Why Don’t We Do a Better Job of Treating Pain?
Bryan E. Bledsoe, DO, FACEP
Midlothian, TX
Introduction
Many, if not most, medical conditions cause pain.
Introduction
Pain is a protective mechanism and occurs whenever any tissues of the body are being damaged.
Introduction
Pain occurs whenever the cells or tissues are being damaged—whatever the underlying cause.
Introduction
The reaction to pain may be rapid, as seen when one touches a hot pan.
Introduction
Or slow, as when one has been seated in the same position for an extended period of time.
Introduction
It is for this reason that persons with spinal cord injuries are at risk for developing decubitus ulcers.
Introduction
Because of their injury, they:• Cannot sense pain
from the pressure area.
• Cannot move to eliminate the pressure.
• Or a combination of both.
Introduction
One of the oldest roles of medical practitioners is to help alleviate pain.
Introduction
Analgesia• The relief of pain without a loss of
consciousness.
Introduction
Analgesia can be provided by:• Drugs• Surgical Procedures• Physical Modalities• Other
Introduction
Analgesia:• Eliminate the source of the pain.• Block or attenuate the pathways that
transmit pain impulses to the brain.• Combination of the two.
Introduction
Pain elicits a strong emotional response that is often recorded in our memory.
Introduction
“Lest we be like the cat that sits down on a hot stove-lid. She will never sit down on a hot stove-lid again—and that is well; but also she will never sit down on a cold one anymore.”
Problems in Pain Management
Problems
Pain appears to be under treated:• Failure to assess pain.• Failure to quantify pain.• Fear of addiction.• Legal constraints of utilizing controlled
substances.• Ignorance
Problems
UCLA Medical Center Study:• Hispanic patients with isolated long-bone
fractures were twice as likely to receive NO pain medication when compared to their non-Hispanic white counterparts.
– Todd KH, Samaroo N, Hoffman JR. Ethnicity as a risk factor for inadequate emergency department analgesia. JAMA. 1993;269(10):1537-9
Problems
Grady Memorial Hospital:• Black patients with isolated long-bone
fractures were less likely to receive adequate analgesia when compared to their white counterparts.
– Todd KH, Deaton C, D’Adamo AP, Goe L. Ethnicity and analgesic practice. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;35(1):11-16
Problems
Nationwide survey of burn patients:• Only half of burn patients treated in
emergency departments received adequate analgesia for their burn pain.
– Singer AJ, Thode HC Jr. National analgesia prescribing patterns in emergency department patients with burns. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2002;23(6):361-5
Problems
EMS Study (Pediatrics)• Few pediatric patients receive prehospital
analgesia, although most ultimately received ED analgesia.
– Swor R, McEachin CM, Sequin D. Grall KH. Prehospital pain management in children suffering traumatic injury. Prehospital Emergency Care. 2005;9(1):40-43
Prehospital Pain Management is even worse!
Prehospital Pain Management
Pain in the prehospital setting is often:• Not identified,• Under treated,• Both.
– Ricard-Hibon A, Leroy N, Magne M, et al. Evaluation of acute pain in prehospital medicine. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 1997;16(8):945-9
Prehospital Pain Management
Patients with extremity fractures receive inadequate analgesia.• Study of 1,073 patients found only 1.5%
received analgesia in the prehospital setting.
– White LJ, Cooper LJ, Chambers RM, Gradisek RE. Prehospital use of analgesia for suspected extremity fractures. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2000;4(3):205-8
Prehospital Pain Management
Prehospital patients with lower-extremity fractures (including hip fractures):• Only 18.3% of eligible patients received
analgesia.– McEachin CC, McDermott JT, Swor R. Few
emergency medical services patients with lower extremity fractures receive prehospital analgesia. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2002;6(4):406-410
Prehospital Pain Management
Femoral neck fractures are among the most common orthopedic injuries encountered in prehospital care.
Prehospital Pain Management
Hip fractures:• Only a modest proportion of these
patients receive prehospital analgesia for this painful and debilitating injury.
