Attracting Gold Collar Workers

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Attracting Gold Collar

Workers: Comparing

Organizational

Attractiveness and Work

Related Values across

Generations in China, India

and Thailand

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Abstract

This study aims to develop our understanding of how generational differences in work related values interact with those attributed to a national culture by investigating workers’ perception of organizational attractiveness in India, China and Thailand. The results show significant differences both between different generations within cultures as well as between the same generations across cultures. By developing an impression of cultural and generational value sets from the ground up we hope to have captured the current state of the acculturation processes in those countries, which may be useful for similar studies as well as to help HR managers in making specific recommendations regarding their recruitment and talent development initiatives in that part of the world.

Key words: cross-cultural; cross-generational; gold collar workers; organizational attractiveness; motivation; talent recruitment.

Word Count: 7593

IntroductionIn an increasingly connected world, there is a greater need for

international organizations to understand multi-cultural and multi-generational environments in which they operate. Despite globalisation’s recent setbacks and another round of bad press, organizations’ belief in the efficiencies of globalized production and supply chain has remained strong (Wijen, Zoeteman, Pieters and van Seters, 2012).





With a new trend to move more knowledge intensive processes abroad and the growth of knowledge intensive industries in the developing world there is pressure on HR departments of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) to come up with effective strategies to secure access to valuable sources of new talent on foreign soil. According to Wijen et al. (2012), this search for human assets is confronted with three new social and cultural developments: first, the rise of a well-educated, aspiring middle class in most countries of the developing world whose members are becoming more discerning in regards to how they see their working life and who they want to work for. Second, growing cross-cultural interchange of fashions, values and ideas facilitated by the spread of the free-market, global media and the internet has created a complex set of hybrid cultural identities within what was once thought distinct and homogenous national cultures. Finally, besides the increasing multi-cultural work environment, our global workforce is ageing. By the year 2030, the elderly in the developed world will amount to almost 25 percent of the population (Watson Wyatt 2010). Overall, the developing world will remain much younger for the foreseeable future. However, it too is ageing as many major countries in East Asia – including China, Taiwan, Singapore and both Koreas – are projected to approach the developed world’s levels of old-age dependency by the middle of the next century (Watson Wyatt 2010). Multi-cultural environments combined with multi-generational workforce represent and, of course, multiply the difficulties facing tomorrow’s global leaders and human resource managers.

This is why it is becoming of critical importance for HR managers of MNCs to appreciate the local cultural environment within which they have come to operate as well as to understand





differences between demographic groups within the host communities. This is necessary for the development of appropriate recruitment and career management practices which, by addressing the current values, attitudes and concerns of their prospective and existing employees, will make an organization’s appeal as an employer of choice much stronger, leading to its higher share of the limited talent pool and a lower turnover (Ma and Allen 2009, Cerdin and Bird 2007). To make such strategies and practices effective they need to be based on evidence relevant to the organization’s current theatre of operation. This calls for cross-cultural research which is attuned to ever changing cultural and demographic make-up of particular countries and regions, and is more grounded in the actual emergent and culturally situated set of value based judgements, attitudes and perceptions rather than importing categorising schemes and conceptualizations developed elsewhere or relying on results of studies whose transferability to other cultures have not been investigated (Herriot and Anderson 1997).

Under these circumstances, the relevance and purposes of this research lies in trying to tap into a cultural and generational make up of India, China and Thailand in order to explore some of the underlying work related values that may currently play a role in employee’s choice of the organization they wish to work for. While acknowledging internal diversity within those distinct cultures and generational groups we aim for a level of generalization that affords a level of practical utility for those within HR community that can find such findings meaningful and useful.

This study will first identify the most attractive organizational characteristics as viewed by employees of different generations,





known as: Baby Boomers (born between 1946-1965), Generation X (born between 1966-1979), and Generation Y (born between 1980-1999) in three different countries, China, India, and Thailand. Second, we will explore similarities and differences in terms of desired work attributes between these generations within and across the three countries. To achieve those two objectives, the study will, first, review previous research on the relevance of employees’ values, cross-cultural categorization and comparison, and on generations. A summary of the selected generations’ characteristics, beliefs, and values for the three countries will be presented.

Literature ReviewGold-collar workers

Coined by Kelley in 1985, the term gold collar worker (GCW) was first used to describe knowledge workers at peak performance, who demand special perks along with high pay. Wonacott (2007) describes GCWs as being high in problem-solving abilities, creativity, talent, and intelligence; who perform non-repetitive and complex work that is difficult to evaluate; and who prefer self-management. Contrasting them to the older blue/white collar distinction, Kelley (1990) made the distinction on the basis that the nature of work itself has changed. Following this, the expectations of work have also changed. Wickman (2012) notes that in the seventies, pink collar workers emerged to denote certain jobs as regarded specifically for women, with the eighties yielding a class of environmentally focused green collar workers. It is therefore questionable whether scientific management theories developed with blue and white collar workers are still relevant with different types of work done by different types of people, according to Wickman (2012).





