BLUE GOLD FROM THE HIGHEST PLATEAU:
Tibet’s water and global climate change
A report by the International Campaign for Tibet
BLUE GOLD FROM THE HIGHEST PLATEAU: Tibet’s water and global climate change
InternationalCampaignforTibet|7
Contents
Executive Summary 7
Part One: The Tibetan landscape and Chinese Policy 11
WhyTibet’senvironmentmatters 11
Thewarmingoftheplateauandglacialmelt 15
China’slandusepoliciesandtheirimpact 16
Disappearingpermafrost 17
Part Two: ‘An internal affair’: Beijing’s policies on Tibet’s environment 21
Tibet’swaterasstrategicasset 21
Tibet’sinfluenceonglobalclimate 24
Part Three: Tibet’s water and Chinese policies 27
‘Thegreatestwatergrabinhistory’:dammingTibet 27
MammothwaterdiversionplanthreatensTibet’secosystem 31
TherushtoexploitTibet’swater:bottlingtheglaciers 32
Thegreatwater-meadowofDzoegeandclimatechange:GabrielLafitte 35
Part Four: The ‘contradiction between grass and animals’: nomadic pastoralists and 41
official policyChina’scounter-productivepoliciesandanalternativeproposal:TseringTsomo 48
Harshwinter,bleakoutlook:aTibetannomad 50
Part Five: The impact of mining on Tibet’s water and environment 55
ApoemtoAmnyeMachen 61
Recommendations for protection of Tibet ‘the Third Pole’ at the Paris climate change 63
conference and beyond
Cover:ThecartoonhasbeenrealizedbyFifi,aliasPhilippeSadzot,wholivesandworksinLiège.Heisateacher
atESASaint-Luc(ArtSchool).SeveralofhisstorieshavebeenpublishedbytheeditorsRequinsMarteaux,Six
PiedssousTerreandCoiffeurspourDames(www.coiffeurspourdames.com).
Geographical note
Theterm‘TibetanPlateau’isusedatvariouspointsinthereport,referringtothevastelevated
plateauthatishistorically,ethnically,andculturallyTibetan.Tibetwastraditionallycomprised
ofthreemainregions:Amdo(northeasternTibet),Kham(easternTibet)andU-Tsang(central
andwesternTibet).TheTibetAutonomousRegion(Chinese:Xizangzizhiqu)wasestablishedby
theChinesegovernmentin1965andcoverstheareawestoftheYangtseRiver(Tibetan:Drichu),
includingpartofKham,althoughitisoftenreferredtonowas‘centralTibet’inEnglish.The
restofAmdoandKhamhavebeenincorporatedintoprovincesofthePRC,andwhereTibetan
communitiesweresaidtohave‘compactinhabitancy’intheseprovinces,theyweredesignated
asTibetanAutonomousPrefecturesandTibetanAutonomousCounties.Asaresult,mostof
QinghaiandpartsofGansu,SichuanandYunnanProvincesaredesignatedbytheChinese
authoritiesas‘Tibetan’.Theterm‘Tibet’inthisreportisusedtorefertoalloftheseTibetan
areasdesignatedbythePRCas‘autonomous’.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|9
Executive Summary
“The impact of climate change in Tibet is harsh. As the world focuses on climate action
at United Nations’ COP21 meetings, Tibet should be central to any progress made.
The Tibetan plateau needs protecting, not just for Tibetans, but for the environmental
health and sustainability of the entire world. As stewards of their own land, Tibetans’
expertise should be part of tackling climate change.”
– The Dalai Lama1
Encircledbyhighmountainsandwithanaverageelevationof4,500metersabovesealevel,the
TibetanPlateauisthelargestandhighestintheworldandaglobalbiodiversityhotspot.Known
astheearth’sThirdPolebecauseofitsstrategicimportanceasthelargestrepositoryoffresh
wateroutsidetheNorthandSouthPoles,itisalandscapeofenormousglaciers,alpinelakes,
andmightywaterfalls.Asastorehouseoffreshwaterandthesourceoftheearth’seightlargest
riversystems,Tibetisacriticalresourcetotheworld’s10mostdenselypopulatednations
surroundingtheplateau.
CoincidingwiththeCOP21talksinParis,whicharecriticaltothesurvivaloftheplanet,this
reporthighlightsastaggeringandlittle-knowndevelopment–Tibetisaclimatechange
epicenterthatiswarmingnearlythreetimesasfastastherestoftheearth.Itsglaciersare
melting,anditspermafrostdisappearing.Andinsteadofseekingtoprotectthisfragilehigh-
altitudeecosystemandaddressthesignificantchallengesitfaces,China’spoliciesarere-
shapingtheTibetanlandscapewithdevastatingconsequences.
Thisreportdocumentsthefollowing:
» Inwhathasbeentermedthe“greatestwatergrabinhistory”,butisalmostunnoticedbythe
restoftheworld,multipledamsarebeingbuiltonallthemajorriversrunningofftheTibetan
plateaubypowerfulstate-ownedChineseconsortiums.
» Plansforamammothwater-diversionschemeacrosssomeoftherestiveareasofTibet
transferringwatertoparchednorthernChinawillinvolveaninfluxofChineseengineers
tunnelingthroughmountains,buildingmoreconcretewallsacrossthewildmountainrivers,
andfloodingoneoftherichestwetlandareascriticaltotheplateau’sfragileecosystem.
» Thehighrisksofdammingandwaterdiversionprojectsinoneoftheworld’smostseismically
1 SeetheDalaiLama’svideomessageonTibet’senvironment,madeinadvanceoftheclimatechangeconferenceinParis:http://tibet.net/cop21/
10|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
activeregionshaveintensifiedconcerndownstream,withChina’slandusepolicies
increasinglybeingregardedasamatteraffectingregionalstability.Damsare beingbuilton
highgradientsatthemeetingpointofthreeoftheyoungestandmostunstablemountain
rangesintheworldwithoutevenrudimentaryassessmentsoftheimpactthatgougingout
billionsofcubicmetersofrockandearthtobuilddams,tunnelsandroads,andstoremillions
ofcubicmetersofwater,willhaveonthestabilityoftheearth’scrust.
» Large-scaleminingincopper,gold,silver,chromiumandlithium,signalingtheremote
region’sintegrationintotheChineseindustrialeconomy,ishavingadevastatingimpact,
leadingtorecordlevelsofwaterpollutioninTibet.Tibetanswhoexpressevenmoderate
concernabouttheimpactoftoxicwastes,deforestation,andlarge-scaleerosionriskbeing
imprisoned,tortured,orkilled.
» TheChinesegovernmenthasacceleratedimplementationofpoliciestodisplacenomadic
pastoralistsfromthevastTibetangrasslands,amassivesocialengineeringcampaignthat
threatenstoeviscerateasustainablewayoflifeuniquelyadaptedtotheharshlandscapeof
thehighplateau.ThisisdespiteascientificconsensusinthePeople’sRepublicofChina[PRC]
andbeyondthatindigenousstewardshipandherdmobilityisessentialtothehealthofthe
rangelandsandhelpsmitigateclimatechange.
» InthesamemonthasglobalclimagechangetalksbegininParis,theChineseauthorities
haveannouncedadramaticexpansionofthebottledwaterindustryinTibet,despite
shrinkingglaciersandthealreadyapparentimpactoftherushtoexploitTibet’srivers.
» Acombinationofurbanization,intensifiedmilitarizationlinkedtoChina’sstrategicaims,
infrastructureconstructionandwarmingtemperaturesarecreatingan‘ecosystem
shift’inTibet.Thisinvolvesirreversibleenvironmentaldamage,includingthepredicted
disappearanceoflargeareasofgrasslands,alpinemeadows,wetlandsandpermafrostonthe
Tibetanplateauby2050,withseriousimplicationsforenvironmentalsecurityinChinaand
SouthAsia.
WithTibet’sriverwatersbeingdivertedandtheflowstemmedforelectricitygeneration
inChinesecitiesfarfromtheplateau,mining,irrigation,urbanizationandothereconomic
activitiesfulfillingChina’sstrategicobjectives,thetransboundaryimplicationsofChina’s
controloverTibetarestarkerthanever.
Givenitscriticalimportance,theimpactofclimatechangeontheTibetanplateauisnotonlya
regionalbutaglobalissue,ofuniquesignificanceforthefutureoflifeonearth.
ButbecausewaterisseenasastrategicassetbytheCommunistPartygovernment,andasit
originatesinTibet,Beijing’spoliciesonTibetremainexemptfromgenuinedebateandenquiry.
TheChineseCommunistParty[CCP]authoritiesseektoconveytheimpressionthattheir
devastatingpoliciesinTibetareaimedatconservation.Thestatemediausesasmokescreen
ofopaqueterminologyinordertoconvincegovernmentsgloballythattheirlandusepolicies
areaimedatclimatechangeadaptionandmitigation.Dam-buildingisdescribedas‘water
conservationconstruction’andthedisplacementofnomadicpastoralistsfromtheancestral
InternationalCampaignforTibet|11
grasslandstheyhaveprotectedforcenturiesisframedintermsofenvironmentalprotection,
althoughtheoppositeisthecase.
Inadisturbingnewdevelopment,theChineseleadershipisseekingtogainendorsementfrom
internationalinstitutionsandgovernmentsforthecreationofnationalparksontheplateau
thatarecontingentupontheremovalofnomadsfromtheirpastures.
ThisreportdocumentsincreasingcriticismofthesedevastatingpoliciesbyChinesescholarsand
expertswithinthePRC.Togetherwithinternationalexperts,thereisaclearscientificconsensus
thattheglacier-fedriversandpasturesoftheplateauaresustainedbygrazing,notthreatened
byit.
ThisreportispublishedasworldleadersmeetinParisatCOP21totrytoreachadealtocut
carbonemissions.Failurecouldbecatastrophic.Thestateoftheclimateinthesecondhalfof
thecenturyandbeyondwilldependontheoutcome.
AnewapproachiswarrantedonTibet’s‘bluegold’fromtheChinesegovernment,andthe
internationalcommunitymustdirectlychallengeChina’spoliciesbeforeitistoolate.
Givenitslocation,withthelargestreserveofaccessiblefreshwateronearthandasthesource
ofmostofAsia’smajorrivers,Tibetisofincreasinggeopoliticalsignificance.Assuchitneeds
tobebroughtbacktocenterstageasanissuetiedtoAsianandglobalsecurity,atthecenterof
Asia’sunfoldingfuture.
ConservingtheenvironmentoftheTibetanplateauisanurgenttask.Thisreportsetsout
aroadmapforanewapproach,involvingabetterunderstandingofitsuniqueecologyand
thecollaborationofallofthepeoplewhohaveastakeinthefutureofTibet.Itcallsfor
strengthenedparticipationbyTibetancommunitiesinthedevelopmentprocess,basedonthe
integrationofscience-basedconservationwithTibetanstewardshipoftheland.Italsorequires
thatindigenousknowledgeisbetterunderstood,includingtheefficacyofmanytraditional
naturalresourcemanagementpractices.
Tibetneedsseriousattentioninglobaltalksonclimatechange,andChina’sstrategiesto
addressclimatechangeneedtoinvolvetheTibetanpeople.AstheDalaiLamasaid:“Thisblue
planetisouronlyhomeandTibetisitsroof.TheTibetanplateauneedstobeprotected,notjust
forTibetans,butfortheenvironmentalhealthandsustainabilityoftheentireworld.”
RiversinTibet:imagescourtesyofMichaelBuckley,authorofMeltdowninTibet
InternationalCampaignforTibet|13
Part One: The Tibetan landscape and Chinese Policy
Why Tibet’s environment matters
“Water has emerged as a key issue that would determine if Asia is headed towards
mutually beneficial cooperation or deleterious interstate competition. No country
would influence that direction more than China, which controls the aqua-rich Tibetan
plateau – the source of almost all the major rivers of Asia. The plateau of Tibet holds
more fresh water than any place on earth, other than the polar ice caps. But while the
water in the ice caps is all locked up, much of the water in Tibet is accessible.”
– Brahma Chellaney, a professor at the Centre for Policy Research in Delhi and author of
a major book on water in Asia2
MostofAsia’sbiggestrivers,intheearth’slargestriversystems,havetheirsourceinTibet.The
Brahmaputra,ormoreaccurately,theYarlungTsangpoBrahmaputra-Jamunariver,issourced
intheglaciersofthehighHimalayaandmakesthefamous‘GreatBend’,plungingthroughthe
world’sdeepestgorge,tothenorth-easterncornerofIndia,tothelowlandsofBangladeshand
itsfinaldestinationintheBayofBengal.
TheIndus,whichflowsalongthelengthofPakistan,issourcedinTibetwhiletheMekongrises
highontheplateauandrunsthroughChina’sYunnanprovince,Laos,Thailand,Cambodiaand
Vietnam,whiletheSalween(Tibet:GyalmoNgulchu)issourcedinQinghaineartheheadwaters
ofMekongandYangtze.3
2 CommentmadeatacloseddoorroundtablewiththeDalaiLama,theHagueCentreforStrategicStudies,June5,2009,
publication‘WaterontheTibetanPlateau:EcologicalandStrategicImplications’,fordownloadingseehttp://www.hcss.nl/or
http://www.tibetpolicy.eu/water-on-the-tibetan-plateau-ecological-and-strategic-implications-for-the-region/
3 SeemapofriversoriginatinginTibetonMichaelBuckley’sMeltdowninTibetwebsite
http://www.meltdownintibet.com/images/plateaumap_lg.jpg,reproducedinthisreport.Foradetailedsummaryabouteachriver,
seethislinkonthesamewebsite:http://www.meltdownintibet.com/f_riverbyriver.htm
14|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
TheYellowandtheYangtzerivers,lessglacially-dependentfortheirflowthanotherrivers
sourcedontheplateau,bothruntocoastalChina.Althoughforthefirsttimeinitshistory,in
1972,theYellowRiverdriedupsomuchthatitevenfailedtoreachthesea.4
TibetisencircledbythepeaksoftheHimalayanrangetothesouth,theKarakoramrangetothe
west,theKunlunrangetothenorthandtheHengduanrangeintheeast.
WhenTibetanscrossthehighpasses,theyofferprayerflagsandshout‘LhaGyalo!Victoryto
theGods!’reflectingasacredsenseoflandscapethathas,untilnow,helpedtoprotectTibet’s
fragileecosystem.Thisconceptofsacredmountains,lakesandvalleyswherefloraandfauna
weretobeleftuntouchedemergedfromtheanimistfaithofBon,whileBuddhistsbelievethere
isaverycloseinterdependencebetweenthenaturalenvironmentandthesentientbeingsliving
init.5Thisconceptofinterdependencebetweenhumanbeingsandnaturehasinfusedmuchof
thedistressamongTibetansattheminingofmountainsperceivedassacred,ordammingof
holylakes.