– Vassiliadis J, Hitos K, Hill CT. Factors influencing prehospital and emergency department analgesia administration to patients with femoral neck fractures. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2002:14(3):261-6
Prehospital Pain Management
Nothing is more cruel than:• Retrieving elderly patient with isolated hip
fracture.• Tying them to a sheet of plywood or plastic.• Wrapping a hard collar around their arthritic
neck.• Placing them in a 2-ton truck.• Driving them to the hospital over rough roads.
Prehospital Pain Management
Without adequate analgesia!
What is Pain?
A sensory or emotional experience or discomfort.
Single, most common medical complaint.
Qualities of Pain
Organic versus Psychogenic Acute versus Chronic Malignant versus Benign Continuous versus Episodic
Types of Pain
Acute pain:• Pain associate with an acute event
Chronic pain:• Pain that persists after an acute event is
over• Pain that last 6 months or more
Pathophysiology of Pain
Pathophysiology
The generation of pain involves interaction between all parts of the nervous system.
Pathophysiology
Significant strides have been made as to how the body senses and interprets pain over the last 2 decades.
Pain-generation pathways more clearly understood.
Chronic pain better understood.
Pathophysiology
Pain is more than a just a feeling or sensation, but linked to the complex psychosocial factors that surround traumatic events.
Pain is the brain’s interpretation of the painful stimulus.
Pathophysiology
Perceiving pain:• Algogenic substances—chemicals
released at the site of injury.• Nociceptors—Afferent neurons that carry
pain messages.• Referred pain—pain that is perceived as
if it were coming from somewhere else in the body.
Pathophysiology
Nociception• Derived from the word noxious meaning
harmful or damaging to the tissues.• Mechanical event that occurs in tissues
undergoing cellular injury.
Pathophysiology
Nociceptive stimulus is detected by free nerve endings in the tissues.
Three type of stimuli excite pain receptors:• Mechanical• Thermal• Chemical
Pathophysiology
Pain fibers are free fibers.
Pathophysiology
Pain fibers principally located in the superficial layers of the skin.
Pain fibers also located in:• Periosteum• Arterial walls• Joint surfaces• Falx and tentorium of the cranial vault.
Pathophysiology
Deep structures:• Sparsely supplied with pain fibers• Widespread tissue damage still causes
the slow, chronic, aching-type pain.
Pathophysiology
Visceral Pain:• Ischemia• Chemical stimuli• Spasm of hollow
viscus• Over distension of a
hollow viscous
Pathophysiology
Chemicals that excite pain receptors:• Bradykinin• Serotonin• Histamine• Potassium ions• Acids• Acetylcholine• Proteolytic enzymes
Pathophysiology
Chemicals that enhance the sensitivity of pain endings, but do not necessarily excite them:• Prostaglandins• Substance P
Pathophysiology
Types of pain:• Fast Pain:
– Felt within 0.1 second after painful stimulus– Also called: sharp pain, pricking pain, electric
pain and acute pain.– Felt with needle stick, laceration, burn
Pathophysiology
Types of pain:• Slow Pain:
– Felt within 1.0 second or more after painful stimulus
– Also called: dull pain, aching pain, throbbing pain and chronic pain.
– Usually associated with tissue destruction
Pathophysiology
Pain fibers transmit impulse to spinal cord through fast or slow fibers:• A-δ (delta) fibers—small myelinated
fibers that transmit sharp pain.• C fibers—small unmyelinated fibers that
transmit dull pain or aching pain.
Pathophysiology
Pain is often a “double” sensation as fast pain is transmitted by the Aδ fibers while a second or so later it is transmitted by the C fiber pathway.
Pathophysiology
Pain impulses enter the spinal cord from the dorsal spinal nerve roots.
Fibers terminate on neurons in the dorsal horns.
Pathophysiology
Impulses then transmitted to the brain via the lateral spinothalamic tract
Pathophysiolgy
Pain ultimately transmitted to:• Thalamus• Medulla oblongata• Somatosensory areas of the cerebral
cortex.