Harvard Business Review emphasized the problem, when Roe (2001) challenged an antiquated corporate mind-set that divides the workforce into white-collar knowledge workers and blue-collar manual workers. Instead, Roe (2001) warned employers to take note, as these gold collar workers have benefitted greatly from technological change, economic deregulation, and a shifting psychological contract between employer and employee. As Holland, Hacker and Steen (2002) point out, GCWs loyalty is more with their career than their employer. Because of their desirable skills, they are highly employable, and their lack of organizational commitment has caused major concern for employers. Of particular concern, according to Holland et al (2002), is that conventional reward structures may not be sufficient – rather than solely searching for ever larger salaries, this new generation is just as attracted to new technological challenges and self development. Indeed, ChinaNews.com in January 2012 reported that GCWs are withdrawing en masse from cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou in search for higher work-life balances. As such, the economy is losing a vitally important section of the workforce because they want a more spiritual and tranquil life style, and leave high-paying jobs in economic hubs. Holland et al (2002) point out that this is particularly pertinent, as the sectors in which this occurs are IT and Finance, typically drivers for change, innovation and growth.

Wonacott (2007) contrasted William H. Whyte's Organization Man, under the old employment contract of "loyalty in exchange for lifetime employment and a gold watch", with younger GCWs who are "educated, smart, creative, computer literate, equipped with portable skills--and demanding and who view work "as a hobby that you happen to get paid for" (p 356). Initially, GCWs were generationally regarded as being part of the X Generation, employed in sectors of





business where they can find other employ easily should they so choose. Pardue and Morgan (2008) propose that if the X Generation high-flyers are fast horses, the Y Generation GCW is a Thoroughbred. As such, they question whether companies are prepared to handle these gold collar racehorses in a way that supports their needs and the long-term goals of the company. As Y Generation, she argues, their motivational requirements will be different. This is echoed by Wang (1998), who in his book The New Gold Mountain discusses the American-Chinese professionals returning to a booming China, and the companies that try and get hold of them fast. Wang (1998) argues that GWCs need to be recruited and managed by techniques that take their special requirements into account. In particular, there is a need to recognize that traditional perks may not motivate gold collar employees (Pardue and Morgan 2008). Instead, they suggest asking these workers what they want, rather than the organization delivering to them what they think is good for them. It is the latter that informed the design of this study.

Generational Organizational StudiesAccording to Murphy et al. (2004), a generation is a group of

people who are programmed at the same time in history. Generations are defined by their common birth years, age, location, experiences, shared values and significant life events in their formative years (Kupperschmidt, 2000). The main areas of the formative years include social, cultural, economic, and technological environments. Murphy et al. (2004) stated that, because of global trends that have dominated mass media, particularly in urban, developed areas, the younger persons are more likely to fit the generational profile.





Are generations more alike than different? Sujdak (2003) found no significant differences between generations of Boomers and Xers on their perception of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job opportunity, organizational communications, job search behavior, and the intent to quit. Indeed, a recent meta-analysis by Constanza et al. (2012) found that on a range of work-related outcomes, generation has a very limited or no effect at all. On the other hand, Kupperschmidt (2000) proposed that different generations have different work characteristics and preferences and organizations need to develop different employee recruitment and management strategies. This study aims to provide some evidence in this debate.

Still, the way these issues are theorized reflects some of the directions from cross-cultural research, in particular the convergence and divergence approaches (Parry and Urwin 2011). So, on the one hand we could apply similar reservation as above. However, we are aware that the processes underlying generational differences may have a different dynamic as we are dealing with social groups differentiated by time rather than space. Much more exploratory research is needed in this area to illuminate it further.

A more serious problem is the fact that the majority of generational research and theorizing has been based on the middle classes in developed countries (Smola and Sutton 2002, Wade-Benzoni et al. 2002; Joshi et al. 2010). This raises suspicions about applicability of generational frameworks developed in the West to other non Western cultures as well as about the transferability of such findings to other national context. For example Miller and Yu’s (2003) investigation of whether Western research concerning values can be applied to generational groups in Taiwan found some conflicting





evidence depending on the sector of the economy. This indicates the need for studies to investigate the effects of generational factors in the non-western cultural context by using generational profiles based on these countries own historical and other formative events.

