 3500 years ago and is one of the earliest known Pacific works of art.

Enga people, Papua New GuineaThe Ambum stone

[Pre-historic zoomorphic figure, possibly representing the embryo

of a long-beaked echidna] 3500 years ago

National Gallery of Australia

• Melanesia includes New Guinea, the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and the Fijian Islands.

• The art forms of Melanesia suggest a variety of historical overlays of styles and symbolism.

• Their cults and art forms address a host of legendary ancestral and nature spirits.

• Made in only a limited area of the Asmat region, bis poles were, and are, created as the focal points of a memorial feast honoring individuals who have recently died and become ancestors.

• Each figure on the poles represents and is named for a specific deceased individual.

Bis Pole, late 1950s; Asmat people, Omadesep village, New Guinea, Papua (Irian Jaya) Province, Indonesia; Wood, paint, fiber;

H. 216 in. (548.6 cm)

• By 1500, the first European explorers reached Oceania.

• Although previous artistic and architectural traditions continued, the various regions began to diverge and record more distinct cultures.

MELANESIA: Ceremonial Men's House, Papua, New Guinea.

The ceremonial Men's House is the sacred dwelling of the initiated men and of the spirits.

This kind of building is found in many cultures of Oceania, but those of the Middle Sepik are the most elaborate from an aesthetic viewpoint.

Called tambaran, these constructions can reach 25 meters in length and exceed 18 meters in height.

Carved Traditional Maori Figure, called Poupou, supporting the overhead rafters of this meeting house.

• The house itself symbolizes male and female generative and fertility notions.

• Inside, initiates undergo special instruction in all aspects of their roles as adult males in their society.

The AbelamPapua New Guinea

The Oceanic art relates not only to fundamental spiritual beliefs but also to basic subsistence is highlighted by the yam mask produced by the Abelam people, agriculturists living by the Sepik River.

Yam mask, Abelam, Papua New Guinea.

The Asmat - Irian Jaya – New Guinea

In contrast with the Abelam, with their relatively peaceful agricultural pursuits, the Asmat face a much harsher life. To restore the balance of spirit power, an enemy's head had to be taken to avenge a death and to add to one's communal spirit power. Head –hunting was effectively abandoned by the 1960's.

Asmat, Human Ancestor Skull – Asmat attach jeathers, seeds, and carved sea shell nose rings to their ancestors skulls. This is Not a trophy skull!

Bisj Poles

When they still practiced head-hunting, the Asmat erected bisj poles that served to avenge a relative's death. Carved from the trunk of the mangrove tree, bisj poles included superimposed figures of individuals who had died.

Bisj poles can be erected as an act of revenge, to pay homage to the ancestors, to calm the spirits of the deceased and to bring harmony and spiritual strength to the community.

The Trobriand Islands - Papua New Guinea

Kiwai outrigger canoes had a protective splashboard called gope carved with a human face. The term gope is used in different areas of the Papuan Gulf to mean bull-roarers, ancestor boards, skull racks and human sacrifices.Gope is commonly used outside of the Gulf to refer to all ancestor/spirit boards.

Large ancestor board with bold design.

The Elema - Papua New Guinea

Central to the culture of the Elema people of Orokolo Bay in the Papuan Gulf was Hevehe, an elaborate cycle of ceremonial activities. Conceptualized as the mythical visitation of the water spirits (ma-hevehe). The Hevehe cycle involved the production and presentation of large, ornate masks (also called hevehe). The Elema held ceremonies to initiate male youths into higher ranks.

Hevehe masks retreating into the eravo (men's house), Elema, Orokolo Bay, Papua New Guinea.

Trobriand Islands

Because of the isolation imposed by their island existence the Trobriand Islanders had to undertake potentially dangerous voyages to participate in kula (an exchange of white conus-shell arm ornaments for red chama-shell necklaces) trading. The Trobrianders lavish a great deal of effort on decorating their large canoes.