Analgesia
The brain’s opiate system:• Endorphins• Enkephalins
Referred Pain
The sensation of pain in a region that is remote from the tissue causing the pain.
Referred Pain
Certain referred pain patterns are recognized.
Assessment of Pain
Assessment of Pain
Various factors influence the way in which one experiences pain:• Physical• Emotional• Social• Genetic• Age • Cultural
Assessment of Pain
Pain, in most instances, is self-reported.
This should be considered along with physical signs and symptoms when assessing pain.
Assessment of Pain
Factors that affect assessment:• Developmental stage• Chronological age• Cognitive ability• Emotional status• Cultural influence
Assessment of Pain
Self-Report of pain:• Have patient describe how they feel.• For infants and children, rely on care
givers.• Obtain important historical information
OPQRST-ASPN System
Onset of Problem Provocative / Palliative factors Quality Region / Radiation Severity Time Associated Symptoms Pertinent Negatives
Assessment of Pain
Behavioral Observations:• Vocalizations (cry, scream, moan)• Facial expressions (frown, grimace)• Body posture (fetal position)• Motor responses (decreased movement,
restlessness)
Assessment of Pain
Physiological measurements:• Skin flushing• Diaphoresis• Restlessness• Tachycardia• Tachypnea• Elevated BP
Assessment of Pain
Physical examination will often give a clear indication of the source of the patient’s pain.
Assessment of Pain
How do you quantify pain?
Infants
Neonatal Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) CRIES:
• Crying• Requires oxygen to maintain sat > 95%• Increased vital signs• Expression• Level of Sleep
Children 1-7 years
CHEOPS (Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Pain Scale):• Cry• Facial• Child verbal• Torso• Touch• Legs
Children > 3 years
Wong-Baker FACES Scale:
Adult Pain
“Ten Scale” most common:• 11 point scale• 0 = No pain• 10 = Worst pain imaginable
Adult Pain
Visual “Ten Scale”:
Adult Pain
Word / Graphic Scale:
Adult Pain
Multiple Assessment Tool:
Pain Management
Pain Management
Priorities are priorities!• Scene safety• BSI• Treat any life-threatening illness of injury• Treat pain
Pain Management
Strategies:• Removing or
correcting the source of the pain
Pain Management
Strategies:• Blocking or
attenuating the transmission of pain impulses to the brain
Pain Management
Strategies:• Or, a combination of
both
Pain Management
Non-medication therapies:• Recognition and empathy• Distraction• Muscle relaxation• Position of comfort• Temperature regulation• Physical therapies• Treat underlying cause
Pain Management
RICE:• Rest• Ice• Compression• Elevation
Pain Management
Medications that relieve pain are called analgesics
Medication therapies:• Peripherally-acting agents• Centrally-acting agents
Pain Management
Peripherally-acting agents• Considerable reaction locally to cellular
and tissue damage:– Pain– Swelling– Inflammation
Pain Management
Pain Management
Peripherally-acting agents:• Corticosteroids• Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents
(NSAIDs)• Local Anesthesia
Pain Management
Peripherally-acting agents:• Methylprednisolone• Acetaminophen• Ibuprofen• Aspirin
Pain Management
NSAIDs• Effective for pain and inflammation• Good side-effect profile• Second generation NSAIDs have better
side-effect profiles• Inhibit prostaglandins and other
mediators of pain and inflammation
Ketorolac (Toradol)
Only injectable NSAID in the US
Analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties.
Ketorolac (Toradol)
Used for moderate-severe pain Orthopedic and soft-tissue injuries Popular for ureteral colic. Often used in conjunction with
centrally-acting agents such as morphine.