While generational terms are problematic, particularly in cross-cultural research (they are, after all, Western terms), they are nevertheless useful as a short-hand heuristic (Parry and Urwin 2011). In this paper, we do not use these terms specifically as denoting a particular time period, but more a phase in an economic cycle. Following Schofield and Honore (2012), we treat these categories more generally as denoting a set of attitudes or values to work and its functions in life. They argue that these generational terms have got cross-cultural value, as all multinationals invariable import these concepts along with everything else they bring.

Cross-cultural organizational studiesThere is some evidence in the research literature that

demonstrates the importance of employer branding for employee recruitment and retention (Backhaus and Tikoo 2004). Within the international HR research there is some support for the idea that national cultural values have an effect on a number of HR practices and processes, such as selection, compensation, management control and turnover (Johnson and Droege 2004, Posthuma, Joplin and Maertz 2005, Ramamoorthy and Carroll 1998, Schuler and Rogovsky 1998). There is, however, little empirical research about the effects of different employees’ value sets in the context of international recruitment (Ployhart 2006, Ma and Allen 2009). Somewhat separated from this type of studies, there is an ongoing debate about the exact





nature and outcomes of the acculturation process in the international organizational context (Tan 2002). This debate is important for our research as it influences the way cultural values can be studied and determines the generalizability and transferability of any findings from cross-cultural research. Acculturation in this context is defined as interplay of homogenising global influences and heterogeneous counter-effects of national cultures on organizational members. Much of the literature in this field can be categorised on the basis of how they see the outcome of this process.

Accordingly, a large body of cross-cultural studies demonstrates the dominant influence of national values on organizational attitudes and work related behaviours (Hofsted 1984, Trompenaars 1993, Schwartz 1994, Ronen and Shenkar 1985). On the other hand, other researchers have argued that the effects of managerial logic and multinational organizational culture have been eroding or marginalising such differences in favour of establishing a ‘global village’ of shared meanings and practices (Jamieson 1983, Sparrow et al. 1994, Dunphy 1987, Kelly and Worthley 1981). Coming between these two contrasting approaches is a growing body of research showing that this type of influences escapes simplistic dichotomy of convergence versus divergence arguments. Rather what is taking place is a culture specific integration and transformation process producing a hybrid mix of values and practices (Ralston et al 1997, Ralston et al. 2006, Khilji et al 2010, Witt 2008). Although we are more inclined towards this last approach we still think there are some problems with it.

A general limitation of all these three approaches is their simplistic, top-down conceptualization of the national culture.





Hofstede’s (1980) influential framework, which demonstrate that people from different cultures are motivated by different values leading to different behaviours, has been criticised for being too reductionist and ignorant of internal diversity (Sivakumar and Nakata 2001). Some have called for taking into account various contextual factors, such as the state of the economy, legal system, levels of industrialization etc. that may affect comparability of cultural practices and beliefs (Child 1981, Kelly and Worthley 1981, England and Harpaz 1983), others have stressed the moderating impact of psychological factors on effects of cultural differences in perceptions of organizational attractiveness (Brockner 2005, Leung and Bond 2004), but there has been little research which incorporates the effects of demographic diversity on particular nation’s value based choices and preferences (Kirkman et al. 2006).

Another major problem has been to treat cultures as static systems in equilibrium (Brett et al.1997), thus undermining their possibilities for change. Ralston et al. (1999) for example have demonstrated the evolving nature of some cultural values of social groups exposed to foreign influences across time. Similarly, Khilji et al. (2004) reveals in their studies transition in work related values among employees and the difference in the scope of this change between younger and older employees. McSweeney (2009) take this even further by presenting an image of cultures as inherently ‘made and remade through exchange, imitation, intersection, incorporation, reshuffling, through travel, trade, subordination’ (p.937). Although crossvergence approaches stress the unpredictability of the acculturation processes they still treat their outcomes as uncontested and durable.





A more specific problem with the use of Hofstede’s (1980) and other similar frameworks has been to ignore the level of analysis for which they were develop by assuming, for example, that findings at the country/culture level of analysis are transferable to the lower (organizational, group or individual) level (Kirkman et al. 2006; McSweeney 2009). Another important point is stressed by Chen (2008) who argues that ‘to make valid comparisons across different cultural or ethnic groups, we must address an important question: Are we comparing the same constructs across different groups?’(p.1005). A simple solution to this problems appears to be to give up ambitions to generate timeless findings and focus instead on what is currently taking place starting at the level of people’s perceptions and judgments.