This splashboard (lagim) and prow (tabuya) is from an ocean going Kula ceremonial canoe

from the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea. It was field collected from the village

of Okabulla #1 on the island of Kitava in 1987.

New Ireland - Papua New Guinea

Mortuary rites and memorial festivals are a central concern of the Austronesian-speaking peoples who live in the northern section of the island of New Ireland in Papua New Guinea. The term malanggan refers to both the festivals held in honor of the deceased and the carvings and objects produced for these festivals. Among the many Malanggan carvings produced – masks, figures, poles, friezes, and ornaments – are tatanua masks.Tatanua represent the spirits of specific deceased people.

Helmet mask (tatanua) from New Ireland province, Papua New Guinea, 19th century CE. British Museum

MICRONESIA

•The Austronesian-speaking cultures of Micronesia and related Polynesian outlying islands in Micronesia and Melanesia tend to stratify more than the non-Austronesian cultures in New Guinea and other Melanesian areas.

• They are frequently organized around chieftainships with craft and ritual specializations, and their religions include named deities as well as honored ancestors.

• Characteristics such as simplification and geometric abstraction of natural forms often differentiate Micronesian art from the arts of Melanesia, Polynesia, and Australia.

Belau Art -Caroline IslandsThe Belau islanders create elaborately painted men's ceremonial clubhouses called bai. On a recently constructed example, the gable "storyboards" illustrate important historical events and myths related to the clan. Other elements on the façade include symbols and images of Belau deities. While the Abelam and Iatmul make their ceremonial houses by elaborate combinations of different materials, the Belau use joined wooden elements.

Bai (men's ceremonial house), Belau (Palau), Republic of Belau. Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.

Dilukai, Belau (Palau). Wood, pigment, fiber, 1' 11 5/8" high.

Linden Museum, Stuttgart.

Although the bai was the domain of men, women figured prominently in the imagery that covered it. This reality reveals the important symbolic and social positions that women held in this culture. Serving as a symbol of both protection and fertility, the Dilukai was also a moralistic reminder to women to be chaste.

Seafaring protection

Given the importance of seafaring and long-distance ocean travel in Micronesia, canoe building acquired a prominent position in Micronesian art and culture. This canoe prow ornament was intended to provide protection on arduous or long voyages.

Canoe prow ornament Chuuk, Caroline Islands. Wood, paint.

British Museum, London.

POLYNESIA

• The inhabitants of Polynesia brought complex sociopolitical and religious institutions with them.

• Polynesian societies typically are aristocratic, with ritual specialists and chiefs heading elaborate political organizations.

Staff God of Raratonga

It illustrates the effects of European contact on indigenous forms of worship - the knowledge of the actual use and symbolism of rakau atua has been lost through the generations since European colonisation, but rakau atua are thought to represent the hierarchical line of descent of male ancestors, similar to genealogy staffs produced by Māori; however others feel they depict a famous historical figure named Tangiia, with the staff representing his deified ancestry.

This is the carved upper section of a Rarotongan rakau atua (staff god), dating from about 1800.

Beaten Cloth

In addition to figural sculptures, Polynesians make decorative barkcloth (tapa), one of the major art forms by Polynesian women. Barkcloth plays a crucial role in society as clothing, bedding, and gift articles.

Decorated barkcloth from the South Seas archipelago

MELE SITANI, decorated barkcloth (ngatu) with two-bird (manulua) designs, Tonga, 1967.

Marquesas Islands

Among the items produced by Marquesan artists were ornaments that often adorned the hair of warriors. Among the items produced were hollow, cylindrical bone or ivory ornaments (ivi p'o) that functioned as protective amulets and were worn until the death of a kinsman was avenged.

Hair ornaments, Marquesas Islands. Bone, 2 3/4" high.

Body Art

Polynesian nobles and warriors accumulated various tattoo patterns to increase their status, mana, and personal beauty. An engraving illustrates a Marquesan warrior covered with elaborate tattoo patterns, which seem to accentuate different areas.