Ketorolac (Toradol)
Onset of action: < 30 minutes IV Peak effects: 45-60 minutes Duration: 4-6 hours Typical IV dose: 30 mg
Pain Management
Centrally-acting agents:• Opiates• Anesthetic gasses used in analgesic
quantities• Atypical agents (ketamine)
Opiates
Mainstay of analgesic practice
Originally derived from the opium poppy plant
Many now synthetically manufactured
Opiate Receptors
Μu (μ ) receptors Kappa (κ) receptors Delta (δ) receptors Actions:
• Inhibit pain• Cause sedation• Respiratory depression• Cardiovascular depression
Opiates
Actions:• Act on CNS and organs containing
smooth muscle• Analgesia without loss of consciousness
Opiates
Effects:• Analgesia• Suppresses cough reflex• Respiratory depression• Mental clouding• Mood changes• Euphoria• Dysphoria• Nausea and vomiting
Opiates
Effects:• Meiosis• Decreased gastric, biliary and pancreatic
secretions• Reduce gastric motility• Delay digestion of food in the small
bowel• Decreases peristalsis in the colon
(constipation)
Opiates
Effects:• Certain opiates (morphine) cause an
increase in biliary tract pressure• Certain opiates (morphine) cause
peripheral vasodiation• Histamine release (red eyes, pruritis,
flushing)
Opiates
Morphine
Morphine
Named after Greek god Morpheus—god of sleep and dreams
Morphine
Occurs naturally in the poppy plant Among the most frequently used
opiates in emergency medicine Used for moderate to severe pain Vasodilator for CHF and pulmonary
edema
Morphine
Onset of action: < 5 minutes IV Peak effects: 20 minutes Duration: 7 hours Typical IV dose: 2.5-10.0 mg
Opiates
Meperidine (Demerol)
Meperidine
Synthetic opiate—chemically unrelated to morphine
1/10 as potent as morphine Tends to cause more histamine
release than morphine and thus more side-effects
Meperidine
Causes more euphoria than other agents
Now removed from many EDs and EMS services due to abuse and the availability of better drugs
Meperidine
Onset of action: < 5 minutes IV Peak effects: < 30 minutes Duration: 2 hours Typical IV dose: 25-100 mg
Opiates
Hydromorphone (Dilaudid)
Hydromorphone
Synthetic opiate Effective for
moderate to severe pain
8-10 times more potent than morphine
Reportedly produces less nausea and vomiting than morphine
Hydromorphone
Onset of action: < 5 minutes IV Peak effects: 30-90 minutes Duration: 4-5 hours Typical V dose: 1-4 mg
Opiates
Fentanyl (Sublimaze)
Fentanyl
Synthetic opiate—chemically unrelated to morphine
Initially an anesthetic induction agent Short-acting Pharmacological effects similar to that
of morphine Better side-effect profile because of
short duration of action.
Fentanyl
Less histamine release than morphine• Sivilotti ML, Ducharme J. Randomized, double-
blind study on sedatives and hemodynamics during rapid-sequence intubation in the emergency department: The SHRED Study. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31(3):125-6.
Fentanyl
Now routinely used in emergency medicine and, to a lesser degree, in EMS
– Chudnofsky CR, Wright SW, Dronen SC, et al. The safety of fentanyl in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18(6):839-40.
Fentanyl
Used in multiple trauma patients because of hemodynamic profile.
– Walsh M, Smith GA, Yount RA, et al. Continuous intravenous infusion for sedation and analgesia of the multiple trauma patient. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20(8):913-5.
Fentanyl
Proven effective in the prehospital (air medical) treatment of pediatric trauma patients.
No untoward effects during 5 years of prehospital use
– Devellis P, Thomas SH, Wedel SK, et al. Prehospital fentanyl analgesia in air-transported pediatric trauma patients. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1998;14(5):321-3.