TheDalaiLama’spromotionofglobalinterdependenceandprotectionoftheenvironment
wasoneofthereasonsthathewasawardedtheNobelPeacePrizein1989.Inhisacceptance
speech,hesaid:“BothscienceandtheteachingsoftheBuddhatellusofthefundamentalunity
ofallthings.Thisunderstandingiscrucialifwearetotakepositiveanddecisiveactiononthe
pressingglobalconcernwiththeenvironment.”6
InasimilarreflectionoftheimportanceofBuddhistbeliefininterdependenceandtaking
responsibilitytoprotecttheenvironment,Tibetanreligiousleaderthe17thKarmapa,headof
theKarmaKagyuschoolofTibetanBuddhism,providesconservationleadershipthroughthe
organisation‘Khoryug’(Tibetanfor‘environment’)acrosstheHimalayas.7
TheKarmapa,whoisfromanomadicfamily,wrote:“IcomefromaregionofTibetthatis
consideredbackwardbypeoplewholiveinLhasa,letaloneintheWest.Myfamilylivedin
conditionsthatmanywouldthinkveryharshandundeveloped.Andyetmyfather,whonever
attendedschool,knewfromhisownfatherthatifyouwanttoprotectaspring,youshould
planttrees.Ithinkwewillfindthatindigenouspeople,wholiveclosesttonature,areoftenour
greatestalliesintryingtoprotectit.”8
4 LeadingChinesewateractivistMaJunsaid:“Theoncemighty[YellowRiver]hasbynowbecomeasmall,filthystreamthatcannot
evenflushmuchofitssedimentintothesea.”Citedin‘ThirstyChina:ItsKeyResourceConstraintisWater’,WaterRisk,2006,
chinawaterrisk.org
5 ForexampleseetheDalaiLamaon“ecologyandthehumanheart”,
http://www.dalailama.com/messages/environment/ecology-and-the-human-heart
6 SecretAmericancablesrevealedbyWikileaksandpublishedbyTheGuardiansaidthattheDalaiLamatoldUSdiplomatsin2009that
theinternationalcommunityshouldfocusonclimatechangeratherthanpoliticsinTibetbecauseenvironmentalproblemsweremore
urgent.TheGuardian,‘WikiLeakscables:DalaiLamacalledforfocusonclimate,notpolitics,inTibet’byJasonBurke,December16,
2010,http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/16/wikileaks-dalai-lama-climate-change
7 Khoryug,foundedbythe17thKarmapa,whoescapedintoexileinIndiafromTibetin1999-2000,isanon-sectarianassociationofTibetan
BuddhistmonasteriesdedicatedtoenvironmentalprotectionontheBuddhistprincipleoftheinterdependenceofallsentientbeings
andtheearth.http://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/tibetan-monasteries-at-work-for-the-environment).
8 ‘WalkingthePathofEnvironmentalBuddhismthroughCompassion&Emptiness’bythe17thKarmapa,Talkat23rdMind&Life
conference,‘Ecology,Ethics&Interdependence’.Videoat:http://www.ecobuddhism.org/wisdom/interviews/hhk2011.Whatthe
KarmapaissuggestingisinlinewithglobalexperiencewhichshowsthatthemosteffectivewayofachievingREDD(Reducingemissions
fromdeforestationandforestdegradation)objectivesisbyincludingpastoralistsaspartofthesolutionratherthanexcludingthemas
partoftheproblem.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|15
Tibetfromspace.TheHimalayanRangelookingfromeasttowestwithTibetontheright.NamTsoLakeis
visibleonthelowerrightoftheimage.ImagecourtesyofNASA,takenonDecember4,1988.AlsoseeDaniel
J.Miller,DanielMiller’sbook‘TibetfromSpace:AstronautPhotosoftheTibetanPlateauandHimalaya’.
Tibet,whichisknownasaglobalbiodiversityhotspot,istheprimehabitatofsomeofthe
world’srarestwildlifespeciessuchastheTibetanantelopeandthesnowleopard,andhometo
morethan5,760speciesofplantsofwhichmorethan1,000varietieshavecommercialutilityas
medicinalherbs.9Thefaunaisuniquelysuitedtothealtitude.Bar-headedgeese,forinstance,
knownas“astronautsonthewing”,10migrateacrosstheHimalayastwiceayear,soaringhigh
enoughtoclearMountEverest(Tibetan:Chomolungma).
Tibet’sgloballysignificantbiodiversityisdividedintothreeecologicalzones:highaltitude
steppegrasslands;theforestsoftheeasternandsouth-easternplateau,andthemixedshrub
andagriculturallandsofsouth-centralTibet–allinterspersedwithhighmountainrangeswith
extensivealpinezones,glaciersandicefields.
9 DetailsgivenduringaroundtablewiththeDalaiLama,theHagueCentreforStrategicStudies,June5,2009,publication‘Wateronthe
TibetanPlateau:EcologicalandStrategicImplications’,ibid.
10 MichaelBuckley,‘MeltdowninTibet:China’sRecklessDestructionofEcosystemsfromtheHighlandsofTibettotheDeltasofAsia’,
PalgraveMacmillan,2014,p24.
16|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Leftandbottomright:SinceawaveofoverwhelminglypeacefulprotestssweptacrossTibetfromMarch2008
theChineseleadershiphassteppedupitsmilitarybuildupandstrengthenedthepoliciesandapproachesthat
aretherootcauseoftheacts,suchasaggressivecampaignsagainstloyaltytotheDalaiLama,indicatingtheir
determinationtoensureimplementationoftheirstrategicandeconomicobjectivesontheplateau.Thisimage
showstroopsatKumbummonasteryinQinghaiinMarch,2015,aspilgrimsgatherforareligiousceremony.
Topright:MilitaryinthestreetinLabrang,Gansu(theTibetanareaofAmdo)infollowingtheself-immolation
ofaTibetanonOctober22,2012inthemainstreetofLabrang,Sangchucounty,KanlhoTibetanAutonomous
Prefecture,Gansu.Dhondup,aTibetanmaninhisfifties,becamethe57thTibetantoself-immolatewhenheset
firetohimselfinprotestonOctober22,2012outsideLabrangTashikyilmonstery.Since2009,morethan140
Tibetanshaveself-immolatedinwhathasbecomeoneofthebiggestwavesofsuchpoliticalprotestworldwide
inthepast60years.
HydroprojectsonorneartheTibetanPlateau.MapcaptionedinEnglishfromauthorMichaelBuckley’s
website,www.meltdownintibet.com
InternationalCampaignforTibet|17
FromPakistanintheWesttoVietnamintheEast,theseglaciersandmountainsprovidewater
forhumanconsumption,irrigatefarmlands,generatehydropowerandprovidefoodandwater
fortherapidlyincreasingpopulationandexpandingindustriesacrossAsia,includingIndiaand
China,thefastestgrowingeconomiesofthe21stcentury.
The warming of the plateau and glacial melt
Itislittle-knowngloballythatTibetisnowwarmingnearlythreetimesasfastastherestofthe
world.11A2007studybytheTibetAutonomousRegion(TAR)MeteorologicalBureaufoundthat
theTARisexperiencinga0.3°Cincreaseintemperatureeverydecade,12overtwicetheglobal
averagewithfourofthefivewarmestwintersinthelast35yearsintheTARoccurringsince
2000.13IcecorerecordsfromtheDasuopuglacierinTibetrevealthatthelast50yearshavebeen
thewarmestin1,000years.14
Citinglackofdataasanimpedimenttodetailedresearch,amorerecentsurveyconfirmedthat
inthepast20years,temperaturesabove4,000metersoftheplateauregionhavewarmed
nearly75percentfasterthanthatinareasbelow2,000meters.Thestudy,producedbyglobal
changeresearchbodytheMountainResearchInstitute,highlightedthatwithoutsubstantial
information,theworldisatriskofunderestimatingtheseverityofanumberofproblemslike
watershortageandthepossibleextinctionofsomealpinefloraandfaunaspecies.15
GlaciersintheHimalayasareshrinkingfast.“Theglaciersarevirtuallybeingdecapitatedfrom
thetopbyawarmingclimate,”saysKangShichang,aglaciologistatChineseAcademyof
Sciences’InstituteofTibetanPlateauResearchinBeijing.16
RajendraK.Pachauri,chairmanoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,wascited
assaying:“Atleast500millionpeopleinAsiaand250millionpeopleinChinaareatriskfrom
decliningglacialflowsontheTibetanPlateau.Thisisoneofthegreatconcerns–astaggering
11 TheChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationcalculatesthattemperaturesontheplateauhaverisenanaverageof0.58degrees
Fahrenheitperdecade,morethanfourtimestheaveragewarmingrateinChinaasawhole.“Aplateauisalmostlikeafrying
paninthesky.Ithastodowiththewaythelandinteractswiththeatmosphere.Everywhereintheworld,themountains
areheatingupfasterthanthelowlands,”saidBarryBaker,aclimatechangeexpertwiththeNatureConservancy,whois
alsostudyingtheglaciersinYunnanprovince.CitedbyBarbaraDemick,LosAngelesTimes,December15,2009.Alsosee:
http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub38/item1734.html
12 Xinhua,November20,2007
13 AsianNewsInternationalreportarchivedbyNewScientist,July25,2007
14 ‘EnvironmentalinformationrecordedinshallowicecoreofDasuopuglacierintheQinghai-TibetanPlateau’,CuilanHuang,TandongYa,
JianchenPu,KeqinDuan,NinglianWanandLideTian(http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02883475)Correspondence,
ChineseScienceBulletinNovember1998,Volume43,Issue22,pp1935-1936
15 ‘HighaltitudeareasofTibetanPlateauwarmingfasterthanlowerregions’,byJyontsaSingh,May27,2015,
http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/high-altitude-areas-of-tibetan-plateau-warming-faster-than-lower-regions-49939
16 KangShichanghadexaminedicecoresdrilledfromtwoTibetanglaciersatabout6,000meters,heexplainedatthe28thHimalayan
KarakoramTibetWorkshopandthe6thInternationalSymposiumonTibetanPlateauJointConferenceinTubingen,Germany,inAugust,
2013.Atthesameconference,AchimBräuning,apalaeoclimatologistattheUniversityofErlangen-NuremberginGermany,said:
“Higherelevationstendtohavecoldertemperaturesyear-round.Weusedtothinkthatglaciersathighelevationswereprettysafe,but
thisstudyshowsthatthismightnotbethecase—atleastatcertainlocations.”‘Tibetanglaciersareshrinkingattheirsummits’by
JaneQui,Nature,September13,2013,http://www.nature.com/news/tibetan-glaciers-are-shrinking-at-their-summits-1.13767
18|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
numberofpeoplewillbeaffectedinthenearfuture.Therearen’ttoomanyresearcherswho
havelookedatthiswatersituationanditsfar-reachingimpacts.”17
Themeltingofglaciersmeansmorefloodingintheshort-termandmoredroughtsinthelong-
term.AccordingtoChinesescientistLiuShiyin:“Theshrinkingofglaciershaspickedupspeed
inthepastdecades.Whiletheremightbemorewaterintheriversatpresentbecauseofthe
increasedmelting,inthelongrun,theglacierwaterwilldecrease,anddroughtswillfollow”.18
DrKatherineMorton,aspecialistinclimatechangeandregionalsecurityinTibetwhoisbased
attheUniversityofSheffieldintheUK,writes:“Glacialmelthasdramaticadverseeffectson
biodiversity,peopleandlivelihoodswithlong-termimplicationsforwater,foodandenergy
security.Itcanalsotriggerahigherincidenceofnaturaldisasters–landslides,floodingand
glaciallakeoutbursts–thatcan,inturn,leadtointernaldisplacementandthedestruction
ofcriticalinfrastructure.Overthelongerterm,highertemperatureswillincreasefloodingin
therainyseasonandreducewaterinthedryseason,thusaffectingfoodproductioninthe
provincesdownstream,aswellasthelivelihoodsofover1billionpeopleinChina,India,Nepal
andBangladesh.Eventuallywatershortageswilloccuronamassivescale.Theconsequences
foraregionthatisalreadyhighlypronetobothfloodsanddroughtaredire.Weare,ineffect,
facingahumanitariancatastropheintheworld’smostpopulousregion.”19
China’s land use policies and their impact
ScientistsbelievethatinTibetaselsewhereonedriverofclimatechangemaybelandcover
andlandusechangesrelatingtoagricultureandurbanization.Thesefactorsmayeven
outweigh‘greenhousegasforcing’.20“Themanycivilengineeringprojectscurrentlyunderway,
suchastheconstructionoftheQinghai-Xizangrailroad[completein2006],combinedwitha
consciouseffortbyChinatourbanizetheTibetanplateau,willleadtofurtherandlikelygreatly
acceleratedpopulationincreasesandlandsurfacechangesinthefuture,”saidscientistsOliver
17 InterviewwithCircleofBlue,‘China,Tibet,andtheStrategicPowerofWater’,May8,2008,byKeithSchneiderandC.T.Pope,
http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2008/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/TheUNIntergovernmental
PanelonClimateChangeissometimesquotedassayingthattheAsianglacierswoulddisappearbytheyear2035,butthis
turnedouttobeanerrorbasedonthetranspositionofnumbersfromtheyear2350to2035.Butitisequallypossiblethatthe
icewilldisappearsooner.See‘TheIPCC’s2035predictionaboutHimalayanglaciers’,postedon21January2010byJohnCook,
http://www.skepticalscience.com/IPCC-2035-prediction-Himalayan-glaciers.html
18 LiuShiyinfromtheChineseAcademyofScience’sColdandAridRegionsEnvironmentandEngineeringResearchInstitutewasquotedin
‘Glaciersmeltingatalarmingspeed’,ChinaDaily,July24,2007,availableat:www.chinadaily.com.cn.
19 ‘AnuncertainfutureonthePlateau’byKatherineMorton,April28,2009,
https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/2961
20 Anthropogenic’greenhousegasforcingisgenerallyconsideredtobethemaincauseoftheobservedwarminginhigh-elevationareas.
Anthropogeniceffects,processes,objects,ormaterialsarethosethatarederivedfromhumanactivities,asopposedtothoseoccurring
innaturalenvironmentswithouthumaninfluences.OliverW.Frauenfeld(NSIDC/CIRESCPP)andTingjunZhang(NSIDC/CIRESCPP)
write:“Likeelsewhereontheglobe,anequallyimportantanthropogeniccomponenttoclimatechangemaybelandcoverandland
usechangesontheTP[TibetanPlateau].Theselocal—regionalsurfaceeffectsrelatedtoagricultureandurbanizationpotentially
outweighgreenhousegasforcing.Infact,ourrecentresearchhasshownthatplateau-averagedstationrecords,biasedtowardlow-
lyingpopulatedregions,showawarmingtrendof0.16°Cdecade—1overthelast50+years.However,plateau-widetrendsfroman
independentdatasourcefreeofsurfacecontaminationindicatenotrend.Thishasledustohypothesizethat,indeed,landuse/cover
change(LUCC)couldlargelyaccountforthereportedwarmingontheTibetanplateau.”From‘IsClimateChangeontheTibetanPlateau
DrivenbyLandUse/CoverChange?’,awinningproposalfortheCooperativeInstituteforResearchinEnvironmentalSciencesInnovative
ResearchProgram,2005,jointlysponsoredbytheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderandtheOfficeofOceanicandAtmosphericResearch
atNOAA.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|19
W.FrauenfeldandTingjunZhang.“Accordingtosomestudies,thecarryingcapacityofparts
oftheTibetanPlateauhasbeenfarexceeded,partlyduetoinappropriatelandmanagement
practicesimplementedinthe1950s.Additionally,urbanization,whichcanresultin8–11°C
highertemperaturesthaninsurroundingruralareas,hasoccurredontheTibetanplateauin
citiessuchasLhasa,Golmud,andXining.”21
Scientistshavenowwarnedofan‘ecosystemshift’ontheplateauduetoclimatechange
andhumanactivities,reducingfuturewatersupplytoChinaandSouthAsia.Warming
temperatures,combinedwithadramaticinfrastructureboom,agrowingpopulationand
overgrazingarecombiningtopushfragileecosystemsontheworld’slargestandhighest
plateaufromonestatetoanother,accordingtoscientistsfromtheKunmingInstituteof
Botany.22
Thisirreversibleshiftwillmeantheregionwouldnolongerbeabletoprovidekey
environmentalservices–suchaswaterandcarbonstorage–totherestofAsia.Itwould
meanthatareasofgrasslands,alpinemeadows,wetlandsandpermafrost,essentialtoTibet’s
biodiversity,willdisappearontheTibetanplateauinthenext35years.
21 ‘IsClimateChangeontheTibetanPlateauDrivenbyLandUse/CoverChange?’awinningproposalfortheCooperativeInstitutefor
ResearchinEnvironmentalSciencesInnovativeResearchProgram,2005,jointlysponsoredbytheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderand
theOfficeofOceanicandAtmosphericResearchatNOAA.