Tattooed warrior with war club, Nukahiva, Marquesas Islands, nineteenth

century. Engraving.

Deity images from Rarotonga and Mangaia in the Cook Islands and from Rurutu in the Austral Islands have multiple figures attached to their bodies.Contemporary Rurutuans explain that the exterior figures correspond to the kinship groups that make up their society, and propose a number of theories about the relationship between the figure and Christianity. It is carved from hardwood, probably from pua.

Carved wooden figure known as A’a from Rurutu, Austral Islands, French Polynesia, Pacific Ocean, Late 18th century CE.

British Museum

Rapa Nui- Easter Island

The moai - stone sculptures found on the island of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) - provide a contrast These monumental sculptures, some soaring to heights of up to 40 feet, stand on stone platforms. These platforms marked burial sites or were used for religious ceremonies.

Moai (statues), Anakena, Rapanui (Easter Island). Stone.

Hawaii

The Hawaiians developed the most highly stratified social structure in the Pacific.Because perpetuation of the social structure was crucial to social stability, most of the material culture produced (before American control) in Hawaii was intended to visualize and reinforce the hierarchy. Chiefly regalia was prominent part of artistic production.

‘Ahu‘ula (feather cloak),

from Hawaii. Red ‘i‘iwi,

yellow ‘o‘o, and black

feathers, olona cordage and netting. 4' 8

1/3" x 8'. Bishop Pauahi

Museum, Honolulu.

Hawaiian temple image

The Hawaiians placed deities such as this image of the war god Kukailimoku in semicircular rows within an enclosed temple area (heiau). Although styles differ in the various islands, the figures share a tendency toward athleticism and expressive defiance.This image probably represents Ku, in his aspect as Kuka'ilimoku, the 'snatcher of land'. King Kamehameha I (reigned 1795-1819) adopted him as his personal god, and it is likely that this figure was carved during his reign. Typically, it is carved from one piece of wood, including the support post.

Kukai‘limoku (war god), temple image, from Hawaii. Wood, 2' 5 3/4" high (figure only). British Museum, London.

• The Aboriginal peoples of Australia traditionally had a special relationship with the land, developed primarily by hunting and gathering. Most objects the Aborigines make for ceremonial use symbolically link them with a mythological place of origin.

• Many art forms serve as essential props in dramatic re-creations of creation myths.

AUSTRALIA

Australia

The Aboriginal peoples of Australia traditionally had a special relationship with the land, developed primarily by hunting and gathering. Most objects the Aborigines make for ceremonial use symbolically link them with a mythological place of origin. Many art forms serve as essential props in dramatic re-creations of creation myths. Auuenau Western Arnhem Land, Australia 1913

ochre on bark 4 ft. 10 2/3 in. x 1 ft. 1 in.

Images of Dreaming

This painting depicts a black kangaroo and hunter in the X-ray style of western Arnhem Land. The artist simultaneously depicts the subject's interior and exterior in a fluid, dynamic style.

This type of bark painting probably served as a magical aid in hunting, as well as to teach youths about hunting practices and mythology.

Oceanic Art TodayMany of the traditional arts of Oceania are not practiced today, for they no longer have critical roles insuring cultural continuity and survival. Yet, in several places, these arts have been revitalized. New cultural awareness has led artists to express their inherited values in a resurgence of traditional arts.One example is the school of New Zealand artists who draw on their Maori heritage for inspiration. Historic Maori woodcarving reemerges in Cliff Whiting's artworks designed for a modern environment, which depicts the Maori creation myth, uniting native tradition with modernist design.

Cliff Whiting b.1936 Te Whanau a Apanui “Korero” 1965, Bas relief carving

PART TWO - Africa

San Art (South Africa)

While rock paintings are among the most ancient arts of Africa, the tradition continued well into the historical period. The latest examples were completed as recently as the 19th century, and some of these depict the presence of Europeans.

Stock raid with cattle, horses, encampment, and magical "rain animal," rock painting, San, Bamboo Mountain, South Africa, mid-19th century. Pigments on rock, approx. 8' long. Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg.