Fentanyl
Onset of action: Immediate IV Peak effects: 3-5 minutes Duration: 30-60 minutes Typical IV dose: 25-100 μgs
Opiates
Synthetic opiate agonists / antagonists• Nalbuphine• Butorphanol
Synthetic Mixed Opiates
Sub-class of opiates with both agonistic and antagonistic property
Activate some opiate receptors while blocking others
Reportedly decreases the likelihood of abuse and respiratory depression
Not controlled in many states
Synthetic Mixed Opiates
Nalbuphine (Nubain)
Nalbuphine
Most common mixed agent used in prehospital care
Antagonistic properties decrease the potential for abuse.
Nalbuphine
Initial studies indicated it was an effective alternative to morphine.
– Chambers JA, Guly HR. Prehospital intravenous nalbuphine administered by paramedics. Resuscitation. 1994;27-153-8.
– Stene JK, Stofberg L, MacDonald G, et al. Nalbuphine analgesia in the prehospital setting. Am J Emerg Med. 1988;6(6):634-9.
Nalbuphine
Subsequent studies seem to suggest not as effective as once thought.
English study found it offered poor pain control to a high proportion of patients in the prehospital setting.
– Wollard M, Jones T, Vetter N. Hitting them where it hurts? Low dose nalbuphine therapy. Emerg Med J 2002;19:565-570.
Nalbuphine
Because of antagonistic properties, prehospital nalbuphine usage appears to be responsible for increased opiate requirements once patients arrive in the ED.
– Houlihan KPG, Mitchell RG, Flapan AD, et al. Excessive morphine requirements after prehospital nalbuphine analgesia. J Accid Emerg Med 1999;16:29-31
Nalbuphine
Also appears to interfere with general anesthesia and maintenance.
– Robinson N, Burrow N. Excessive morphine requirements after pre-hospital nalbuphine analgesia. J Accid Emerg Med. 1999;16:123-7.
Nalbuphine
Probably should have a limited role in emergency medicine and EMS.
Nalbuphine
Onset of action: 2-3 minutes IV Peak effects: < 30 minutes Duration of effect: 3-6 hours Typical IV dose: 5-20 mg
Synthetic Mixed Opiates
Butorphanol (Stadol)
Butorphanol
Used by a few EMS systems
Similar properties to nalbuphine
Role in EMS has not been widely studied
Probably should have a limited role in EMS
Butorphanol
Thought to be non-addictive.
Stadol NS resulted in significant addictions
Butorphanol
Onset of action: < 1 minute IV Peak effects: 3-5 minutes Duration: 2-4 hours Typical IV dose: 0.5-2.0 mg
Gasses
Nitrous Oxide (N2O):
• Anesthetic at high concentrations• Analgesic at low concentrations• Initially used in dentistry and obstetrics• Introduced into EMS in the 1970s.• Effective in treating virtually all types of
pain.
Nitrous Oxide
Supplied as two-cylinder device (Nitronox) that feeds gases into a blender at 50:50 concentration
Self-administered through modified demand valve.
Nitrous Oxide
Proven effective in numerous types of pain encountered in the prehospital setting.
– Stewart RD, Paris PM, Stoy WA, Cannon G. Patient-controlled inhalation analgesia in prehospital care: a study of side-effects and feasibility. Crit Care Med. 1983;11(11):851-5.
– Pons PT. Nitrous oxide analgesia. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1988;6(4):777-82,
Nitrous Oxide
Effective for painful procedures such as transcutaneous pacing.
– Kaplan RM, Heller MB, McPherson J, Paris PM. An evaluation of nitrous oxide analgesia during transcutaneous pacing. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1990;5(2):145-9.
Nitrous Oxide
NAEMSP has issued a detailed position statement regarding it’s use.
– National Association of EMS Physicians. Use of nitrous oxide:oxygen mixtures in prehospital emergency care. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1990;5(3):273-4.
Nitrous Oxide
Probably underutilized for several reasons:• Cost• Bulky delivery system• Storage issues• Lack of understanding regarding efficacy
Myths of Pain Management
Myths of Pain Management
MYTH #1: If I give my patient narcotics, they will not be competent enough to consent for surgery later.
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 1: FALSE• Concern about rendering patient
incompetent is unfounded.• Withholding analgesia can be looked
upon as a form of “coercion” to sign consent for surgery.