22 ‘BuildingecosystemresilienceforclimatechangeadaptationintheAsianhighlands’byJianchuXuandR.EdwardGrumbine,August28,
2014,http://wires.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WiresArticle/wisId-WCC302.html
NomadicpastoralistsacrossTibetarebeingdisplaced
fromthegrasslandsandresettledinoftenbleak
concreteencampmentsinremoteareasfarfrom
communityamenitiesornearnewroadsandurban
areasaspartofChina’sambitiousandelaborateplans
thatarere-shapingtheTibetanplateau.
20|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Disappearing permafrost
Permafrost,thefrozenlayersofsoilthatunderpintwothirdsoftheplateauandprovide
essentialcarbonandwaterstorage,isdegradingrapidlyinTibet.AccordingtoarecentChinese
scientificreport,about81percentofthepermafrostontheTibetanplateaumaydisappear
around2100duetothewarmingclimate.23
OnlyweeksaftertheopeningoftheQinghai-Tibetrailwayin2006,theChinesestatemedia
announcedthatfissureshadbeguntodevelopinitsconcretestructuresduetothesinkingand
crackingofitspermafrostfoundation.24Chinesescientistshavesinceadmittedthatthesafety
oftheGolmud-Lhasarailway(andotherraillinksacrosstheplateau),couldbethreatenedby
meltingpermafrostonwhichthetracksarebuilt.25
Whileglaciersandpermafrostmelt,areascoveredbynaturalvegetationcouldexpand;making
morelandavailableforfarmingandraisinglivestock.However,themismanagementof
expandingfarmingandpastoralareas,coupledwiththeincreasedchancesofdroughtdueto
climatechange,couldinsteadresultinincreaseddesertification.26
23 Xinhua,November18,2015,inEnglish,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-11/18/c_134828505.htm
24 FordetailsoftheengineeringworkandexpenditurerequiredforbuildingontheshiftingpermafrostoftheTibetanplateau,seeAbram
Lustgarten,‘China’sGreatTrain:Beijing’sDriveWestandtheCampaigntoRemakeTibet’,TimesBooks,2008.Arailwaytechnology
websitestated:“Some550mofitstracksareonfrozenearth,passingthroughboththeworld’smostelevatedtunnel–Fenghuoshan
Tunnel(4,905m)–andthelongestplateautunnel–KunlunMountain(1,686m)–tobebuiltonfrozenearth.[…]Aroundhalfofthe
GolmudtoLhasasectionwaslaidonbarelypermanentpermafrostwithwintertemperaturesthatplummetto-35ºC,whilethe
summer’s30+ºseestheupperlayersthawingtomud.Theengineersapproachedthisproblembyconstructingelevatedtracksand
causewaysoversomeofthemostdifficultterrain,whileinotherareas,pipeshavebeeninstalledtocirculateliquidnitrogenbelow
therailbedtokeepthegroundfrozen.”(http://www.railway-technology.com/projects/china-tibet/)SeemoreatICTreport,‘New
strategicrailnetworktoTibet’sbordersendangersenvironment,raisesregionalsecurityconcerns(Updated)‘,November12,2014,
http://www.savetibet.org/new-strategic-rail-network-to-tibets-borders-endangers-environment-
raises-regional-security-concerns/#49
25 Reuters,citingChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationheadZhengGuoguang,May6,2009:
http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/06/us-china-climate-tibet-idUSTRE5451IM20090506
26 ClimateChange2007:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability’,contributionofWorkingGroupIItotheFourthAssessmentReportofthe
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),Cruz,R.V.,H.Harasawa,M.Lal,S.Wu,Y.Anokhin,B.Punsalmaa,Y.Honda,M.Jafari,
C.LiandN.HuuNinh,2007;Eds:M.L.Parry,O.F.Canziani,J.P.Palutikof,P.J.vanderLindenandC.E.Hanson,CambridgeUniversityPress,
Cambridge,UK,pp.469–506;p.486.
Beijing’spoliciesonTibetremainexemptfromgenuinedebateandenquiry,andthereislittleacknowledgementofhowlandusepoliciesaredangerously
impactingenvironmentaldegradation.Scientistshavelinkedmajorinfrastructureprojects,suchasthehigh-altitudetraintoLhasapicturedhere,with
warmingoftheplateau.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|23
Part Two: ‘An internal affair’: Beijing’s policies on Tibet’s environment
Tibet’s water as strategic asset
“At a deeper level, the threat of large-scale environmental catastrophe reaffirms the
need for a twenty-first century view of progress that moves imperatively beyond the
nineteenth century model of nation-building based on the expansive exploitation of
natural resources. Rather than simply a strategic buffer zone caught between the
ambitions of great powers, the Tibetan Plateau could become a strategic conservation
zone acting as a buffer against environmental catastrophe that threatens one-fifth of
humanity.”
– Dr Katherine Morton, expert on climate change and regional stability27
Thereportsaboutthecracksintherailwayfoundationsduetodisappearingpermafrost,
andothersimilarreportsintheChinesestatemedia,aresignsthatthegovernmentis
acknowledging,toanextent,thechangingconditionofTibet’swatersupply.Butthereisa
strikingdiscrepancybetweenofficialadmissionsoftheenvironmentalcrisisinTibetbyChinese
leaders,andtheapparentrefusalbytheChinesegovernmenttoacceptthatthishasany
implicationsfordevelopmentstrategyinTibet.
Beijing’spoliciesonTibet,includingoncriticalenvironmentalquestions,remainexemptfrom
genuinedebateandenquiry.Thereislittleornoacknowledgmentofhowlandusepoliciesare
dangerouslyimpactingenvironmentaldegradation.
Whenjournalistsforawebsiteontheworld’sresourcecrisessoughttointerviewscientistsin
China,theyobservedthat“WhilemostscientistsintheregionagreethattheTibetanPlateau’s
27 ‘AnuncertainfutureonthePlateau’byKatherineMorton,April28,2009,
https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/2961
24|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
waterresourcesarecrucialtothefutureofChinaandSouthernAsia,manydeclinedtobe
interviewedforfearoflosingaccesstotheirresearchsites.”28
ThisisbecauseTibet’swaterisviewedasan‘internalmatter’fortheCCPofcriticalimportance
toitsnationalsecurity,anditsstrategicandeconomicobjectives.Thepro-damlobbyis
powerfulandalignedwithmajorChineseconsortiumsinvolvedintheimplementationof
ambitiousandelaborateplanstore-shapeTibet.Waterisseenasastrategicasset,and
becauseitoriginatesinTibet,hasanaddedpoliticalsensitivity.TheCCPattemptstodeflect
genuineinternationalenquiries,usingterminologyintendedtoconveytheimpressiontheir
policiesareaimedatconservation,withoutacknowledgingtheintensifyingdegradationofthe
environment.Forinstance,asthisreportshows,buildingmega-damsaredescribedas‘water
conservation’projects.Inanextremeexampleof‘green-grabbing’,nomadsarebeingremoved
fromthegrasslandstheirindigenousknowledgeprotects,tomakewayfornaturalparksthat
Chinaframesaspartoftheirclimatechangemitigation.
Thepoliticalstakesarehigh,meaningthatevenmoderatecriticismisoftennotpossible.Atthe
‘SixthWorkForum’inAugust2015,thefirstmajorpolicymeetingonTibettobepresidedover
byPartyleaderXiJinpingsincehecametopower,itwasmadeclearthatTibetisnotofmarginal
concernbutamatterofthehighestprioritytotheleadershipoftheChineseCommunistParty
(CCP).
Totheleadership,TibetisviewedasanissueofChina’s‘nationalsecurity’,withseniorChinese
politicaladvisorYuZhengshengstatingatarallyinLhasainAugust(2015):“Tibetplaysan
importantroleinsafeguardingnationalsecurity,anditisintheinterestsofallTibetanpeople
tomaintainnationalunityandethnicsolidarity.”29
Partyofficialsequatepolitical‘stability’intheTibetAutonomousRegion-politicallanguagefor
theeliminationofdissentandenforcementofcompliancetoChineseCommunistPartypolicies
-withthesecurityoftheentirePRC,partlybecauseTibetisanimportantborderarea.30Many
ofthedamsinTibetarebeingbuiltintheNyingtriarea(Kongpo,Chinese:Linzhi),intheTAR,a
highlymilitarizedareathatbordersArunachalPradeshinIndia.31
28 ‘CircleofBlue’,awebsiterunbyleadingjournalistsandscientists,providingon-the-groundinformationabouttheworld’sresource
crises,http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2008/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/
29 ICTreport,September8,2015,
https://www.savetibet.org/tough-warnings-on-anti-separatism-from-party-leaders-at-political-anniversary-in-tibet/
30 ChairmanoftheTibetAutonomousRegion’sPeople’sCongressPemaThinley(referredtoasPadmaCholing
byChinesemedia)underlinedthisapproachonChina’sNationalDay,October1(2015),whenhesaid:“Tibet’s
stabilityistiedtonationalstability,andTibet’ssecurityistiedtonationalsecurity.”(TibetDaily,October3,2014,
http://epaper.chinatibetnews.com/xzrb/html/2014-10/03/content_572862.htm).SeeICTreport,September8,2015,
https://www.savetibet.org/tough-warnings-on-anti-separatism-from-party-leaders-at-political-anniversary-in-tibet/
31 AsananalysisofthepoliticalrepercussionsofplanningfortheYarlungTsangporiver,PremShankarJhawritesthatfollowingthe
announcementofsomeofthewateruseplans,theChineseAmbassadorinNewDelhimadeastatementsayingthatChinaconsidered
thewholeofthenortheasternstateofArunachalPradeshtobeapartofTibet.Thiswasareversalofitsearlierposition,developed
inasuccessionofbilateralnegotiationssince1994,thatChinawaspreparedtosettleforasubstantialmodificationofsomepartsof
theexistingtemporaryboundary,calledtheLineofActualControl.TheannouncementtooktheIndiangovernmentbysurpriseand
wasfollowedbythreeyearsofrisingtensionalongtheborder.ChinabegantorefertoArunachalas“SouthTibet”,andtoitsprincipal
monasteryatTawangasTibet’ssecondmostimportantmonasteryafterLhasa.ItalsobegantodenyvisastoIndianofficialswhowere
fromArunachalPradesh.Thetensionwasnotdefuseduntiltherewasameeting between then premier Wen Jiabao and prime minister
Manmohan Singh,atHuaHin,Thailand,inOctober2009,designedspecificallytopreventitsspilling overintomilitaryconflict.”
(https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6753-Why-
India-and-China-should-leave-the-Yarlung-Tsangpo-alonewho)
InternationalCampaignforTibet|25
China’scurrenteconomicimperativesemergefromtheCCP’sambitiousandtransformative
campaignof‘Xibu da kaifa’,thestrategytodevelopthewesternregionsofthePRC.The
ChinesetermkaifainthiscontextisoftenrenderedintoEnglishas‘development’;however,
standarddictionariesdefinekaifaas‘develop’,‘openup’and‘exploit’,whichreflectshowthe
PartyperceivesthewesternareasofthePRC-essentiallyasprovidersofresourcesinorderto
facilitatedevelopmentinthecentralandeasternregions.
China’sleadershopethatthePRC’swesternregion’sresourcescanhelptosatisfythenation’s
risingdemandforwater,mineralsandenergy–andnow,additionally,asadriverfortourism.
Xibu da kaifaisahigh-profilepoliticalcampaign,initiatedbythethenChinesePresidentand
CCPChairmanJiangZeminin1999–2000.AsoneofthemajordynamicsofcontemporaryChina,
itisanenormousundertaking,affectingmorethan70%ofthePRC’slandareaandalmost
aquarterofitsvastpopulation,includingTibetans,UyghurMuslimsandother‘national
minorities’.Thedriveisnotrestrictedtothe10westernprovincesofthePRCbutincludes
underdevelopedprovinceswithlargeethnicpopulationsinotherregions,especiallyInner
MongoliaandGuangxi.
TheintegrationofTibetanareasintoChinaandexploitationofthenaturalresourcesof
theTibetanplateauhavebeenprioritiessincethefoundationofthePRC,andtheWestern
DevelopmentStrategyrepresentedanaccelerationofthisprocess.
Forthe13thFive-YearPlanperiod,whichbeginsin2016,theChineseauthoritiesarefocusingon
“therelocationoftheworld’sfactoryawayfromChina’seastcoasttonewhubsfarinland,at
thefootoftheTibetanPlateau,whichwilldrawtheirrawmaterialsfromTibetratherthanfrom
imports”,accordingtoenvironmentalspecialistGabrielLafitte.“Tibet,Asia’snumberonewater
tower,istoprovidethewater,copper,gold,silverandmanyothermetals,plusenormousflows
ofhydropowertothefactoriesofChongqing,Chengdu,LanzhouandXiningthatmakeallthe
bigbrandconsumerproductsinourpockets.ThistooistransformingTibet,asChina’sresource
nationalismfindsdomesticsourcestosubstituteforimports,primarilyinTibetandelsewherein
westernChina.”32
ManyChineseeconomistsandanalystsinthePRChavecriticizedthecurrentformof
infrastructural,GDP-orientedgrowth,pointingoutthatitispotentiallydangerous,probably
unsustainable,likelytodamagelocalresourcesandenvironment,andencouragesoutside
migrationandprofitextraction.ItisimposedfromthetopdowninBeijing,withscantregard
forlocalneeds,viewsandlivelihoods.33
Thismodelofdevelopment,basedonresourceexploitationandinfrastructureconstruction,
isincreasing,ratherthandecreasing,Tibet’sdependenceonsubsidiesfromthecentral
government,especiallyintheTAR.Callingthisthe“disempowereddevelopmentofTibet
inChina”,34developmenteconomistDrAndrewM.Fischerdrawsattentiontothesurgein
subsidiesintheTAR,withoutaccompanyingeconomicgrowth.Fischerstatesthatsubsidy-
32 ‘PitchingTibetinanewkey’postedbyGabrielLafitteonhiswebsiterukor.org,November21,2015
33 Forfurtheranalysis,seeICT’sreport,‘TrackingtheSteelDragon:HowChina’seconomicpoliciesandtherailwayaretransforming
Tibet’,availablefordownloadingathttp://www.savetibet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/TrackingTheSteelDragon.pdf
34 ‘TheDisempoweredDevelopmentofTibetinChina:Astudyintheeconomicsofmarginalization’,byAndrewMartinFischer,Lexington
Books,2014
26|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
drivengrowthhasalsobeenassociatedwitharapidtransitionofthelocalTibetanlabourforce
outoftheprimarysectorofherdingandfarming,andintoconstructionandurbanservice
sectoremployment,takingplaceatafasterpacethananywhereelseinChina,butithasbeen
withouttheproductiveeconomicfoundationsorlocalpoliticalautonomytosupportthese
changes.35
“Tosaythattheperversecharacteristicsofthissubsidy-driveneconomicmodelaresomehow
relatedtomarketisation,orneoliberalism,divertsattentionawayfromthecentralroleof
thestateinshapingthedeeplystructuralcharacterofthesetransformations,”writesAndrew
Fischer.“Thestatecoulddramaticallychangethesituationbyadoptingadifferentpolicy
approachinTibet.Thismustgobeyondsimplyincreasingculturalsensitivityinthedeliveryof
economicdevelopmentstrategies.Itwouldneedtoembrace,forinstance,afarmorepro-
activeapproachtopreferentialemployment.Butultimatelythesocialtensionsandinequities
associatedwiththecurrenteconomicstrategywillcontinuetopersistaslongasthestructures
ofownershipandpowerinthelocaleconomyremainunaddressed.”36
ThesepoliciesarenotonlytransformingthephysicallandscapeofTibet,butalsotheinner
landscapeofTibetanlives,theiridentityandculture,asthisreportshows.