Fang and "Kota" art (Cameroon and Gabon)

Many reliquary garden figures made by Fang and several other peoples just south of the equator and the large "power images" of the Kongo people who live father south in the basin of the great Congo (formerly Zaire) River can be assigned to the 19th century.

Ngumba group, Fang peoples, Cameroon, 19th—20th century; Wood, copper alloy H. 21 1/2 in (54.6 cm)Collection of Jack Naiman

The northern Fang origin of this figure is exemplified by the extremely long torso, bulbous forearms

and calves, and the application of copper-alloy strips

In some areas, ancestor veneration takes material from as collections of cranial and other bones gathered in special containers. Among both the Fang of Cameroon and several other peoples (often referred to as "Kota") in neighboring areas, these relic containers were protected by stylized human figures. The so-called "Kota" reliquary guardian figures (called mbulu ngulu) from Gabon, have a severely stylized body in the form of an open lozenge below a wooden head covered with strips and sheets of polished copper and brass to repel evil.

Reliquary guardian figure (mbulu-ngulu), "Kota," Gabon, 19th or early 20th century. Wood, copper,

iron, and brass, 1' 9 1/16" high. Barbier-Mueller Museum, Geneva.

Kalibari Ijaw - Nigeria

The hierarchical composition and the stylized human anatomy and facial features in this Kalabari ancestral screen are common in African art, but the shrine's complexity is exceptional.

Ancestral screenKalabari Ijaw, Nigeria, late 19th

century, wood, fiber, cloth, 3' 9" tall

Bamun - Cameroon

King Nsangu's throne features luminous beads and shells and richly colored textiles. The decoration includes intertwining serpents, male and female retainers, and bodyguards with European rifles.

Throne and footstool of King NsanguBamum, Cameroon, ca. 1870, wood,

textile, glass beads, cowrie shells, 5' 9" high

Fon – Republic of Benin

This bocio, or empowerment figure, probably representing the war god Gu, was the centerpiece of a circle of iron swords. The Fon believed it protected their king, and they set it up on the battlefield.

Warrior Figure (Possibly War god Gu)

by Akati Akpele Kendo, Abomey, Fon, Republic of Benin, 1858 1859, iron, 5' 5" high‐

Yombe- Kongo

The mother in this Yombe group wears a royal cap and jewelry and displays her chest scarification.

The image may commemorate an ancestor or a legendary founding clan mother.

Yombe mother and childKongo, Democratic Republic of Congo, late 19th

century, wood, glass, glass beads, brass tacks, and pigment, 10" high

Nkisi N’Kondi - Kongo

Only priests using ritual formulas could consecrate Kongo power figures, which embody spirits that can heal or inflict harm. The statue has simplified anatomical forms and a very large head.

Nail figure, Kongo, from Shiloango River area, Democratic Republic of Congo, ca. 1875 1900, wood, nails, blades, ‐

medicinal materials, cowrie shell, 3' 10 ¾" high

Dogon - Mali

This Dogon carving of a linked man and woman documents gender roles in traditional African society. The protective man wears a quiver on his back. The nurturing woman carries a child on hers.

Seated Couple, Dogon, Mali, ca. 1800 1850, wood, 2' 4" high‐

Baule – Ivory Coast

In contrast to the Dogon couple, this pair includes many naturalistic aspects of human anatomy, but the sculptorenlarged the necks, calves, and heads, a form of idealization in Baule culture.

Male and female figuresBaule, Ivory Coast, late 19th or early 20th century,

wood, beads, and kaolin, approx. 1' 9" high

Benin - Nigeria

This shrine to the heads of royal ancestors is an assemblage of varied materials, objects, and symbols. By sacrificing animals at this site, the Benin king annually invokes the collective strength of his ancestors.