– Gabbay DS, Dickenson ET. Refusal of base station physicians to authorize narcotic analgesia. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2001;3(5):293-5.
Myths of Pain Management
MYTH #2: If I give my patient narcotics for abdominal pain, it will change the physical examination findings, making diagnosis difficult.
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 2: False• The dogma of withholding analgesia for fear that
it will alter an abdominal examination stems from the 1921 book by Dr. Zachary Cope entitled Early Diagnosis of the Acute Abdomen that stated, “If morphine be given, it is possible for a patient to die happy in the belief that he is on the road to recovery, and in some cases the medical attendant may for a time be induced to share the elusive hope.”
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 2: False• Several researchers have examined this question:
– Patients with abdominal pain randomly assigned to receive either IV morphine or saline.
– Patients were assessed before and after the morphine or saline was administered, and then assessed later by a surgeon if indicated.
– The presence of peritoneal signs did not change in the group that received morphine and the accuracy of diagnosis did not differ between the two groups of patients as well as between the emergency physicians and the surgeons.
– In fact, there was also a trend that the examination may be more reliable after treatment with morphine.
– Pace S, Burke TF. Intravenous morphine for early pain relief in patients with acute abdominal pain. Acad. Emerg. Med. 1996;3:1086–1092
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 2: False• 108 children with abdominal pain.
– 52 morphine– 56 placebo (saline)
• Groups well matched.• Morphine effectively reduces the intensity of [ain
and does not seem to impede the diagnosis of appendicitis.
– Green R. et al. Early analgesia for children with acute abdominal pain. Pediatrics. 2005;116:978-983.
Myths of Pain Management
MYTH #3: If I give my patient narcotics, they will develop respiratory arrest.
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 3: False• Respiratory depressant effects often
offset by sympathetic stimulation in the pain patient.
• Different than from respiratory depression in pain-free opiate addicts.
• Key is to use correct analgesic dose
Myths of Pain Management
MYTH #4: If I give my patient narcotics, they will abuse narcotics
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 4: False• Because a few patients malinger and
drug-seek is no reason to withhold from legitimate pain patients.
• Addicts need analgesia on occasion too.• Most people who become addicted to
pain killers have underlying addictive tendencies.
Myths of Pain Management
Myth # 4: False• In a 5-year review, the medical use of
opiates increased while the incidence of opiate abuse actually decreased.
– Joranson DE, Ryan KM, Gilson AM, Dahl JL. Trends in medical use and abuse of opioid analgesics. JAMA. 2000;283(13):1710-4.
Future Trends in Prehospital Pain Management
Future Trends
Methoxyflurane Inhalers Intranasal fentanyl Alfentanil (Alfenta) Tramadol (Ultram) Entonox Non-Pharmacological interventions
Methoxyflurane
Inhalation anesthetic with potent analgesic properties at low doses.
Highly-volatile liquid
Methoxyflurane
Came to attention of US EMS people after reality-based series Survivor
Methoxyflurane
Widely used throughout Australia in EMS and in Defence forces.
Methoxyflurane
Methoxyflurane has a fruity smell that is well-tolerated by patients
Administered via a methoxyflurane (Penthrane or Penthrox) inhaler
Methoxyflurane
Methoxyflurane
3 mL of methoxyflurane are placed onto the wick of the inhaler
Device gently shaken and any excess wiped off
Inhaler given to patient to self administer
Supplemental oxygen can be provided.
Methoxyflurane
Pain relief usually begins in 8-10 breaths
Lasts for 25-30 minutes Allows time for IV access and
morphine Should be used in well ventilated
area.
Methoxyflurane
Why don’t we have it?• Methoxyflurane limited to animal use in
US.• Reported liver and kidney toxicity (in
anesthetic doses—not analgesic doses)• US manufacturer quit making Metofane• Commonwealth of Australia considers
the drug safe for analgesic usage
Intranasal Fentanyl
Australian study has shown intranasal fentanyl safe and effective in treating trauma pain in children between 3-12 years of age.