Tibet’s influence on global climate
ItisincreasinglyrecognizedthatTibet’sclimateandlandusepoliciesshouldnotbetreated
solelyasan‘internalaffair’oftheChinesegovernment.Althoughmanyspecificdetailsremain
elusive,atleastinpartduetolackofdata,scientistsareincreasinglyacknowledgingthe
keyroleplayedbyTibetintheglobalclimatesystem.WhathappensontheTibetanplateau
influencesclimateandatmosphericchangesnotonlyinAsia,butasfarawayasEastAfricaand
evenEurope.
ArecentChinesescientificreportstatedthatworseningheatwavesinEuropeandnorth-east
Asiaarelinkedtothinnersnow-coverontheTibetanPlateau,highlightingtheplateau’skeyrole
inglobalweathersystems.37
Environmentspecialist,AustralianscholarGabrielLafitteexplainedtoEuropean
ParliamentariansinameetinginadvanceoftheParisclimatechangetalks:“TheTibetan
plateauisthesizeofWesternEurope,anditsbulk,itsseasonalcoolingandheatingdirectly
affecttheatmosphere,rightacrossthenorthernhemisphere.Thejetstreamthatmeanders
acrosstheplanetisdeflectedbythesheerbulkandaltitudeoftheTibetanPlateau,whichis
35 ‘Tibet’seconomicgrowthanaccountingillusion?’byAndrewM.Fischer,InstituteofSocialStudies(TheHague),July9,2015,
http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/07/09/tibets-economic-growth-an-accounting-illusion/
36 AndrewM.Fischer,ibid
37 ProfessorWuZhiweiandherteamofscientistsatNanjingUniversityofInformationScienceandTechnologyusedmonthlysnow
coverandairtemperaturedatafromthepastfiftyyearstobuildaglobalcirculationmodel.Theirfindingsshowthatreduced
snowcoverontheTibetanplateautriggershighpressureoversouthernEuropeandnortheastAsia,reducingcloudformation
andpushinguptemperatures.Warmeranddrierconditionsinturnfurtherinhibitcloudformation,intensifyinglocalheatwaves,
accordingtoapapertheypublishedrecentlyin‘Climate Dynamics’.SeeBethWalker,September28(2015),ChinaDialogue,
https://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/8204-Less-snow-in-Tibet-means-more-heatwaves-in-Europe-/en.Theauthorsofthepaper
acknowledgedthelackofhighqualityandlong-termclimatedatafortheTibetanplateau.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|27
closetotwopercentoftheplanetarylandsurface.Inwinter,coldpolarairpushessouthwards,
andthejetstreamisdeflectedtotheHimalayas,whichprotectIndiafromtheintensecoldof
continentalinnerAsia.Inspringandsummer,theTibetanplateau,especiallythebarerockof
theupperslopes,heatsfast,sofastthatthejetstreamswitchesfartothenorth,deflected
aroundthenorthernplateauedges,thusdrawinginfromthefarIndianOceantherainbearing
cloudsofthemonsoon.”38
Climatescientistshavelookedalongthelatitudecirclingthenorthernhemisphere,fromthe
TibetanPlateau,acrossEastAsia,thenorthPacific,NorthAmerica,theAtlanticandonto
Europe,andfoundthatairpushedintotheuppertropospherebyTibetonlydescendswhenit
reachesEurope.Thismeansthatclimatically,TibetandEuropearedirectlyconnected.
38 ‘EnvironmentalDegradationontheThirdPole’,AbriefingformembersoftheEuropeanParliament,Brussels,November16,2015,
http://rukor.org/environmental-degradation-on-the-third-pole/
ScientistsareincreasinglyacknowledgingthekeyroleplayedbyTibetintheglobalclimatesystem;what
happensontheTibetanplateauinfluencesclimateintheNorthernHemisphereaswellasinAsia.
WatersurgesfromtheenormousZangmu
damatthehydro-powerstationonthe
highestriverintheworld,theYarlung
Tsangpo,soonafteritbecameoperational
inNovember,2014.Imagefromthe
ChineseofficialnewsagencyXinhua.
Thisimagefromtheofficialmediashows
theZangmudamontheYarlungTsangpo
river.Thelastremaininggeneratorof
thedambecameoperationalinOctober
(2015),intensifyingfearsdownstream
inIndiagiventhehighrisktodamming
upstreaminoneofthemostseismically
sensitiveareasonearth.
ThisimagefromtheChinesestatemedia
showsthelaunchoftheelectricitygrid
betweentheTibetAutonomousRegion
andSichuanonNovember20,2014.The
rapiddam-buildinginTibetisintendedto
produceenergyinhydro-electricpower
stationstobeconveyedalonghigh-voltage
transmissionlivesforChina’sexpanding
urbancentersfarfromTibet.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|29
Part Three: Tibet’s water and Chinese policies
‘The greatest water grab in history’; damming the plateau
HalfofallthedamsintheworldarenowinChina–ithasbuiltmorelargedamsthantheUS,
BrazilandCanadacombined.39Afteralltheriversinnorthern,centralandeasternChinahad
beendammed,theChineseauthoritiesbegantolookwest,awarethattheriversrushing
throughdeepcanyonsattheedgeoftheTibetanplateauholdthehighesthydropowerpotential
intheworld.
Almostunnoticedbytherestofworld,tensofthousandsofengineersarebuildingdamson
Tibet’sriversinordertoproduceenergyinhydro-electricpowerstationstobeconveyedalong
ultra-highvoltagetransmissionlinesforChina’sexpandingurbancentersfarfromTibet.40The
intentionistointegrateTibetintothenationalgrid,withconnectionsbetweenhydro-damsand
long-distanceelectricitysupplyfromthefootoftheTibetanplateautoGuangdong.Locally,the
electricitygeneratedwillalsobeusedforminingandmineralprocessing.
IndiananalystBrahmaChellaney,oneoftheleadingexpertstohighlightthesignificanceand
strategicimplicationsofChina’slandusepoliciesinTibet,termsitthe“greatestwatergrabin
history”.41
Therapidandlarge-scaledevelopmentofmineralandhydropowerresourcesacrosstheplateau,
combinedwiththedramaticexpansionofaroad,railandairnetwork,arekeyelementsof
China’scentrallyplanneddevelopmenttargetsforTibet,whichincludethedevelopment
oftourism.42Thedams,manyofwhicharebeingconstructedinthesensitiveandhighly
39 BethWalkerandLiuQininTheDiplomat,‘TheHiddenCostsofChina’sShifttoHydropower’,July29,2015,
http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/the-hidden-costs-of-chinas-shift-to-hydropower/.AlsoseeBrahmaChellaney,‘Water:Asia’sNew
Battleground’,p61
40 ForGoogleEarthimagesofsomeofthelargedams,seeMichaelBuckley’sMeltdowninTibetwebsite,‘BigDamGallery’,
http://www.meltdownintibet.com/f_damgallery.htm
41 BrahmaChellaney,citedin‘ChinaandIndia“watergrab”damsputecologyofHimalayasindanger’,byJohnVidal,TheGuardian,
August10,2013,http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/aug/10/china-india-water-grab-dams-himalayas-danger
42 Thisisanincreasinglysignificantdevelopmentthatisbeyondthescopeofthisreporttoexplore.ItwillbeexaminedinupcomingICT
reports.TourisminTibethashitarecordhigh,andthemajorityoftouriststoTibetarenolongerWesternbackpackersbutmiddle-class
Chinese.ThepushtoadvancetourismtoTibetisanintegralelementofChina’sstrategicandeconomicobjectivesinTibet;following
thelarge-scaleexploitationofTibet’smineralandothernaturalresourcesunderthe‘WesternDevelopmentStrategy’,nowthe‘post-
industrial’businessoftourismhaschangedthedynamicofinvestment,drawingmoreforeigncompaniesandgovernmentstoenterthe
Tibetaneconomy,suchasinternationalhotelchains,andintegratingitwithChina’s.
30|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
militarizedareaofNyingtri(orKongpo,Chinese:Linzhi),intheTibetAutonomousRegion,and
theconstructionofthenewraillinesbringtheChinesegovernmentmuchclosertothegoalset
byMaoZedongover40yearsagoofintegratingTibetwithChina.Theimplementationofthese
elaborateplansheightensTibetanfearsforthesurvivaloftheirculturalandreligiousidentity.43
AmajorgoalofChina’sFive-YearPlan,from2016-2020,istointensifythebuild-upofhydropower
damsonallthemajorTibetanrivers,fromwhichonebillionpeopledrinkdaily.44Cascadesof
damsaretobebuiltonallthewildmountainrivers;ontheupperreachesoftheYangtzeand
andSalween,therearesitesforaround100dams,whichareeitherbuilt,underconstruction
orplanned.OthercascadeswillstemChina’slastfree-flowinginternationalrivers–suchas
theMekongandBrahmaputra–whichcouldsparktensionswithIndiaandSoutheastAsian
countriesdownstream.
Onthehighestriverintheworld,theYarlungTsangpo(Brahmaputra),thelastremaining
generatoroftheenormousZangmudambecameoperationalinOctober(2015),45creatingmajor
concerninIndia.TheZangmuDam,onabendoftheriveraround155kmfromLhasainShannan
(Tibetan:Lhoka),ispartoftheZangmuHydropowerProjectandsupportsahuge510MWpower
station,whichbecameoperationalin2014asthelargesthydropowerstationinTibet.
DespiteChineseassurancesthatthedamswouldnotaffectthedownstreamareaoftheYarlung
Tsangpo,46ithasdeepenedtensionsbetweenChinaandIndiaovercapturingthehydroelectric
potentialoftheYarlungTsangporiverbasin.PremShankarJha,writingforChinaDialogue,
believesthisisinvitingcalamity:“Theseplansareengineers’dreamsrunamok.Iftheyhave
theirway,upto360damswillbebuiltonslopeswithagradientofasmuchas60degrees,at
themeetingpointofthreeoftheyoungestandmostunstablemountainrangesintheworld.
ButneithertheChinesenortheIndiangovernmenthavemadeevenarudimentaryassessment
oftheimpactthatgougingoutbillionsofcubicmetersofrockandearthtobuilddams,tunnels
androads,andstoremillions,insomecasesbillions,ofcubicmetersofwater,willhaveonthe
stabilityoftheearth’scrustinthisregion.”47
JiaoYong,deputyheadofChina’sMinistryofWaterResources,toldapressconferenceearly
in2015thatChinaplannedtobuild27major‘waterconservation’projects(whichrefersto
dammingandwaterdiversion)in2015,withabouthalfconcentratedinwesternregions,“inan
attempttopromoteurbanization”.JiaoYongsaid:“Theamountofinvestmentinmajorwater
43 ICTreport,‘NewstrategicrailnetworktoTibet’sbordersendangersenvironment,raisesregionalsecurityconcerns’,November12,
2014,http://www.savetibet.org/new-strategic-rail-network-to-tibets-borders-endangers-environment-raises-regional-
security-concerns/#sthash.RQ5td6a4.dpuf
44 Detailedinformationondamsandthreelistsofhydropowerprojects(HPP)inthewatershedsoftheDrichu(Yangtze),Zachu(Mekong)
andGyalmoNgulchu(Salween)riversupuntil2013,inthe12thFive-YearPlanperiod,areprovidedbyexpertTashiTseringathis
blogsite:http://tibetanplateau.blogspot.co.uk/TashiTseringwrites:“AsprojectsinSichuan,QinghaiandYunnanarecompleted,
projectsinTibetAutonomousRegionwillbedeveloped,movinggenerallyfromeasttowest.Astheseprojectsgetdeveloped,necessary
infrastructurewillbeinplacetodeveloptheBrahmaputraRiver’stheGreatBendarea.”
45 “China’sfirsthydropowerdamonBrahmaputraisfullyoperational”, HiLight News, October 13, 2015.Retrieved19November2015.
46 AChineseForeignMinistryspokespersontoldapressconferenceonNovember24,2014,thatthe“ecologicalpowerplant”“wouldnot
affectthedownstreamareaoftheYarlungZangpoRiver.”(http://finance.eastmoney.com/news/1365,20141126450114748.htmlin
Chinese).
47 ‘WhyIndiaandChinashouldleavetheYarlungTsangpoalone’byPremShankarJha,March5,2014,
https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6753-Why-India-and-China-should-leave-the-Yarlung-Tsangpo-alone
InternationalCampaignforTibet|31
conservationprojectswillbefurtherincreasedthisyear,comparedwiththe488billionyuan
($79.74billion)lastyear.”48Hesaidthattheplans“willhelpexpandChina’sdomesticdemand
andsupporteconomicgrowth.”JiaoYongconfirmedthatof17largehydroprojectscarriedout
in2014,tenwereinthewesternregionsofthePRC.
Theplansfordam-buildinghavegatheredpaceinTibetdespitethe“modelfordisaster”set
bythemassiveThreeGorgesDam,theworld’slargesthydropowerprojectandmostnotorious
dam,whichisontheYangtzeRiverandtributaries.Thismassiveprojectsetsrecordsfornumber
ofpeopledisplaced(morethan1.2million),numberofcitiesandtownsflooded(13cities,140
towns,1,350villages),andlengthofreservoir(morethan600kilometers).Theprojecthasbeen
plaguedbycorruption,spiralingcosts,environmentalimpacts,humanrightsviolationsand
resettlementdifficulties.Theenvironmentalimpactsoftheprojectarelikelytogetworseastime
goeson.49In2011,China’shighestgovernmentbodyforthefirsttimeofficiallyacknowledgedthe
“urgentproblems”oftheThreeGorgesDam.50
DescribingtheThreeGorgesas“amodelfordisaster”theInternationalRiversNetworkstated:
“YetChinesecompaniesarereplicatingthismodelbothdomesticallyandinternationally.[…]
WithinChina,hugehydropowercascadeshavebeenproposedandarebeingconstructedin
48 ‘27waterconservationprojectsplanned,halfinwesternregions’,GlobalTimes(inEnglish),April4,2015
49 DetailsatInternationalRiversNetworkcampaignsummary:https://www.internationalrivers.org/campaigns/three-gorges-dam
50 InternationalRiversNetworkblogbyPeterBosshard,May19,2011,
https://www.internationalrivers.org/blogs/227/chinese-government-acknowledges-problems-of-three-gorges-dam
AdetailedmapofdamsonthewatershedsoftheDrichu(Yangtze)Zachu(Mekong),andGyalmoNgulchu
(Salween)riversinthe12thFive-YearPlanperiod,preparedbyTashiTseringonwww.tibetanplateau.blogspot.
co.uk
32|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
someofChina’smostpristineandbiologicallyandculturallydiverseriverbasins–theLancang
(UpperMekong)River,Nu(Salween)RiverandupstreamofThreeGorgesDamontheYangtze
Riverandtributaries.”51
DammingupstreaminTibetcarriesgreatrisks,particularlyastheplateauisoneofthemost
seismicallyactiveareasoftheworld.DrWangWeiluo,anengineerandgeographerwhoisan
expertondam-buildingattheUniversityofDortmund,pointsoutthehighrisksofbuilding
damsinhighmountainregionslikeTibet:“Dam-buildingraisesthewaterleveloftheriver
whichincreasesthepressureofthewaterontheground.Thisraisesthenumberofgeological
catastrophesespeciallysincethevalleys[oftheHimalayas]aresoyoung;landslidesor
rockslideswillalreadyincreaseashashappenedintheThreeGorgesdamregion.”52
DrWangWeiluomakesthevividcomparisonoftheMohnedamnearhisuniversityin
Dortmund,Germany,whichwasbreachedduringtheSecondWorldWarbyRAFbombers(the
‘Dambusters’).Theresultingfloodwavekilledatleast1579people.DrWang,whoseworkis
blockedfrompublicationinChinaaccordingtotheGermandocumentary‘StruggleforTibet’,
said:“Hereweseearelativelylowdam,whichwhenbreachedreleasedaneightmeterhigh
floodwave.ButdamsinTibetwhichare400metershighwouldresultinunprecedented
catastropheiftheseweretobebreached.”53PremShankerJhawritesinChinaDialogue:“The
deathtollfromthefractureofevenoneofthesedamswould,therefore,runintomillions.”54
TheconcentrationofdamswillbeparticularlydenseontheJinsha(upperYangtze)River,where
cascadesequaltofivetimesthe22.5GWcapacityoftheThreeGorgesdamareproposed.These
damswillnotonlyholdbackwaterflowbutalsosilt,heighteningriskofmajorsubsidencein
theYangtzedeltaandfloodsaroundmajorcitiessuchasShanghai.