Royal Ancestral Altar (of Benin King Eweka II)photographed 1970, Benin, Nigeria, clay, copper, alloy, wood, and ivory

Asante - Ghana

Osei Bonsu was one of Africa's leading sculptors. This figure, carried by women hoping to conceive a child, has a flattened face and crosshatched eyebrows, typical of the artist's style.

Akua'ba, by Osei Bonsu, Asante, Ghana, ca. 1935, wood, beads,

and pigment, 10 ¼" high

Asante - Ghana

Osei Bonsu carved this gold covered wooden ‐linguist's staff for someone who could speak for the Asante king. At the top are two men sitting at a table of food—a metaphor for the office of the king.

Linguist's staffby Osei Bonsu, Asante, Ghana,

mid 20th century, wood and gold ‐leaf, approx. 10" high

Yoruba - Nigeria

Olowe carved this post when Europeans had already become familiar among Yoruba peoples. He subtly recorded this colonialism in the European cap of one of the men supporting the equestrian warrior.

Veranda post by Olowe of IseYoruba, Nigeria, 1920's, wood and pigment,

approx. 14' 6" high

Senufo - Ivory Coast

Senufo masqueraders are always men. Their masks often represent composite creatures that incarnate both ancestors and bush powers. They fight malevolent spirits with their aggressively powerful forms.

Senufo masqueraderIvory Coast, photographed ca. 1980 1990‐

Senufo – Ivory Coast

Some Senufo men dance female masks like this one with a hornbill bird rising from the forehead. The female characters are sometimes the wives of the terrorizing male masks.

Dance Mask ("Beautiful Lady")Senufo, Ivory Coast, late 20th century, wood,

approx. 1' high

Dogon - Mali

Satimbe ("sister on the head") masks commemorate the legend describing women as the first masqueraders.The mask's crown is a woman with large breasts and sticklike bent arms.

Satimbe masqueraderDogon, Mali, mid to late 20th century, wood‐

Mende – Sierra Leone

This Mende mask refers to ideals of female beauty, morality, and behavior. The large forehead signifies wisdom, the neck design beauty and health, and the plaited hair the order of ideal households.

Female mask, Mende, Sierra Leone, 20th C.wood / pigment, 1' 2 ½" high

Kuba – Democratic Republic of Congo

At Kuba festivals, masqueraders reenact creation legends involving Bwoom, Mwashamboy, and Ngady Amwaash. The first two are males who vie for the attention of Ngady, the first female ancestor.

Bwoom masqueraderKuba, Democratic Republic of

Congo, photographed ca. 1950

Kuba – Democratic Republic of Congo

Ngady's mask incorporates beads, shells, and feathers in geometric patterns. The stripes on her cheeks are tears from the pain of childbirth after incest with her father, represented by the Mwashamboy mask.

Ngady Amwaash mask, Kuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, late 19th or early 20th century

Kuba – Democratic Republic of Congo

Eagle feathers, leopard skin, cowrie shells, imported beads, raffia, and other materials combine to make the Kuba king larger than life.

He is a collage of wealth, dignity, and military might.

Kuba King Kot a Mbweeky III‐Mushenge, Democratic Republic of Congo,

photographed in 1970

Igbo - Nigeria

Men and women in many rural areas of Africa embellish themselves with elaborate hairstyles, painted bodies, and beaded jewelry. This personal decoration reveals age, marital status, and parentage.

Samburu men and women dancing northern Kenya, ca. 1973

Igbo - Nigeria

The Igbo erect mud mbari houses to the earth goddess Ala. The painted statues inside this one represent Ala in traditional dress with body paint and the thunder god Amadioha in modern dress.

Ala and Amadioha, painted clay, Igbo, Umugote Orishaeze, Nigeria,

photographed in 1966

Dogon - Mali

Dogon men hold their communal deliberations in togu na. The posts of this one are of varied date. The oldest have traditional carvings, and the newest feature polychrome narrative or topical paintings.

Togu na (men's house of words) Dogon, Mali, photographed in 1989, wood and pigment

The past 50 to 100 years have witnessed many changes to the forms, functions, and meaning of African arts.