GCWs, Generation and CultureGCWs belong not only to an organizational, but also to a societal

and cultural elite, particularly in Asia. They are not representative of the culture as a whole. In Thailand, for example, top GCWs tend to come from so-called High Society families: wealthy, by and large Western (American/UK) educated, up to date with trends. While India has an increasing middle class, the GCWs we identified belong to a similar elite. China, meanwhile, draws its GCWs mainly from Chinese Americans returning home (Wong 2003).

This study attempts to follow some of the findings, directions and conclusions reviewed above while addressing a few of the shortcomings that have been identified in earlier studies. We also hope to fill some of the gaps in the research focus area related to this particular geographical region. In particular, we argue, there is a greater need for incorporating generational differences within cross-





cultural research to account for internal diversity of national cultures. This would make cross-cultural organizational studies more realistic in terms of the current make up of the labour market and therefore more relevant to organizations in the developing world. It would also provide some more valuable data for the acculturation debate by revealing the direction and the character of cultural differences across larger chunks of time.

On this basis, the main ambition of this study is to capture the current aspect of culturally and historically conditioned work related values among Chinese, Indian and Thai samples within the shifting patterns of social, demographic and economic influences without the imposition of any cross-cultural framework with its inherent assumptions and without confronting the participants with constructs developed in a different context. This is to be achieved by obtaining people’s own perceptions and judgments of organizational attractiveness seen as the reflection of their underlying work and lifestyle related values.

Hofstede (2001) defines values as ‘feelings with arrows to them’ meaning ‘they have both intensity and direction’ (p. 6). He explains that any issues can have different level of relevance for us, (intensity), and some outcome can be identified as good or bad (direction). Although we question Hofstede’s assertion that values develop and become stable over long periods of time and that we become programmed by them in early childhood, we use his operationalization of them for the purpose of our research. Following some of the research review conclusion stated above we stress in our approach both the indeterminate and every evolving nature of value sets and peoples changing value hierarchies. Accordingly, instead of making





our results stand the test of time we focuse on a snapshot picture of the current spectrum of work related value judgements. The intensity of the obtained value sets is indicated by ranking the list of desired organizational attributes in the order of importance; the direction has been determine by the researcher by asking the participants to focus on the positive end of the spectrum.

We accept that our operationalization of the values may still seem not quite unproblematic. What we are more likely dealing with is the expression of judgment containing both aspects of genuinely felt value based preferences as well as desirability effects (Hofstede 2001). Nevertheless, rather than to explore the nature of the value construct, the aim of the study is to afford a means of comparability between value related constructs on the culture/generation matrix as well as to provide HR managers with a tangible reference to their current recruitment practices. This issue will be explored further in the later part of this report.

Summarising, by adding generation variable to cross-cultural comparison we hope to contribute to the development of new approaches to national cultures which ‘points to the existence of, and possibilities for, considerable national diversity and change’ (McSweeney 2009).

Research questionsOn the basis of the above introduction and literature review we

can formulate our three research questions:

Research question 1





What are the top five organizational characteristics viewed as most attractive for three generations of employees from China, India and Thailand, known as Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y?

Research question 2Are there differences in the perceptions of top five attracting

factors for employment between the same generations across the three countries?

Research question 3In each country, are there generational differences in

perceptions of top five attracting factors for employment?

Methodology

Generational Cohorts in China, India, and Thailand

In general, the current workforce of the three countries used in this study is commonly perceived as comprising three main generations: 1) the generation born during 1940s-1960; 2) the generation born during 1970s-1990s; and 3) the generation born during 1990s until present. The names and birth years for the generations differ from one researcher to another as a generation does not end one day while another begins the next. This study adopts just the time frame and names of the U.S. Bureau of Census in classifying generations, while providing its own descriptive contents. Accordingly people born between 1946-1964 comprise the Baby Boomer Generation, those born between 1965- 1979 are referred to as





Generation X, and those born between 1980-1999 are recognized as Generation Y(Murphy et al., 2004).

SampleGCWs are difficult to locate, but the industries they are more

prevalent in are IT, Finance and Publishing (Holland et al. 2002). We identified organizations in these sectors and recruited participants using a snowballing technique during January 2011. The respondents of this study comprised a total of 1,048 employees from China (n = 282), India (n = 436), and Thailand (n = 330). There were 59.9 percent males and 40 percent females. Among 1,048 sampled, 27.7 percent were those born between 1946-1964, 39.7 percent born between 1965-1979, and 32.4 percent born between 1980-2000. 38.9 percent of the surveyed employees were single, 25 percent were married, and 35.1 percent were married with child/children. In terms of educational background, 46.9 percent held Bachelor degree, 45.5 percent had Master degree or higher, and 7 percent held diploma or below. Only 16.7 percent were educated overseas. The majority of those with foreign education spent 1-2 years studying in the U.S., U.K., Canada, and Australia. In terms of their occupational position, 36.8 percent represented operation level; 29.1 percent middle management; 16.7 percent first level supervisor; and 16 percent senior management.