“Hydroelectricpowerisprobablythemostdisruptivealternativeenergysourceavailable.
Energy-producingdamsareessentiallyinahugewrestlingmatchwithpowerfulrivers,”wrote
JoeMcCarthyinGlobalCitizen.“Theriverswanttoflowunimpeded,whilethedamwantsto
headlockthewater.Theensuingtussleleadstomanyunintendedeffects.”55
ReplacingcoalwithhydropowermayleadtocleanerairforcitizenseastcoastofChina,but
thereisahighenvironmentalpricetopay.Chineseenvironmentalistshavecalledforanurgent
halttolargehydroprojects,pointingoutthatthecountry’srushfordamshasalreadydestroyed
riverecosystems,fishhabitatsandraisedfearsaboutsafetyinearthquake-proneregions,butto
noavail.56
51 InternationalRiversNetworkcampaignsummaryhttps://www.internationalrivers.org/campaigns/three-gorges-dam
52 DrWangWeiluowasspeakinginthefilm‘StruggleforTibet’,adocumentaryoriginallyshownonGermanTV,writtenanddirected
by:ShiMing,ThomasWeidenbachforWDRandNDR,incollaborationwithArte.ThefilmwontheInternationalCampaignforTibet-
Germany‘Snowlion’journalistawardin2014(http://www.laengengrad.de/en/produktionen/dokumentationen/tibet.php)
53 ‘StruggleforTibet’,adocumentaryoriginallyshownonGermanTV,detailsasabove.
54 ‘WhyIndiaandChinashouldleavetheYarlungTsangpoalone’byPremShankarJha,March5,2014,
https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6753-Why-India-and-China-should-leave-the-Yarlung-Tsangpo-alone
55 https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/5-most-powerful-hyrdroelectric-dams-in-the-world/
56 In2004,afteramajorcampaignbyChineseenvironmentalgroupsagainstdammingoftheSalween,thethenPremierWenJiabao
intervenedandannouncedthattheplansfortheSalweenwouldbedelayeduntilmorecarefulenvironmentalandsocialimpactcould
beassessed.Againin2009,WenJiabaoreiteratedthisstance.Butinearly2011,itwasquietlyannouncedthatthedamcascadewould
goaheadasoriginallyplanned,reversingthesuspension.WorkatSaigeDamontheSalweenisunderway.(MichaelBuckleyon‘Saving
theSalween’,http://www.meltdownintibet.com/f_river_salween.htm).
InternationalCampaignforTibet|33
MichaelBuckley,authorof‘MeltdowninTibet’,wroteintheNewYorkTimes:“Thiswillend
badlyforthenationsdownstreamfromTibet,whicharecompetingforscarcewater.Damming
andwaterdiversioncouldalsoendbadlyforChina,bydestroyingthesourcesoftheYangtze
andYellowRivers.
“Thesolutiontothesecomplexproblemsissimple:Sincetheseenormousprojectsarestate-
runandstate-financed,China’sleaderscancancelthematwill.ThoughcampaignsbyChinese
environmentalistshavestoppedsomedamprojects,thepro-damlobby,backedbyChinese
consortiums,ispowerful.Therearealternativestodisruptingtherivers:Chinahasmadegreat
investmentsinsolarandwindpower,buthasnotsignificantlydeployedtheminTibet.”57
Mammoth water-diversion plan threatens Tibet’s ecosystem
Itisequallyalarmingthatanelaborateandambitiousplantodivertwaterawayfromtheupper
YangtzeandintotheYellowRiverisscheduledtobeginconstructionduringthe13thFive-Year
Planperiod.58Inwhatisknownasthewesternrouteofthemassivesouthtonorthwater
diversionproject,theChineseauthoritieshavecompletedtworouteschannelingwaterfrom
theYangtzefartothenorth,toparchednorthernChina.
Thenextstepwouldbetogoaheadwithaprojectedthirdcanal–throughTibet-fromthe
YangtzeinthesouthtotheYellowRiverinthenorth.ThiswouldtraversetherestiveTibetan
prefecturesofNgaba(Chinese:Aba),wherethecurrentwaveofself-immolationsbeganin
2009,59andKardze(Chinese:Ganzi)inSichuanprovince.
Theplanswerethatfirstthetwolowlandcanalswouldbedugandblasted,thentheentire
engineeringteamwouldbeswitchedtoTibet,startinginthe13thFive-YearPlanperiodin2016.
ItwouldentailaninfluxofChineseworkersandengineerswithheavyequipmentintoremote
valleys,involvingtunnelingthroughmountainsandthecanalitselfwindingaroundthesidesof
mountains.Itwouldbelikelytotakelongerthanfiveyearsandwouldhaveanirreversibleand
devastatingimpact.
Earlierin2015,JiaoYong,deputyheadofChina’sMinistryofWaterResources,wascitedin
theChineseofficialmediaassayingthathe“promisedtocarefullystudythewesternrouteof
thesouth-to-northwaterdiversionprojectthatfeedsthethirstyNorthwestandNorthChina,
includingGansuProvinceandInnerMongoliaAutonomousRegion”.Consistentwiththeline
takenbytheChinesegovernmentthatdammingandwaterdiversionrepresent‘conservation’,
57 ‘ThePriceofDammingTibet’sRivers’byMichaelBuckley,NewYorkTimesoped,March30,2015,
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/31/opinion/the-price-of-damming-tibets-rivers.htmlAlsoseeMichaelBuckley’swebsite,
MeltdowninTibet,http://www.meltdownintibet.com/
58 SofartheauthoritieshavenotgivenfulldetailsofthecontentoftheFiveYearPlanbeginningin2016.Moreinformationislikelytobe
announcedinMarch2016atthesessionoftheNationalPeople’sCongress.
59 Thefirstself-immolationinTibetinthecontemporaryerawasayoungmonkfromKirtimonasteryinNgaba,Amdo.ICT
factsheetonself-immolationsinTibet:http://www.savetibet.org/resources/fact-sheets/self-immolations-by-tibetans/
andreport,‘StormintheGrasslands:Self-immolationsinTibetandChinesepolicy’,
http://www.savetibet.org/storm-in-the-grasslands-self-immolations-in-tibet-and-chinese-policy/
34|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
hesaidthattheauthoritieswouldbeexaminingtheproject“withwaterconservationasa
priority.”60JiaoYongsaidhewas:“confidentthattheprojectwillplayadominantroleinthe
economicdevelopmentofnorthernChina.”Thereisnoconfirmationyetinofficialplansof
whetheritwillindeedgoahead;moredetailsmaybemadepublicinMarch2016,whentheCCP
hoststheNationalPeople’sCongressinBeijing.
Inananalysisofthismammothwater-diversionproject,GabrielLafittereferstochangesin
China’sdomesticpoliticssincetheThreeCanalSouth-to-NorthWaterTransferprojectwasfirst
announced,sayingthat:“UsersoftheYangtzeRiver,allthewaydowntoShanghaiandthe
sea,areincreasinglyprotectiveoftheirriver,anddon’twantanymoreofitdiverted,andthe
downstreamprovincescarryenormousclout.[…]Anotherreasonagainstthisthirdcanalever
beingbuiltisthatthewater,afterfloodingtherichestwetlandmeadowpastureinTibet,at
Dzoege,willflowthroughtheupperYellowRiver,withwateravailabletoupperriverprovinces
suchasGansuandNingxia,maybeasfardownstreamasInnerMongolia.Buttheywillgraball
thebenefits,therewon’tbeenoughflowforthemorepoliticallypowerfulprovincesfurther
downriver,includingtheheartlandofChina’scoalandcoal-firedelectricityindustry,plusBeijing
itself.”61
ButLafittealsopointsoutthatthenewwaveofindustrializationcurrentlytakingplacein
Xinjiang(EastTurkestan),directlytothenorthoftheTibetanplateau,isafactorthatcould
tipthebalancetowardsthethirdcanalwhich,ifbigenough,coulddivertwaternotonly
eastwardstoGansuandfurtherdowntheYellowRiver,butalsonorthandwestinXinjiang.
“Manyaluminiumsmeltersarebeingbuilt,reliantonelectricitygeneratedbynewcoalandgas
burningpowerstationsusingtheabundantfuelsuppliesofXinjiangandwhichChinaimports,
viaXinjiang,fromKazakhstantothewest,”Lafittewritesinthesamearticle.“Thereisonlyone
thingmissinginXinjiang,andthatiswater.MuchofXinjiangisdesert,itstownstraditionally
clusteredaroundoases.Coalfiredpowerstationsneedcoolingtowersthatusealotofwater,
likewisealuminiumsmeltingandothermajorheavyindustriesunderconstructioninXinjiang
willallneedlotsofwater.”
The rush to exploit Tibet’s water: bottling the glaciers
TherushtoexploitTibet’swaterresourcesinvolvesbothcentralandprovincialauthorities
workingwithmajor,powerfulstate-ownedcorporations.Boththemega-damsandbottling
waterdirectfromTibet’sglaciersarenowahighpoliticalpriorityfortheChineseauthorities,
andinparticulartheTARgovernment.
Despiteshrinkingglaciersandtheimpactthatexploitationofpreciousresourceswouldhave
onneighboringcountries,theprovincialauthoritiesinTibetandstate-ownedbusinessesare
pushingaheadwithamassiveexpansionofthebottledwaterindustry.
60 ‘27waterconservationprojectsplanned,halfinwesternregions’,GlobalTimes,April1,2015,
http://english.sina.com/china/2015/0331/797168.html
61 ‘Water,watereverywhere’,blogbyGabrielLafittepostedonJanuary16,2015,http://rukor.org/water-water-everywhere/
InternationalCampaignforTibet|35
InNovember(2015),theTARauthoritiesannouncedanewten-yearplantoexpandthebottled
waterindustry,withitstargetofbuilding5millioncubicmetersofbottledwaterproduction
capacityby2020.62
“TheTibetanwatertowercannotsupportallthedammingandtheextractingthatistakingplace
rightnow,”saidJenniferTurner,directoroftheChinaEnvironmentForumattheWoodrowWilson
InternationalCenterinWashington.“Bottledwaterdoesn’thavenearlytheimpactthatdams
andwater-intensiveindustriesdo,butit’sanotherbigdropbeingtakenoutofthebucket.”63
SeveralpowerfulChinesecorporationsrecentlyvisitedtheplateau,includingtheThreeGorges
Corporation-believedtohaveclosetieswithformerpremierLiPeng64-aswellasSinopec
Group,ChinaNationalGoldGroupandNongfuShanquanandGuangmingFoodGroup,tosign16
agreementsoverdrinkingwatersupply.65$407m(2.6bnyuan)worthofdealsweresignedwith
investorsandtheTARauthorities,whichreportedthatsalesofdrinkingwaterhadrisenby200%
andthattherewasanintentiontoturnthe“naturaldrinkingwater”businessintoa“pillar
industry”.66
62 Chinesestatemediareport,November1,2015,inChinese:http://www.xzxw.com/xw/xzyw/201511/t20151101_892883.html
63 ‘ChinaIsTappingTibetanGlacierstoMeetGrowingDemandforBottledWater’,byMattSmith,November14,2015,
https://news.vice.com/article/china-is-tapping-tibetan-glaciers-to-meet-growing-demand-for-bottled-water
64 ‘FormertopofficialsfromChinaThreeGorgesCorporationmovedtonewposts’,April6,2014,
http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1465944/former-top-officials-china-three-gorges-corporation-moved-new-posts
65 Statemediareport,January19,2015,http://www.chinanews.com/sh/2015/01-19/6982702.shtml
66 StatemediareportinChinese,September25,2015:http://xz.people.com.cn/n/2015/0925/c138901-26528733.html
ThisdiagrambyChinaWaterRiskshowsthemassiveplannedexpansionofhydropowerinChina,mainlyfrom
Tibet’srivers.CourtesyGabrielLafitte.
36|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Itisnotablethatthisdevelopmentdoesnotrefertotheprovisionofsafedrinkingwaterforthe
generalpopulationbutthesaleofbottledwater.Sinceearly2015theSinopecGrouphassold
glacierwaterbottledfromTibetinits23,000petrolstationsandconveniencestoresacross
China.
ChinaWaterRiskresearcherLiuHongqiaowroteinChinaDialogue:“Waterbottledupstream
amongsnow-cappedpeaksis[…]perceivedaspure,commandingapremium.Thishasledto
ahugeinfluxofcompanieshopingtocashinontheregion’swaterresources.Thoughitonly
makesupaverysmallproportionofChina’sannualbottledwaterproduction,suchpremium
waterisseenasthenewpointofgrowthforthecountry’sboomingbottledwaterindustry.”67
JenniferTurnerfromWoodrowWilsonInternationalCenternotedthattheChinesecentral
authoritiesmayneedtobepreparedto“dialbacktheTibetanspigot”,sayingthatChinese
leadersknowtheyhavetoimprovetheefficiencyofalltheirmajorsystemsfortheirnew
prosperitytobesustainable,andbottledwater“isnotaveryefficientwaytobeusingwater.
There’salreadyadisconnectbetweenthegoalsoftheTibetanauthoritiesandofficialsinthe
centralgovernment,whichappearsreadytosetreducedquotas.Mismatchedcentraland
provincialpoliciesaddtotheindustry’suncertainfuture.Weexpectthegovernmenttomoveto
re-alignsuchmismatchedpoliciesinthefuture,whichwillimpacttheindustry.”68
ConstructionofdamsinTibetinvolvesmajorstate-ownedenterprisesthatrelyonParty
connectionstodobusiness.Fourmajorcorporationshavebeendetailedinstatemediareports
fortheirinvolvementwithbuildingthedams,detailedasfollows:theHuanengCorporation
Group(oneofthefivelargeststate-ownedelectricutilityenterprisesinChina,administrated
bytheStateCouncilofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,andthefirstChinesepowerproducer
tojointheranksofFortune500Companies,ranking224thin2015):theHuadianCorporation
Group;DatangCorporation(oneoffivelarge-scalepowergenerationenterprisesinthePeople’s
RepublicofChina,establishedonthebasisofformerStatePowerCorporationofChinain
2002)69andChinaGuodianCorporation.70Justasnomaddisplacementfromancestral
pasturelandsiscarriedoutinthenameof‘conservation’accordingtoChineseofficial
representations,sothesehugeandpotentiallycatastrophicdamprojectsarecharacterizedas
‘waterconservation’projectsinthestatemediaandtoTibetanpeople.
AnaccountofameetingwithsomeoftheTibetAutonomousRegionleadershipandlocal
farmersinTibetDailyonNovember22(2015)alignedtheconstructionofhydro-powerdams
withthepoliticalobjectivesof“unitingthepeople”andallegiancetotheCommunistParty.It
stressedtheimportanceofthehydropowerprojectsasanessentialelementofimplementing
thevisionofPartySecretaryandPresidentXiJinpingfollowingtheFifthPlenumandsettingof
the13thFive-YearPlan.71
67 AreportbyChinaWaterRiskdetailshowbottledwateristhreateningChina’sgroundwaterandAsia’sglacialwatersheds.
http://chinawaterrisk.org/notices/bottled-water-in-china-boom-or-bust/#sthash.2DVIxmps.dpuf
68 https://news.vice.com/article/china-is-tapping-tibetan-glaciers-to-meet-growing-demand-for-bottled-water
69 TheSouthChinaMorningPostreportedinJune(2015)thatLiPeng’sdaughterLiXiaolinhadbeenmadeVice-Presidentofthecompany.
(SCMP,June9,2015)
70 Thewebsitesofthecompaniesareasfollows:http://www.chng.com.cn/eng/;http://www.chd.com.cn/;
http://www.china-cdt.com/dtwzandhttp://www.cgdc.com.cn.