Children 3-7: 20 μg IN Children 8-12: 40 μg IN Additional 20 μg doses q 5 minutes
Intranasal Fentanyl
Allowed for early and significant reduction in pain.
Shows great promise for emergency medicine and EMS
– Borland ML, Jacobs I, Geelhoed G. Intranasal fentanyl reduces acute pain in children in the emergency department: a safety and efficacy study. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2002;14(3):275-80
Alfentanil (Alfenta)
Chemical analogue of fentanyl (shorter acting)
Less side-effects than morphine
Alfentanil (Alfenta)
Faster, more effective pain relief when compared to morphine.
No hemodynamic or respiratory side-effects occurred.
– Silfvast T, Saarnivaara. Comparison of alfentanil and morphine in the prehospital treatment of patients with acute ischaemic-type chest pain. Eur J Emerg Med. 2001;8(4):275-8.
Tramadol
Synthetic analogue of codeine.
Has weak opioid agonistic properties.
Slight abuse potential
Non-controlled
Tramadol
Parenteral form not yet available in US
1/10 as potent as morphine Onset of action: 1-5 minutes IV Peak effects: 15-45 minutes Duration: 4.5 hours Typical IV dose: 100 mg
Tramadol
Analgesia and side-effects similar to morphine.
Concluded tramadol is an effective alternative to morphine in the prehospital setting.
– Vergnion M, Desgesves S, Garcey L, Magotteaux V. Tramadol, an Alternative to Morphine for Treating Posttraumatic Pain in the Prehospital Situation. Anest Analg. 2001;92:1543-6.
Entonox
Single-cylinder pre-mixed 50:50 nitrous oxide oxygen mixture.
Available everywhere but the US. Gasses tend to separate ~ 26° F (but
remix with inversion of cylinder) Cheaper, less bulky,
Entonox
Entonox
Study compared 2-cylinder to 1-cylinder system.
Nitronox safer in cold weather No significant clinical differences
overall– McKinnon KD. Prehospital analgesia with
nitrous oxide/oxygen. Can Med Assoc J. 1981;125:836-840
Entonox
Entonox preferred over Nitronox by prehospital personnel involved in study.
Non-Pharmacological
Interesting Austrian study for victims of minor trauma using acupressure.
Patients randomly assigned to receive acupressure at “true points,” at “sham points” or “no acupressure.”
Different values measured before and after treatment.
Acupressure
At the end of transport, patients who received acupressure at “true points” had less pain, less anxiety, a slower heart rate, and greater satisfaction with the care provided.
They concluded that acupressure is an effective and easy-to-learn treatment of pain in prehospital care.
– Kober A, ScheckT, Greher M et al. Prehospital analgesia with acupressure in victims of minor trauma: a prospective, randomized, double-blinded trial. Anest Analg. 2002;95(3):723-7.
Summary
How can we improve prehospital pain control?• All personnel should assess for the
presence and severity of pain.• Use objective pain measures• Medical directors need to become more
aggressive in pain management
Summary
Move prehospital pain management decisions for most conditions from on-line medical control to standing orders.
Time to morphine administration decreased by 2.3 minutes when this change made.
– Fullerton-Gleason L, Crandall C, Sklar DP. Prehospital administration of morphine for isolated extremity injuries: a change in protocol reduces time to medication. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2002;6(4):411-6
Summary
Liberalization of prehospital pain protocols resulted in increased usage with no apparent safety or misuse issues.
– Pointer JA, Harlan K. Impact of liberalization of protocols for the use of morphine sulfate in an urban EMS system. Prehospital Emergency Care. 2005;9(4):377-381
Summary
Field personnel, EMS physicians, administrators, and representatives from receiving hospitals should organize a comprehensive plan to assure that we are providing adequate analgesia in the prehospital setting.
EMS is a compassionate profession and compassion begins with the relief of pain and suffering