In terms of work area, the highest frequency was IT/Computer which represented 23.2 percent; followed by 13.5 percent Engineer/Technician; 10.8 percent general administration; and 8.9 percent human resources. For work experience, 31 percent experienced 0-5 years; 21 percent experienced 6-10 years; 16 percent experienced 11-15 years; 9.7 percent experienced 16-20 years and 22 percent experienced more than 20 years respectively.





About half of the respondents worked with foreign companies (50.1 percent) while 27.8 percent worked with local organizations. Among those who worked with local organizations, 9.4 percent were with state enterprise, 6 percent were with government office, and 5.8 percent joint foreign companies (mostly U.S.). For the type of business, the highest frequency was IT/telecommunications which represented 30.4 percent; followed by 13.4 percent finance/bank/insurance; 5.4 percent education and petroleum/energy/mining; and 4.2 percent electronic/computer. The highest frequency in terms of the organizational size was for those working for companies with more than 1,000 persons as they comprised 64.1 percent of those sampled.

ProceduresFirst, a set of two questionnaires was designed as a tool to

provide the initial data. The first set intends to survey personal demographic background of the respondents and the background of the organization he or she works for. Personal data includes age (generation), gender, marital status, education background (level of education, and experience of overseas education), position at work, work area (specialization), and years of work experience. Organizational background includes type of organization (private or public enterprise or government; local-owned or foreign-owned), type of industry, and size.

The second part of the questionnaire requested the respondents to rank top five factors perceived as effective in attracting them for employment with their current organization. Open-ended questions were used so that each respondent could answer in his or her own words. Theoretically, open-ended questions are useful for





determining what respondents like most and what they like least about a particular subject.

To facilitate the identification of the most important factors (organizational characteristic), a weighted score (WS) was calculated. Rank 1 was assigned to the factor with the highest importance, and rank 5 was assigned to the factor with the lowest importance, and then summing the weights for the factor. Next, the frequencies of all the attracting factors mentioned by all respondents were counted to find out preliminary results showing how respondents of each generation from each country perceived the top five most important attracting factors.

After the top five attracting factors of each generation from each country were identified, chi-square tests were performed to determine if each generation from each country perceived the importance of all the selected factors differently. And finally, chi-square tests were, again, used to determine if different generation within each country perceived the importance of all the selected factors differently.

Data analysisResults for research question 1

What are the top five organizational characteristics viewed as most attractive for three generations of employees, known as Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y?

INSERT TABLE ONE ABOUT HERE





From Table One, the results show that the top five attracting factors for employment mentioned by Baby Boomers across the 3 countries were: competitive reward (78.4%), company’s brand and image (49%), organization’s stability and sustainability (30.6%), job fit (25.5%), and job content (19%). For Generation X, the top five attracting factors were company’s brand and image, competitive rewards (76.4%), career development (28.8%), job fit (21.9%), and learning and growth opportunity (28.4%). As similar to Baby Boomers, the first two attractive factors perceived by Generation Y were competitive reward (79.3%), and company’s brand and image (51.5%). The other three factors were job fit (31%), organization’s stability (25%), and learning and growth opportunity (33.4%).

Results for research question 2Are there differences in the perceptions of top five attracting

factors for employment between the same generations across the three countries?

Baby BoomersResults from Chi-Square tests indicate that there are significant

differences of perceptions of top five attracting factors of Baby Boomers across three countries. In China, Baby Boomers viewed competitive rewards as their first priority (21.9%), followed by job stability and security (8.8%), job fit (8.1%), good physical working conditions (8.3%) and organization’s stability and sustainability. Indian Baby Boomers’ preferences are different as they ranked company’s brand and image as their top choice. Next, they ranked competitive rewards (20.3%), job content (7%), position/status (6.7%), and career development (9.4%) as their second, third, fourth, and fifth choice. In Thailand, the top five





attracting factors were: organization’s stability and sustainability (19.2%), competitive rewards (23.6%), job fit (11.8%), company’s brand and image (11.5%), and job fit (11.7%)

Generation XResults from Chi-Square tests show that there are significant

differences in the perceived top five attracting factors of Generation X across countries. Similarly to the Boomers, Chinese Generation X regarded competitive rewards as the most important factor (34.9%). Other factors included company’s brand and image (16.3%), learning and growth opportunities (16.9%), job fit (12%), and career development (11.6%) consecutively. In India, Generation X preferred company’s brand and image (36.4%), competitive rewards (32.1%), career development (17.2%), convenient location (18.4%), and position and status (16.3%). And for Thailand, Generation X’s top five attracting factors were: competitive rewards (24.4%), job fit (11.7%), organization’s stability and sustainability (10%), company’s brand and image (10.6%), and advancement (10%).