71 TibetDaily,November22,2015,http://www.mzb.com.cn/html/report/160136173-1.htm(inChinese).
InternationalCampaignforTibet|37
AsBrahmaChellaneypointsout,itwasunderMaothatthelarge-scaleuprootingoflocal
residentstomakewayformajorwaterprojectsbegan–atrendthathasnotonlypersistedto
thisdaybuthasbecomemorecommon.Theworld’sbiggestmegadam,theThreeGorges,was
alsoMao’sbrainchild.“Chinahasalwayshadthishistoryofmega-projects,’HuangYukon,an
economistandseniorassociateattheCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,athink
tankbasedinWashington,wascitedassayingintheNewYorkTimes.“It’spartoftheblood,
theculture,thenatureofitssociety.Tohaveanimpactonthecountry,they’vegottobebig.”72
Thereisstrongsympathy–andactivisminNGOs-amongmanyChineseforthepreservationof
theTibetanplateau,despitethedangersofsuchsupport.Well-knownauthorZhangYihesaid
inamessageonsocialmedia“Idon’tunderstandwhywehavetodigupgoldinareasthatare
above4,000meters.Whymustwealsobuilddamsonrivers,includingtheYarlungTsangpo?
Whydon’tweleavesomethingforthenextgeneration?”InawidelyquotedSinaWeibopost,
televisiondirectorZhangRongguisaidhewas‘stronglyopposedtothedevelopmentofheavy
industryandmineralresourcesinTibet.[…]Itistheworld’shighestandpurestholyland,
andIhopethegovernmentcanleaveabluesky,cleanwaterandwhitecloudsforthenext
generation,’hewrote.”73
The great water meadow of Dzoege and climate change
Gabriel Lafitte assesses the significance of plans for a remote wetland in Tibet, as an example of why global warming is dangerously out of control. This is an edited version of a blog posted on http://rukor.org/global-climate-change/ on July 23, 2015.
Greatrivershavetheirownlogic,seldomsuitedtothecategoriesandeconomiesofthemodern
world.China’sgreatrivers,theYellowandYangtze,riseclosetoeachother,inglaciersonthe
slopesofTibetanmountainranges,beforemakingtheirwayacrossthevastgrasslandsofthe
TibetanPlateau,beforeplungingtothelowlands.
[…]TheYellowRiver(HuangHeinChinese,MaChuinTibetan)meandersthroughtheswardof
Tibet,alongthesouthernflanksofthesacredAmnyeMachenmountainrangeandthenfans
72 Giving broader context in the same article (New York Times, January 12, 2015), DavidBarbozawrote:“Such enormous
infrastructure projects are a Chinese tradition. From the Great Wall to the Grand Canal and the Three Gorges Dam, this nation
for centuries has used colossal public-works projects to showcase its engineering prowess and project its economic might. Now,
as doubts emerge about the country’s three-decade boom, China’s leaders are moving even more aggressively, doubling down
on mega-infrastructure. Whether China really needs this much big infrastructure — or can even afford it — is a contentious
issue. The infrastructure plans run counter to Beijing’s commitment to reduce its heavy reliance on government-led investment
to fuel growth. And some economists worry that the country might eventually be mired in enormous debt.” January 12, 2015,
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/13/business/international/in-china-projects-to-make-great-wall-feel-small-.html?_r=1
73 GabrielLafitteblog,chinadialogue.net,April4,2013.Itisbeyondthescopeofthisreporttotrackintensifyinginterest
amongChinesecitizensinTibet’senvironment,butanewbookbyoneofthemostprominentChinesewriterson
theenvironment,LiuJianqiang,abouthisencountersandfriendshipswithTibetanenvironmentalistsincluding
KarmaSamdrupandhistwobrothers,isanessentialread.‘TibetanEnvironmentalistsinChina:TheKingofDzi’by
LiuJianqiang,translatedbyIanRowen,CyrusKHuiandEmilyTYeh,tobepublishedinDecember2015,detailsat:
https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739199732/Tibetan-Environmentalists-in-China-The-King-of-Dzi#.ICTreportontheimprisonmentof
KarmaSamdrup,‘Asharpknifeabovehishead’:thetrialsandsentencingofthreeenvironmentalistbrothersinTibet’,August4,2010,
http://www.savetibet.org/a-sharp-knife-above-his-head-the-trials-and-sentencing-of-three-environmentalist-brothers-in-tibet/
#sthash.e9QZ3VTH.dpufAlsoseeChinaDialogue.netandICT’sreport‘TrackingtheSteelDragon’,
http://www.savetibet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/TrackingTheSteelDragon.pdf.
38|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
outintoahugewatermeadowknownasDzoege(ZoigeorRuo’ergaiinChinese).
Thestoryofthisremotewetlandisthewholestoryofwhyglobalwarmingisdangerouslyout
ofcontrol.DzoegeisthesedaystheremoteintersectionofthreeChineseprovinces:Gansu,
SichuanandQinghai,peripheraltoallofthem,abused,neglected,drained,driedout,over-
engineered,officiallyprotectedyetneglectedandevenduetobecometheterminusofa
megaprojecttopermanentlyflooditwithwaterdivertedbycanalfromtheYangtzetothe
YellowRiver.Insteadofcarefullyrestoringthisgreatwetland,andrestoringitscapacityto
filterandcleanthewaters,toholdandreleasewatersyear-round,likeasponge,Chinaisnow
planningtogofromtheextremeofdraininganddryingDzoege,totheoppositeextremeof
drowningit.
AsChinapreparesits13thFive-YearPlan,settorunfrom2016to2020,akeydecisioniswhether
toproceed,asannouncedoveradecadeago,withdamsacrosstheTibetantributariesof
theYangtze,linkedtoacanalandmassivepumpingstationstosendYangtzewatertothe
YellowatDzoege.Officiallycalledthesouth-to-northwatertransferproject’swesternroute,
theflowwouldpermanentlyinundatethewholeDzoegedistrict,itsRamsartreatyprotected
wetlands,migratorywaterbirdsanctuaries,peatlandsandfertilepasturelands,inthename
ofprovidinglowlandChinesecitiesandindustrieswithwater.Itwouldreduceenvironmental
flowsdowntheYangtze,aheavilyexploitedriverthatneedsallitsstrengthtoflushpollutants
out.Thesouth-to-northwatertransferproject,ifitgoesahead,willremovethecarboncapture
capacityofDzoege,transformingitfromacarbonsequesteringpeatlandtoanacidicpondage
ofmegaproportions,fromcarbonsinktocarbonsource.Thedesignatedcanalrouteisuphill,
requiringmassivepumps,whichwilleitherbefossilfuelled,addingmoregreenhousegases,or
hydropoweredbybuildingyetmoremassiveconcretewallsacrossthewildmountainriversof
easternTibet.
IftheDzoegewatermeadowgoesfromdesiccationtoinundationitwillbethefinalinsultto
anareamodernChinajustcan’tletbe.RevolutionaryChina,fromthestart,sawDzoegeasan
abomination,amixingoftwocategoriesthatmodernityrequiresbekeptseparate:waterand
land.ChinawasunabletoseeDzoegeasitspastoralistsseeit:asaproductionlandscaperichin
allthatisneedfulforlivestock,medicinalherbgathering,andgoodlivelihoods.Theminglingof
landandwatertransgressedtherequirementsofmodernity:thatroadshavefirmfoundations,
rivershaveclearmargins,watersflowasfastaspossiblewithoutimpediment,landbefirm
underfootandnotboggy.
TheveryfirstencounterbetweentheChineseCommunistPartyandDzoegewasadisaster,that
hasbeenendlesslyrememberedastheworsttimeoftheLongMarchof1936asthecommunist
armiesfleddeepinland,onlytosuckedintotheswampsofDzoege,withmanymenlost,and
manymorepickedoffbyTibetannomadmarksmen.Notknowinghowtowalkfromclumpto
clumpofhardysedges,theheavilyladensoldiersofthePeople’sLiberationArmydisappeared
intothemud,asufferingrelayedendlesslyeversinceasproofoftheirheroicsacrifice.Dzoege,
eventoHanChineseunfamiliarwiththename,issynonymouswithpatrioticrevolutionary
sacrifice.[…]
YetthissamelandscapeevokesinTibetanslyricalimageryofanaturallybountifulareaof
richpastures,luxuriouslymeanderingrivers,fatcattle,endlesswildflowersinsummer,and
muchleisuretimeinwintertoattendtomattersbeyondtheimmediateconcernsofthislife.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|39
AmongChinesetoo,despitethemasternarrativeofhorror,otherreactionsoccur.Theessayist
anddocumentarymakerSunShuyunwrites:“Thepasturehasastrangebeauty,thisvastflat
expanse,asifyouarelookingintotheheartofinfinity,andthenhugecarpetsofmeadow
flowers,yellow,white,blue,vermilion,violet,purple,likeannouncementsofheaven.Youreyes
achefromthebrilliantcolours,andtheirfragrancemakesyousmile.”74
TwodecadesaftertheLongMarchDzoegewaspacifiedbythePLAandtheworkbeganof
makingaman-madelandscapeinwhichlandandwaterwereproperlyseparated,whichmeant
diggingditchesthroughthepeatlandstodrainthewasteland,itsofficialclassification.Much
ofthedrainageworkintherevolutionaryyearswasdonebyhand,bythecompulsorylaborof
Tibetansbeingpunishedfortheirreactionaryclassconsciousness,ascounter-revolutionaries.
Manywereworkedtodeath.
Asthewatermeadowsdrainedandthewatertabledropped,thousandsofyearsofaccumulated
organicmatter,thesevenbillioncubicmeterspeatlandstoreofcarbontakenfromthe
atmospherealsodried,andthenburned.Thefiressmoulderingundergroundwerealmost
impossibletoextinguish,theirsmokeamajorsourceofatmosphericpollution.Only20percent
oftheDzoegewetlandisintact.75[2]
ThedryingofthewetlandsofDzoegecameontopofadryingphaseaffectingthewholeTibetan
Plateauoverthousandsofyears,leadingtoasteadydropinlakelevelsacrossTibet,thathas
beenmuchstudiedscientifically.
74 SunShuyun,TheLongMarch,HarperCollins,2007
75 Schumann,M;Thevs,N;Joosten,H(2008)ExtentanddegradationofpeatlandsontheRuoergaiPlateau(Tibet,China)assessedby
remotesensing.InProceedingsoftheInternationalPeatCongress,Tullamorepp77–80
ThisshowsanomadsettlementcampinLithang(Chinese:Litang),Sichuan,theTibetanareaofKham.Anumber
ofthosewhohaveself-immolatedinTibetsince2009,anactemergingfromtheanguishofoppressionand
displacement,havebeenTibetannomads.
40|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
TheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)describeswhathappened:“Thousandsof
drainageholesscartheotherwiseflawlesslandscapeofChina‘sRuoergaiwetlands,constituting
thesinglemostseriousthreattoitshighmountainpeat-lands.Thesedrainageholeshave
contributedtomassivesoilandwatererosion,greatlyreducingthewetlands.Infact,onelake
hasalreadyshrunkbyathird.ForthepeopleintheSichuanandGansuProvinceswhorelyon
thesepeatlandsforaremarkablearrayofproducts,includingfish,rice,medicinalplants,peat
forfuelandgardensoil,andgrassesandreedsformakingpaperandbaskets,theseholes,
leftoverfromanattemptduringthe1960stotransformtheregionintograsslands,posea
seriousthreattotheirlivelihoods.”76
Then,inthe1990s,Chinabegantocatchupwiththeworldclimatedebate,andtooksteps
torectifysomeofthedamage.DzoegebecameRamsarsitenumber1731,coveringamodest
portionofthehugewetland.ItisalsoontheWorldDatabaseofProtectedAreasassite
#315726.
Theworldhasaglobaltreatyspecificallytoprotectwetlands,theRamsarConvention,which
mostrecentlyheldameetingofallsignatorygovernments,includingChina,in2015.The
ConventionsingledoutChinaforits:“lowlevelofawarenessofthevalueofwetlandsandthe
ecosystemservicestheyprovide,sothatthegovernmentisunabletomakewetlandfriendly
decisions.”77ChinareportedtotheRamsarConventionthat:“Comparedtothatofthe2003
firstnationalwetlandsurvey,theresultofthe2013secondsurveyillustratedthatChinalostan
estimatedof3,376,200haofnaturalwetlandsoverthepastdecade,representinganaverage
annual9.33percentlossofitswetlands.”78
ChinawasaskedhowitinvolvesstakeholdersinplanningandrunningRamsarsites.The
officialreplywas:“Activeengagementandsupportofallstakeholdershaveprovedthesecret
tosustainwetlands.Overthepastthreeyears,thestakeholdersthatcareaboutwetlands
contributedtothepromulgationofaseriesofwetland-relatedregulations,bylaws,plans,
policies,andbusinesspractices.”ButwhatdoesChinameanwhenittalksofstakeholders?The
onlystakeholdersnamedaredepartmentsofgovernment:“TheStateForestryAdministration
sentthedraftofRegulationsonWetlandProtectiontoover20statesectorsforreview,andis
workingoutanewversionbyintegratingthecollectedreviewfeedback.”
[…]TheofficialdefinitionofDzoege[intheRamsarglobalsystem],providedtheUNbyChina’s
officials,makesnomentionoftherevolutionarypolicyofdrainingtheDzoegewetland,which
makesiteasier,ashappenselsewhereinTibet,toattributemuchoftheblametonomads,
whoarethenforbiddentograze,inthenameofwetlandrestoration.Now,inthenameof
conservation,thosewhohavealwayscaredforthisfragileminglingofwatersandlandsare
oftenexcluded,astheUNEnvironmentprogramreportedin2010:“TheUNDPproject,which
beganin2007,hasintroducedinnovativetechniquesandmethodologiestoRuoergaiCounty
tohelpcombatsuchdrainage.Someofthetechniquesincludestrictlycontrollingwetlanduse,
placingmoratoriumsonanimalgrazingandseedingtorestoregrasslands.”79
76 RestoringcrucialChinesewetlandswillhelppreservelivelihoods,UNEPpressrelease,23November2010
77 http://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/cop12_doc12_summary_asia_e.pdf
78 http://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/2014/national-reports/COP12/cop12_nr_china.pdfp.19
79 RestoringcrucialChinesewetlandswillhelppreservelivelihoods,UNEPpressrelease,23November2010
InternationalCampaignforTibet|41
Thesescientists,fromlowlandChengduandNanjingalsoblametheTibetanpastoralists:
“StockbreedinghasdevelopedatahighspeedintheZoigeMarshareasincethe1970s,resulting
inaseriousconflictbetweenlivestockpopulationsandpasturelands.[…]Overgrazedand
trampledbytheselivestock,thepasturelandsarehardtoregeneratenaturallyandrecessive
successionisunavoidable.”
Thistendencytoblamethevictimsofwetlanddegradationasthecause,complicatesefforts
towardssolutionsthathelphealnotonlythe7000sqkmsofDzoegewetland,butalsothe
planet.Muchisatstake.Whenthisgreatwetlanddries,itreleasesthemaingreenhousegas,
carbondioxidetotheatmosphere,butthe750megatonnesofpeatinDzoegealsorelease
methaneasitdriesup,andmethaneisamuchmoredangerousgas,muchmorepotentinits
effectsonatmospherictemperaturethancarbondioxide.SoitisimportantthatChinaquickly
rehabilitatesDzoege,getsthepastoralistsonsideaspartnersintheactualworkofrepairand
biodiversityprotection,andstopsblamingthevictims.
ButDzoegeisfarfromrestored,andthegreatthreatfacingitisthesouth-to-northwater
diversionwesternrouteproject.