Generation Y

As before the results shown in indicate that there are significant differences of perceptions of top five attracting factors among Generation Y across countries.

Results for research question 3In each country, are there differences in each generation’s

perceptions of top five attracting factors for employment? In order to find out if different generations in China, India, and Thailand have





different perceptions of top five attracting factors, Chi-Square tests were performed with the results shown in Table Two.

INSERT TABLE TWO ABOUT HERE

The results from Chi-square tests of 3 different generations (Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y) in each country shows significant differences as summarized below.

ChinaThere are significant differences of different generations’

perceptions of 3 attracting factors in China which are: company’s brand & image, career development, and learning & growth opportunities (p<0.05).

IndiaAmong the three different generations in India, there are

significant differences in their perceptions of 2 attracting factors which include career development, and convenient location (p<0.05).

ThailandIn Thailand, there are significant differences of different

generations’ perceptions of 2 attracting factors which are: organization’s stability & sustainability, and advancement (p<0.05).

* .050 of Company’s Brand & Image in Thailand is Asymp. Sig. but the Exact Sig. is .051 => not significant (p>0.05)

Discussion





Baby BoomersBaby Boomers of different country/culture have different

perceptions of the top five attracting factors. The significant differences might be the consequences of several factors, for example: different defining events during childhood, traditional values, religious beliefs, current socio-economic and political conditions of each country.

To begin with, it can be seen that Baby Boomers in China and Thailand seem to be more concerned about rewards (income) and job security than Indian Baby Boomers as they mentioned three similar attracting factors which are competitive rewards, job stability and security, and organization’s stability and sustainability. This may result from the economic conditions of these two countries. For Thailand, as already described in the country’s background part, internal political conflicts and instability halted economic growth. Toppled by global economic recession, Thailand was going through economic difficulties till the late 1990s and barely recovered since then. In addition, during the years 2007-2009, the increasing oil price worsened the financial status of Thai employees, including gold-collar workers. At the same time, Thai organizations adopted streamlining strategies together with very tight hiring policy. During the past few years, many state enterprises and business organizations encouraged the employees aged over 45 years old to take an early-retirement’ package. Therefore, Baby Boomers who do not have exceptionally distinctive talent may feel anxious about their job security. Besides the concern for their own job security, employees were concerned about their organization’s survival during economic hardship too. It should be noted here that, for Thai Boomers who have been raised under traditional values such as ‘kreng jai,’ they may feel shy or feel





like it is rude to ask for or to express materialist needs (e.g. money, status, recognition, etc.) directly and publicly. This may explain why competitive rewards were ranked the second attracting factor, instead of the first. Finally, it is interesting to see that Thai Boomers mentioned supportive colleagues as one of the important factors. This demonstrates that the value of collectivism still exists in middle-aged Thai workers’ society.

For China, although the country had experienced dramatic growth during the past decade, after 2006 the economy has slowed down due to several reasons, including: slowdown in US economy as the main trading partner, continued unemployment according to privatization of inefficient state owned industries, shortage of raw materials, etc. Under these circumstances, Chinese employees were concerned about their income and job security. About 40% of the respondents who mentioned competitive rewards as one of their choices wrote additional sentences stating that they were concerned about the economic situation, and that was the reason why they deemed rewards (income) and their organization’s stability and sustainability as very important factors. In addition, we can never ignore the fact that Chinese Baby Boomers (born during 1946-1965), had witnessed and underwent poverty and famine under Maoist regime before. As a result, secured financial income became their first priority. Next, both Chinese and Thai Boomers mentioned job fit as an important factor when considering employment. This is not surprising in the light of their other concerns as most people would consider if their competencies fit the job description to keep their career with the organization in the long term.





Although Indian Boomers were neither worried about job security nor organization’s stability, they were concerned about competitive rewards. The reason for this choice might be similar to Chinese Boomers with regard to their experience of economic hardship and food crisis during their teens and young adulthood. High financial income would give them a sense of security and sustained quality of good life. And since job security was not the problem, Gold-collar Indian Boomers placed more concern on the brand and image of their employer, job content that matched their interest and expertise, position/status, and promising career development.

According to the demographic background of Indian respondents, 47.7% of them hold their bachelor degree and 50.5% had Master Degree. However, 93.8% were graduated from local universities and only 5.7% were educated abroad. Then, 72% of the respondents worked with foreign-owned or joint Indian and foreign companies while the rest worked with local organizations. Based on this information, it is clear that nearly most of the respondents of all three generations including the gold-collar Baby Boomers were well educated and, to a certain degree, exposed to western work values and attitudes of their organizations. Therefore, their preferences reflected the values of western middle-class workers who value individual achievement, growth, and material indicators of success. At the same time, traditional Indian culture valued and recognized people with power and social status. These factors explain Indian Boomers’ choices of their attracting factors for employment.

Generation X





For Chinese Gen X (born during 1965-1979), they had spent their teens witnessing China’s economic transition from radical and harsh communist regime under Mao Zedong to a more open and modern communist country under Deng Xiaoping. They had experienced economic hardship for a short period during their childhood, then, they encountered several socio-economic reforms which brought in vast foreign direct investment, industrialization, and modernization (or westernization –to be exact). Chinese Generation X was better educated than the Boomers and they realized that with better education, they could have a well-paid job with foreign companies. The influx of foreign investments and global companies since early 1990s created ample employment opportunities for local Chinese with relevant skills and competencies, and, of course, with English fluency. Therefore, Chinese Gen X’s perception of competitive rewards as first priority would reflect not only economic environment, but also the shift of focus from collective wealth to self, and materialist achievements. However, their choices of company’s brand and image, learning and growth opportunities, job fit, and career development may be the consequence of a combination of traditional Confucianism which places a high value on learning (Lai, 2006), and the western HR management values which also emphasize employee development. These two influences might account for the fact that both Chinese Generation X and Generation Y look for learning and career development opportunities in their employers.

Generation X in India, like Chinese Generation X, also experienced hardship and underwent several socio-economic reforms during their childhood. During their teens and young adulthood, they had seen India’s economy start to flourish and become IT hub of the world. Since mid 1990s, India has presented a vast potential for overseas investment and has become actively encouraging the





entrance of foreign players into its market (Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 2009). The influx of foreign investors and the growth of local business created more employment opportunities. Therefore, job security was not their main concern and, accordingly, was not included in the top five attracting factors for Indian Generation X. What seems to draw their interest more is the brand of their employer. Especially, global and large-size organizations could attract more interest from Indian Generation X as some respondents commented that global companies and large-size organizations usually had modern, good human resource development practices. Data from Hewitt Associates who conducted surveys on Best Employers in Asia during the past several years also confirms this trend.

The second-ranking factor was competitive rewards which was not an unexpected choice because rewards (money) have always figured at the top of the list of attracting factors of all time (Hewitt Associates, 2010). While Generations X’s choices of career development and position/status were likely the result of the influence of western work value, so too Indian traditional values that focused on power and the importance of career success and wealth that could bring a change of such status may serve as strong motivators in their preferences. Another factor that deserves discussion is the convenient location selected by Indian Generation X. With regard to the demographic background of Indian respondents whose age was about 30-44 years, about 70% were married and nearly 50% had children, therefore, convenient location to commute from home to office and to their children’s schools was an important factor for Generation X workers who have family to take care of.





With regard to Thai Generation X, they were, of course, pressured by difficult and uncertain economic conditions. As a consequence, competitive rewards and organization’s stability and sustainability appeared in their list of attracting factors for employment. And since they need secured employment, being confident that their competencies fit job’s requirements was very important too. Lastly, seeing opportunity for advancement and promotion in the company would effectively attract the interest of Thai Generation X because this would double their confidence that they have a secured and promising career.

Generation Y

Chinese Generation Y, locally labeled “Little Emperor”, received sole attention and care from their parents and grandparents as the only child in the family. They never experienced hardship and inadequacies like their predecessors. Born during Deng Xiaoping’s modernized period, they were raised under the new version of Confucianism and modern (westernized) education system. Therefore the reasons they mentioned competitive rewards as their first priority was not necessary the same as those of Chinese Baby Boomers and Generation X who were much more concerned about economic uncertainty. Their list of desired organizational characteristics indicates that Chinese Generation Y sought an interesting job that fits their interest and specialization. It should be a job with a well-recognized brand company that offers not only good pay but also provides opportunities for them to learn new things and exposes them to new technology. About 20% of Generation Y respondents provided additional data that they would love to have opportunities to be trained abroad.





Similarly to Baby Boomers and Generation X, Indian Generation Y cared for the company’s brand and image before competitive rewards. They sought branded company that had clear policies for employees’ career path. Also, it was interesting to learn that Indian Generation Y perceived that convenient location was an important factor.