Forthesakeoftheplanetaryclimate,Dzoegemustbeprotected,notbyengineeringbutby
involvingthelocalcommunitiesofTibetanpastoralistsasactivepartners.Dzoegewillnotbe
saved,northeplanet,byremovingnomadsinthenameofconservation.Exclosureisnotthe
solution,itonlyworsenstheinjury.
Dzoege’schancesofrestorationaren’thelpedbythediscovery,40yearsagobyChinese
geologists,ofauraniumdepositdescribedinscientificjournalsashaving“gainedmuch
attentionofmanygeologistsandoredepositexpertsduetoitsscale,highgradeandabundant
associatedores.”80
Intoday’sChina,Dzoegemustworkforitskeep,mustgenerateincomesomehowifitistobe
restored,spareduraniumminingandnotinundated.Theconventionalwisdomthesedaysis
thatitwillbetourismthatwillsaveDzoege.ThisrequiresairbrushingouttheLongMarch,
thedrainingofthepeatlands,insteadrepurposingDzoegeasanaturalunspoiledromantic
wilderness.TheEnglishlanguageversionoftheglossypopulartravelmagazineCNG(China
NationalGeography,itsresemblancetoNationalGeographicnotcoincidental)in2009gushed
aboutDzoege:“Serenityinthehighlands,aMiraclecreatedbytheTibetanPlateauandYellow
River”,with12pagesoflushsupersaturatedcolourphotos.
MaybeonedayDzoege’swatermeadowswillbreathefreeagain,andtheTibetanpopvideos81
celebratingDzoege’sgrasslandwillbemorethananevocationofadisappearingpast.
80 ‘NewEvidenceforGenesisoftheZoigeCarbonate-Siliceous-PeliticRockTypeUraniumDepositinSouthernQinling:Discoveryand
Significanceofthe64MaIntrusions’bySONGHao,ZHANGChengjiang,NIShijun,XUZhengqiandHUANGChanghua;ACTAGEOLOGICA
SINICA(EnglishEdition)Vol.88No.6pp.1757–1769December2014
81 Areferencetothewell-knownpopularsingerYadong,whopaidtributetothebeautyoftheDzoegenaturallandscapeinthissong,
releasedinTibet:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WW-pMoDNtPo
Top:AnomadonhorsebackamidgrasslandsthatarebeingfencedineasternTibet.Image:ICT
Bottom:Arollofwiretofencegrasslandsnearatraditionalnomadtent.Image:ICT
InternationalCampaignforTibet|43
Part Four: The ‘contradiction between grass and animals’: nomadic pastoralists and official policy
“As the world contemplates a Paris climate accord we pose questions whose answers
may not be what you expect. How much longer can our melting Tibetan glaciers feed
year round the great rivers of Asia? The thousands of kilometers glacier-fed rivers
traverse the Tibetan pasture lands before plunging to the lowlands are not threatened
by grazing, but sustained by intelligent, flexible, mobile light grazing herds, wild and
domestic. Those pastures filter, clean and regulate the flow, as well as sustaining an
extraordinary diversity of medicinal herbs and nutritious grasses.”
– Tsering Tsomo, Director of the Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy, who is
from a Tibetan nomad family. Her first person account is included in this report.
Forcenturies,Tibetannomadicherdershavemadeasustainablelivinguniquelyadaptedtothe
harshconditionsoftheTibetanplateau.Tibetannomadslivewiththeirherdsontheplateau,
migratingwiththeirherdsofyak,sheepandgoatsaccordingtotheseasonsoftheyear,and
producingwool,butter,cheese,yogurtandmeat.ButtheimplementationofChinesepolicies
tosettleTibetannomads,andtoresettleTibetansintownsandvillages,threatensthesurvival
ofawayoflifethatisintegraltoTibetanidentityaswellasthesurvivaloftherangelandsand
Tibet’sbiodiversity.
Sincethebeginningofthe‘WesternDevelopmentStrategy’in1999–2000,theChinese
governmenthasbeenimplementingpoliciesofsettlement,landconfiscation,andfencing
ofpastoralareasinhabitedprimarilybyTibetans,dramaticallycurtailingtheirlivelihood.
ThousandsofTibetannomadshavebeenrequiredtoslaughtertheirlivestockandmoveinto
newlybuilthousingcoloniesinorneartowns,abandoningtheirtraditionalwayoflife.
Inthelasttwoyears,thesepolicieshavebeendramaticallyaccelerated,withtheChinese
governmentclaimingthatitwillhavemovedtheremaining1.2millionherdersintotownsby
theendofthisyear.82
82 ‘ChinaFencesInItsNomads,andanAncientLifeWithers’,byAndrewJacobs,NewYorkTimes,July11,2015,
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/asia/china-fences-in-its-nomads-and-an-ancient-life-withers.html?_r=0
44|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Inadisturbingdevelopment,theChinesegovernmentframesitspolicyofsettlementofnomads
as‘conservation’andprotectionagainsttheimpactsofclimatechange.Mostofthenature
reservesandnationalparksinChinaareontheTibetanPlateau,givingChinacredentialsas
acarboncapturer.ThiseffectivelylocksupmuchofTibet,includingthebestpasturelandsof
KhamandAmdoaswatersupplyandcarboncaptureareas,fromwhichnomadicpastoralistsare
excluded.
AccordingtoonlineinterfacefortheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(WDPA),
ProtectedPlanet.net,83mostofChina’sofficiallyprotectedareasareontheTibetanPlateau,
someinaridareasofalpinedesert,butmuchinthepasturelandsofTibet,includingtheentire
prefecturesofGolok(Chinese:Guoluo)andYushuinQinghai,wherenomadsettlementinto
concreteenclavesiswelladvanced.QinghaiProvince,includingGolok,ledthewayininsisting
onfencingandsedentarization.
AcrossTibet,grasslandscoverabout68%ofthe1.22millionsquarekilometersoftheTAR,as
wellasslightlymorethan50%ofQinghaiProvince’s720,000squarekm,andvastswathesof
westernSichuanandGansuProvincesandnorthwesternYunnanProvince,totalingsome1.7
millionsquarekm(420millionacres;656,000squaremiles).84
ExcludingnomadicpastoralistsisawaythatChinaisnowcreditedbysomeintheinternational
communityintacklingclimatechange–throughnaturereservesandnationalparksthaton
paperexcludehumanuse.InablogpostedinadvanceoftheParisclimatechangetalks,Gabriel
Lafittewrote:“Onamap,thislookslikeanimpressivecommitmenttogrowmoregrassand
sequestermorecarbon,offsettingallthosecoalfiredemissions.Ontheground,forhundreds
ofthousandsofpastoralnomads,itmeanstotallossoflivelihood,herdedofftheirlandinto
concretebarracksoftenfarfromtheirlands,theirherdscompulsorilysold,withnotrainingto
enterthemoderncasheconomyofwagelabour.”85
WhileonpapercreatingNationalParksinChinamayseemlikeaneffectivemeansofconserving
theenvironment,andthereforeappealingtointernationalinstitutionstosupport,86italso
makesgrazingbanspermanent,andinvolvestheexclusionofnomadicpastoralists.Chinahas
specificallydeclaredthreeQinghaicounties,sourcesoftheYellow,MekongandYangtzerivers,
tobenationalparks.
ThisisdespiteastrongconsensusamongChineseandforeignrangelandsexpertsthatsettling
nomadsrunscountertothelatestscientificevidenceonlesseningtheimpactofgrasslands
degradation,whichpointstotheneedforlivestockmobilityinensuringthehealthofthe
rangelandsandmitigatingnegativewarmingimpacts.
83 www.protectedplanet.netistheonlineinterfacefortheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(WDPA),ajoinprojectofIUCNandUNEP,
andthemostcomprehensiveglobaldatabaseonterrestrialandmarineprotectedareas.
84 ‘Searchingforgrassandwater:Ecosystemsustainabilityandherders’livelihoodsinwesternChina’,DanielJ.Miller,2007,paperkindly
suppliedbytheauthor.
85 PostedonJuly30,2015,http://rukor.org/gearing-up-for-paris/
86 ThePaulsonInstitute,foundedin2011byformerU.S.treasurysecretaryHenryPaulson,hasrecentlyannounceditwillworkwith
ChinatosetupNationalParksinQinghai,Yunnanandelsewhere.InQinghaithiswillalmostcertainlybeinareaswherenomadsare
beingremoved.Xinhuanewsreport,June8,2015,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-06/08/c_134308232.htm?utmand
http://www.paulsoninstitute.org/news/2015/06/08/paulson-institute-and-national-development-reform-commission-
launch-collaboration-on-national-park-system-development-in-china/
ThemajorityofTibetansliveinruralareas,andforcenturiesmanyhavesustainedthemselvesthroughanomadicherderlifestyle,uniquelyadaptedto
theharshconditionsandfragileecosystemoftheTibetanplateau.ButtheimplementationofChinesepoliciestosettleTibetannomads,andtoresettle
Tibetansintownsandvillages,arenowthreateningthesurvivalofawayoflifethatisintegraltoTibetanidentityaswellasthelivelihoodsofTibetan
nomads.Thismeansthatoneofthelastexamplesintheworldofsustainablepastoralismnowfacesextinctionunlessthereisurgentchange.Oftenthe
newsettlements,likethisone,arefarfromcommunityresources.TheimagesdepictanomadsettlementnearGolmudinQinghai,wheretherailway
runstoLhasa,atthebeginningofconstruction,withthesecondpictureshowingconstructionsixmonthson.
46|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
“Ithastaken50yearsofChina’sstatistinterventionsinthegrasslandsoftheTibetanPlateau
toreachthecurrentcrisis,inwhichhundredsofthousandsofpastoralistsarebeingremoved
fromtheirancestralpastures,inthenameofconservationandobjectivescientificnecessity,”
theTibetanCenterforHumanRightsandDemocracyreportedinamajorstudyofTibetan
nomadspublishedthisyear.87“Chinasaysgrazingbans,pastureclosuresandnomadremovals
areanobjectivescientificnecessityinordertogrowmoregrass,capturecarbonandprotect
watersheds.
“Chinahasfailedtoenlistthetimeandknowledgeofthepastoraliststodothelandcarework
ofrehabilitatingdegradingareas,relyinginsteadsolelyonenclosureandtimetoachieve
rehabilitation.Thisiscontrarytoexperienceworldwideincommunitybasedlandscape
restoration,whichreliesonlocalcommunitiestoleadtherecoveryprocess.[…]The
acceleratingexclusionofpastoralistsoriginatesinsuccessivepolicyfailures.”
However,inanewdevelopment,anincreasingnumberofChineseprofessorsandrangelands
expertshavebecomeincreasinglycriticalofgovernmentpolicies,arguingthataseriesof
policymistakeshascausedtheovergrazinganddegradation–notthenomadicpastoralists
themselves.
TheTCHRDreportonnomadicpastoralisminTibetcitesnolessthan243researchreports
publishedinChinadocumentingscientificfindingsthatnolongerconfirmthedominantofficial
discoursebytheChineseleadership.
LiWenjun,aprofessorofenvironmentalmanagementatPekingUniversity,isoneofthose
voices;shefoundthatresettlinglargenumbersofpastoralistsintotownsexacerbatespoverty
andworsenswaterscarcity.Inpublishedstudies,shehassaidthattraditionalgrazingpractices
benefittheland.“Wearguethatasystemoffoodproductionsuchasthenomadicpastoralism
thatwassustainableforcenturiesusingverylittlewateristhebestchoice,”accordingtoa
recentarticleshewroteinthejournalLandUsePolicy.88
Theglobalclimatechangecrisisisattheheartofthisnewparadigm,giventhatthepastoral
grasslandsoftheworld,includingtheTibetanPlateau,provideecosystemservicesthatarenot
improvedbybanninggrazing.
TCHRDstates:“Thealternativefuturescenarioisofaparadigmshifttoapro-pastoralist
understandingofgrasslanddynamicsandtheskillfulmobilityofthepastoralistsasthekeyto
resolvingproblemsofdegradation,productivityandlandscapeprotection.”89
Thedominantdiscourse,whichistheBeijingleadership’sintenttoendthenomadiclifestyle,
imposedfromthetopdown,appliesthroughoutthePRC.InInnerMongoliaithasbeenpursued
87 ‘WastedLives:ACriticalAnalysisofChina’sCampaigntoEndTibetanPastoralLifeways’,May2015,TibetanCenterforHumanRights
andDemocracy,http://www.tchrd.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Download-Report.pdf
88 ‘Solvingoneproblembycreatingabiggerone:Theconsequencesofecologicalresettlementforgrassland
restorationandpovertyalleviationinNorthwesternChina’byMingmingFan,YanboLi,WenjunLi,Volume
42,January2015,Pages124-130http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837714001586,
citedinNewYorkTimes,July11,2015,‘ChinaFencesInItsNomads,andanAncientLifeWithers’,
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/asia/china-fences-in-its-nomads-and-an-ancient-life-withers.html?_r=0
89 TCHRD,‘WastedLives’,ibid.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|47
sincethe1950s.90KazakhnomadsinnorthernareasoftheXinjiangUyghurAutonomousRegion
(XUAR)werethesubjectofsettlementpoliciesinstitutedinthelate1980s,withover80%of
Kazakhpastoralfamiliessettledby2000.91
InTibet,thereisanaddedpoliticaldimension,asthepolicieshavebeenlinkedintheTARtothe
Party’spoliticalobjectivesofmaintaining‘stability’andcounteringtheDalaiLama’sinfluence.
TheformerTARPartySecretaryZhangQinglisaid:“[Farmersandnomads]‘livingandworking
inpeaceandcontentment’isthefundamentalconditionforusinholdingtheinitiativeinthe
struggleagainsttheDalaiclique.”92Hiscommentsapparentlyreflecttheauthorities’view
thatifTibetansbecomericher,theirfaithinreligionandtheDalaiLamawillfade.93Thishas
nothappenedinTibet.Italsoindicatestheofficiallineofensuringpolitical‘stability’through
countering‘separatism’throughdevelopment.
ATibetanformernomadnowlivingintheWesttoldICTthathebelievesthistobeakeyelement
oftheParty’spoliciesonnomadsettlement,saying:“Nomadsremainbeyondthereachofthe
state.Theireconomicself-sufficiency,mobilityandtraditionalandreligiousoutlookonlife
makethemthemostdifficultpeopletointegrateintotheChinesestate.”
TheethosoftheWesternDevelopmentStrategyistocreateconditionsthatwillencouragepoor
ruralworkerstotownsorcities,wheretheywillapparentlybecomeworkersandconsumersin
anew,‘modern’,economy.Thepoliciesalsogivetheauthoritiesgreateradministrativecontrol
overpeople’smovementsandlifestyles.
Resettlementpoliciesaregenerallyimplementedwithoutconsultationorconsent,andlocal
peoplehavenorighttochallengethemorrefusetoparticipate.Thedistinctionbetween
coercionandconsentofnomadsettlementismeaninglessinthepoliticalclimateinTibet
today.ThisisdespitethefactthatChineselawrequiresthatthosewhoaretobemovedoff
theirlandoraretohavetheirpropertyconfiscatedmustbeconsulted,and,iftheyaremoved,
compensatedfortheirlosses.94
90 Seeforexample:‘Letgrassgrowoverit:overgrazingofgrasssteppeinInnerMongolia’,Breuer,L.,Archer,N.,Schneider,K.,Huisman,
J.,Frede,H.G.,SpiegelderForschung,2004(Vol.21)(No.1/2),pp.86–91.