As for Generation Y in Thailand, they have witnessed many organizations go bankrupt and some companies downsize their workforce or froze hiring since 1997. Under political instability and recession, newly graduates among Generation Y realized that it was difficult to find a secured job in a secured company. Therefore, Thai Generation Y looked for organization’s stability and sustainability as the most important factor. Besides good salary, they were also interested in benefits and welfare. In additional conversations with the researcher Generation Y respondents said that during the economic downturn, most companies did not offer really good start-up salary for newly graduates. With higher cost of living, benefits and welfare became more important as another source of financial support for them.

Implications

In the above discussion we attempted to elaborate on the respondents’ value based preferences of top organizational/work characteristics and the manifest differences in those across the three





countries and three generations. By linking their choices to specific economic, social, political and demographic events we hope to have unpacked a little what all too often is treated as monolithic cultural influences. Our demonstration of within culture and between cultures generational differences, although of course needs further and more robust research evidence, already indicates that past simplistic and timeless categorizations schemes often applied to that region may need further scrutiny and reassessment based on newly emerging shifts and reconfiguration of acculturation forces both within the global context and that of the specific national environments.

Admittedly, during the analysis of the findings and their interpretation a number of limitations also became evident in our own method and approach, and these will be summarized next. Despite our attempts to overcome certain shortcomings of earlier studies this research has been found to have a number of limitations of its own. There are also some issues requiring further clarification. As already mentioned, our operationalization of cultural values as manifested in the participants’ judgment of organizational attractiveness has most likely been ‘contaminated’ by some measure of social desirability effect. We have to accept that participants’ answer to the question “what are the five most important things to you in an employer” included or was influenced by what they think should be desirable in an organization, beside the organizational characteristics that they actually desire. Although it is important to recognize the distinction between these two constructs, we agree with Hofstede (2001) that for the purpose of this study the distinction is not that important. National cultural values we are interested in can be related both to what is actually desired at the personal level as well as to what is socially communicated as desirable on a shared ideological level. Also, as both, though to a different extend, influence similar behaviors





(Hofstede 2001) their implications can be combined for most practical HR purposes.

A more serious limitation relates to the way our measure was developed and used for comparison. As the measure was not based on a standardized scale it can be argued that we are not comparing like with the like in the sense that, for example, the top choice of a characteristic for one person may not equal in the intensity of desire to the same top choice of another. We accept that this limits the appeal and importance of our findings. But it also reflects a real difficulty in making cross-cultural and cross-generational comparisons without imposing top-down conceptualizations that would distort the cultural specificity of the studied phenomena.

Nor did we manage to avoid such distortion completely. Admittedly, in the translation of responses into English their linguistic nuances of meaning and expressiveness have been lost. Additionally, as Hofstede (1993) comments: “[English] Concepts available for this purpose are themselves alive with culture, having been developed within a particular cultural context. They have a tendency to guide our thinking towards our desired conclusion.”(p.344). It seems that this is something that all researchers working in this field have to acknowledge and accept. It is the price to pay if we want to compare any aspect of one culture with another with no shared language.

Another problem relates to the way we tried to measure differences between generations. It has become clear that by comparing people of different generations at the same time (and therefore of markedly different age groups) we might have been recording differences that reflect different stages of their life cycle





rather than purely generational ones. To avoid this problem in the future different generations should ideally be studied at similar stages of their life. As this asks a lot of a research in terms of time and resources committed it is worth investigating further if a life cycle effect could be controlled in some other way.

Finally, we would like to stress that our findings should not be related to cultural or generational differences per se. Although work related values are not totally independent from more general ones, it is equally possible that people hold or express different value sets depending on their role and function across different social settings. As we believe that a person’s identity does not need to be a single and unified entity therefore different groups’ apparent similarity of work related values may reflect the convergence effect of their members’ organizational identities engendered by shared organizational practices and meanings. Such convergence of identities in one context can however be offset by a more local or traditional and therefore more divergent value sets developing within identities enacted in other context and roles, such as family life. This means that any future convergence, versus divergence versus crossvergence debate should acknowledge that these processes do not have to be self-exclusive or take place at the same level of analysis.

ConclusionIt is hoped that by falling into a number of new pitfalls while

trying to avoid some mistakes of the past studies this research highlighted some of the difficulties likely to be faced by others entering this field. The research should therefore be treated as a useful initial exploration of potentials and dangers associated with an incorporation of cross-generational variables into the cross-cultural





domain. As we have tried inscribing the distribution of differences across time onto their mapping in space both new opportunities as well as new challenges have becoming more apparent. While accepting limitation of this study in terms of its contribution to the theoretical debate, we still believe that its outcome in the form of the ranked listing of different values related to organizational preference for the three countries that play an increasingly more important role in the international labor market will benefit recruiters and other HR practitioners in their competition for local talent within those countries.

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