91 Seeforexample:‘Kazakhnomads,rangelandpolicyandtheenvironmentinAltay:insightsfromnewrangeecology’,TonyBanksand
SerikDoman,paperpresentedattheSecondInternationalofAsiaScholars,FreeUniversity,Berlin,August9–12,2001,availableat:
www.eldis.org
92 CitedinICTreport,‘TrackingtheSteelDragon’,http://www.savetibet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/TrackingTheSteelDragon.pdf
93 ThisemergesfromapositionfirstestablishedbyMaoZedong,whobelievedthatassocietybecamemoreadvancedundertheChinese
CommunistParty(CCP),religiousbeliefwouldeventuallywitheranddie.Maooncesaid:“Itisthepeasantswhoputupidols,and,when
thetimecomes,theywillthrowtheidolsoutwiththeirownhands.[…]Itiswrongforanybodyelsetodoitforthem.”Accordingto
theCCP’sMarxist,atheistideology,religionisasuperstitiousandunscientificproductofnaturalandsocialoppression;ithasbeen
exploitedandusedinbackwardsocietiesasatoolbyrulingclassestosuppressthepeopleandpreservesocialinequality.According
tothisMarxistmaterialistworldview,religionwilldisappearinasocialistsociety.PracticalmeasurestohandlereligioninTibethave
variedfromdifferingdegreesoftolerancetopersecutionofpractitioners.Forfurtherdetails,seeChapter1,“ThePoliticsofReligion”,in
theICTreport,‘WhentheSkyfelltoEarth:ThenewcrackdownonBuddhisminTibet’,availableat:www.savetibet.org
94 Articles41and111ofChina’sConstitutionguaranteetherighttoconsultation,asdoesthe1989AdministrativeProcedureLaw(see
Articles2and9ofthe1989AdministrationProcedureLaw).Thislawandthe1986GeneralPrinciplesoftheCivilLawofthePRCalso
stipulatecompensationforpropertyseizedillegally.The1998/1999LandAdministrationLawspellsouttheprocessbywhichproperty
canberequisitioned,processesbywhichcompensationshouldbepaid,andamounts.AccordingtoHumanRightsWatch,“Indications
arethat[these]arerarelyfollowed”.‘Noonehasthelibertytorefuse:TibetanherdersforciblyrelocatedinGansu,Qinghai,Sichuanand
theTibetAutonomousRegion’reportbyHumanRightsWatch,June2007,www.hrw.org.
48|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Chinesescholarshavenotedthelackoflegalitysurroundingthesettlementofnomads,
statingthatthepolicieshavebeenmarkedby“insufficientlegalinvolvement”,“alackoflegal
knowledgefromalltheparties”,andthat“governmentdepartmentshaveaninsufficient
knowledgeofthelaw”.95Somenomadsareofferedcompensationpackageswhentheyare
settled.Forsome,withnorangelandandnegligiblejobprospects,theirmainconcernishow
longthecompensationpackagewilllast.Manyofthepaymentsareinsufficient;HumanRights
WatchquotedaformerTibetannomadwhohadescapedintoexilefromMachen(Chinese:
Maqin)CountyinGolokPrefectureinAmdoassaying:“Theydidn’tgivefoodormoney
allowance.Relocatedfamiliescomplainthattheirlifeishardbecausenowtheyhavetobuy
everything,evenmeatanddungfuelforthestove.”
DrKatherineMorton,whoisresearchingclimatechangeandtransboundarywatersecurity
acrosstheHimalayan-HinduKush,alsocautionsagainstblamingnomadicpastoralistsforthe
degradationofthegrasslandsandimpactofclimatechange.DrMorton,whohasconducted
researchontheimpactsofclimatechangeontheTibetanPlateauanditsimplicationsfor
regionalsecurity,writes:“Amajorproblemisthatwestilldonotknowenoughaboutclimate
impactsonthegrasslands.Fieldinvestigationsarefewandfarbetween.Whatwedoknow
isthatasimplecausalrelationshipbetweenovergrazingandenvironmentaldegradation–
a‘TragedyoftheCommons’-stylescenario–ismisleading,preciselybecauseitfailstotakeinto
accountclimatechange.PlacingdisproportionateblameonTibetanpastoralistsalsogreatly
undervaluesindigenousknowledgeandtheimportantrolethattheoriginalcustodiansofthe
landcanplayinclimateadaptationefforts.[…]Theinterdependenciesbetweenenvironmental
degradation,humanwell-beingandregionalsecuritycanonlybeaddressedonthebasisofa
cooperativeandpeople-centredapproach.”96
ThepolicyofnomadsettlementinthePRCisbasedonafalsepremiseframedas“a
contradictionbetweengrassandanimals”.China’splanstotransformlivestockproduction
byconcentratingitandindustrialisingitwerefirstannouncedbyDuRunsheng,architectof
intensiveranchingandagribusiness,inTibetin1987.DuRunsheng,whodiedattheageof102
inOctober(2015),97hadreferredto“thecontradictionbetweenraisinglivestockandgrowing
grass”.GabrielLafittewrites:“Hecouldnotacceptthebasicpremiseofmobilenomadic
grazing,anditsskilfulproductivity,allofwhichrelyonmovingtheherdsfrompastureto
pasturewellbeforethegrassesaregrazedtooheavily.HetooktheclassicChinesepeasant
farmerviewpoint,thatmovingwiththeanimalsisprimitiveandbackward,that‘Mostofthe
livestockraisingareasinChinaarestillinaconditionofnomadicorsemi-nomadicgrazing.’”98
DuRunsheng’slineonpastoralistnomadsisreflectedbytheCCPtoday.TheChineseauthorities
representthepoliciesashavinganentirelypositiveimpact,andWesternjournalistsonofficial
visitstoTibethavebeenroutinelytakentovisithomeswherelocalpeoplehavebeensettled.
Overthepastdecade,thereportinghasrarelyreflectedthescaleorwhatisatstakewiththis
re-shapingoftheTibetanlandscape,bothingeographicalandculturalterms.
95 ‘SurveyofEcologicalMigrationStudies’,MengLinlin,BaoZhiming,JournaloftheCentralUniversityforNationalities,p49.
96 ‘AnuncertainfutureonthePlateau’byKatherineMorton,April28,2009,
https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/2961
97 ChinaDaily,October9,2015,http://www.ecns.cn/2015/10-09/183725.shtml?utm
98 EmailcommunicationfromGabrielLafitte,October15,2015
InternationalCampaignforTibet|49
JournalistswhododescribeitaccuratelyreceiveunfavorableattentionfromtheChinese
government.WhenMcClatchycorrespondentTimJohnson,whotraveledtoTibetunofficially,
describedtheresettlementprojectasa“massivecampaignthatrecallsthesocialistengineering
ofanearlierera”,hewascalledintotheForeignMinistryandtoldthathiswritings“werenot
trueand‘unacceptable’totheChinesegovernment”.99
AftertheNewYorkTimespublishedaprominentcommentarticleinJuly2015criticizingthe
nomadsettlementpolicy,100agroupofinternationaljournalistswereinvitedtoNgaba(Chinese:
Aba)TibetanandQiangAutonomousPrefectureandinvitedtospeaktoherders.Theywere
introducedtoaformernomadwho“heapednothingbutpraiseonagovernmentprogramthat
settledhisfamilyintoapermanenthome”.Helateradmittedthathewasalsoamemberofthe
localCommunistPartyorganizationthathelpedimplementtheresettlementprogram.101
OnanofficialvisittoChinain2010,theU.N.SpecialRapporteuronFood,OlivierDeSchutter,
alignedhimselfwiththenewconsensusonthevalueofkeepingnomadicherdersonthe
pasturelands,statingstronglythatbothTibetanandMongoliannomadsshouldnotbe
compelledtosettle.Linkingnomadsettlementtodeprivationoflivelihood,theU.N.Rapporteur
stated:“Whilethereislittledoubtabouttheextentofthelanddegradationproblem,the
SpecialRapporteurwouldnotethatherdersshouldnot,asaresultofthemeasuresadopted
underthe‘tuimu huancao’(‘removinganimalstogrowgrass’)policy,beputinasituation
wheretheyhavenootheroptionsthantoselltheirherdandresettle.[…]
“TheSpecialRapporteurencouragestheChineseauthoritiestoengageinmeaningful
consultationswithherdingcommunities,includinginordertoassesstheresultsofpastand
currentpolicies,andexamineallavailableoptions,includingrecentstrategiesofsustainable
managementofmarginalpasturessuchastheNewRangelandManagement(NRM)inorderto
combinetheknowledgeofthenomadicherdersoftheirterritorieswiththeinformationthat
canbedrawnfrommodernscience.”102
99 SeeTimJohnson’s‘ChinaRises’blog,May2007archive,availableat:http://washingtonbureau.typepad.com.
100ThisfollowedanarticlebyAndrewJacobsonthedisplacementofnomadsonJuly11(2015)asfollows:
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/asia/china-fences-in-its-nomads-and-an-ancient-life-withers.html.Thelinktotheoped
cannotbeaccessedonlineatthetimeofwriting.
101WallStreetJournal,‘OnTibetanTour,ChinaTrotsOutYakandPonyShow’,August3,2015,
http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/08/03/on-tibetan-tour-china-trots-out-yak-and-pony-show/.
AlsoseeReuterscoverageofthesamevisit,August3,2015,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/03/us-china-tibetans-idUSKCN0Q80M120150803#MKHLxJ5uG8X1QsxJ.97
102PressreleasebytheSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFood:http://www.srfood.org/images/stories/pdf/press_releases/
20101223_china-mission-press-release_en.pdf.TherelevantsectionfromtheSpecialRapporteur’sreportonnomadicherdersis
enclosedasfollows:“Threatstonomadicherders:NomadicherdersinWesternProvincesandAutonomousRegions,especiallyin
theTibet(Xizang)andInnerMongolianAutonomousRegions,areanothervulnerablegroup.TheGrasslandLawadoptedin1985
bothinordertoprotectgrasslandandinordertomodernizetheanimalhusbandryindustrytowardscommodificationhasnowbeen
complementedbyarangeofpoliciesandprograms,includingtuimu huancao(“removinganimalstogrowgrass”)andtuigeng huanlin
(“ReturningFarmlandtoForest”).Theseprograms,partofthe1999WesternDevelopmentStrategy(xibudakaifa),seektoaddressthe
degradationofpasturelandsandcontroldisastersinthelowlandsofChina.Theyincludemeasuressuchasgrazingbans,grazingland
non-useperiods,rotationalgrazingandaccommodationofcarryingcapacity,limitationsonpasturesdistribution,compulsoryfencing,
slaughterofanimallivestock,andtheplantingofeucalyptustreesonmarginalfarmlandtoreducethethreatofsoilerosion.While
thereislittledoubtabouttheextentofthelanddegradationproblem,theSpecialRapporteurwouldnotethatherdersshouldnot,as
aresultofthemeasuresadoptedunderthetuimu huancaopolicy,beputinasituationwheretheyhavenootheroptionsthantosell
theirherdandresettle.TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsprohibitsdeprivinganypeoplefromits
meansofsubsistence,andthe1992ConventiononBiodiversityacknowledgestheimportanceofindigenouscommunitiesasguarantors
andprotectorsofbiodiversity(Art.8j).Chinahasratifiedbothoftheseinstruments.[…]TheSpecialRapporteuralsoencourages
theChineseauthoritiestoinvestinrehabilitatingpasture,andtosupportremainingnomadswithruralextension.Thepotentialof
livestockinsuranceprogramsshouldalsobeexplored,astestedsuccessfullyinMongolia.Suchprograms,whichpaynomadstorestock
50|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
China’s counter-productive policies and an alternative proposal
Tsering Tsomo, a former nomad who is now director of the Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy in Dharamsala, India, gave this perspective on China’s counter-productive policies of grazing bans, exclusion zones, and massive internal displacement.103
Youcannotstepontothesamepasturetwice,asHeraclitusmighthavesaidifhe’dbeena
nomad.
IcomefromanomadfamilyinTibet.MyEuropeanfriendsseemtoseegrasslandsaseternal,
andalsoterminallyboringbecausetheeyetravelssofasttothehorizon,unliketherainforest,
[...]whichbycomparisonevokesawe.
OurTibetanpastureschangeallthetime,thereisnoequilibriumforscientiststofind.How
coulditbeotherwiseonthehighest,driestandcoldestplateauoftheplanet?Onlythenomads,
withtheiryaks,sheepandgoats,knowhowtomakethishugelandhabitable,knowitsmoods,
thegalesthatblowoutofnowhere,orblanketingblizzardseveninsummer,whileIndia
andrecoverafteramajordisaster,encouragenomadstokeepherdsatmuchsmallerscaleastheywouldnotfearlosingtheirherding
activityaftersuchdisastersifcoveredbysuchinsurances.”
103ThearticleisTseringTsomo’ssummaryofTCHRD’slatestreport,‘WastedLives:acritiqueofChina’scampaigntoendTibetanpastoral
lifeways’http://www.tchrd.org/2015/05/wasted-lives-new-report-offer-fresh-insights-on-travails-of-tibetan-nomads/
TradersinYartsaGunbu(caterpillarfungus)weighandnegotiatepricesonastreetinKham
InternationalCampaignforTibet|51
swelters.Thealpinemeadowsareneitherdullnoreternalbuttheyareeverybitasdiverseand
productiveasthosemagicalrainforests.
ThiscomesasnewstoChina,nowincommandoftheTibetanpasturelands.Chinahasabad
habitofcallingevenourrichestpastureswasteland,becauseitisnotarable,notsuitedto
ploughingandfarming.Chinaseesourhardy,resourceful,skilfulnomadsasignorantherders
wanderingaimlesslybehindtheiranimalsinsearchofgrass,almostthedefinitiveuncivilised
barbarian.Thisleadstoacommandeconomythatpushesandpullsthenomadswhorange
extensivelyoveranareathesizeofWesternEurope,nudgingthemeverclosertopovertyand
landlessness.
Firstcamethecommunes,fartoolarge,runbycadreswithnoideaofrangelanddynamics,
determinedtoprovethevirtuesofcommunismbyrapidlyraisingherdsizes,pushingland
andpeopletoohard.Theninthe1980sChinawenttotheoppositeextreme,contracting
separatelywitheachnuclearfamilyforlandtenureoverlandparcelsthathadtobefenced,
drivingnomadsintodebt.Theintentionwastoincentivisenomadstocareforwhattheyhad
alwayscaredfor,buttheallocatedlandwastoosmall,usableinwinteronly,incurringfurther
compulsorydebtsforfencing,ploughing,seedingandharvestingfieldsforfodder,andthe
compulsoryconstructionofpermanenthouses.
Inrealitytheherdsconcentratedonofficiallyallocatedlandinevitablybecameovergrazed,
becausenomadicmobility,thesecretof9000yearsofsuccessfulTibetanpastoralism,was
restricted,thenstopped.Since2003thepolicyhasbeentobangrazingineverincreasingareas
redefinedaswatershedprotectionzonesandredlinedemarcatednationalparks,excluding
allhumanuse.Thisisdeemedanobjectivescientificnecessitybecausethenomadsareto
blameforthelanddegradationcausedbyprivatisationandparcellingourlands.Hundreds
ofthousandsofproudandskilfulnomadsnowleadwastedlivesinconcretecantonmentson
urbanfringes,theirbitterlycoldbrandnewconcretebarracksaholdingpenforfolkdeemed
redundanttothedreamofamodernmeatcommodityproductionchain.
Thisisdoneinthenameofconservation,carboncapture,restorationofenvironmentalservices.
Conservationistsshouldlookabitmorecloselyatwhatthatmeansontheground.Astheworld
contemplatesaParisclimateaccordweposequestionswhoseanswersmaynotbewhatyou
expect.HowmuchlongercanourmeltingTibetanglaciersfeedyearroundthegreatriversof
Asia?Thethousandsofkilometersglacier-fedriverstraversetheTibetanpasturelandsbefore
plungingtothelowlandsarenotthreatenedbygrazing,butsustainedbyintelligent,flexible,
mobilelightgrazingherds,wildanddomestic.Thosepasturesfilter,cleanandregulatethe
flow,aswellassustaininganextraordinarydiversityofmedicinalherbsandnutritiousgrasses.
Whatisachievedbygrazingbans,exclusionzones,wastedlives,massiveinternaldisplacement
andcounterproductivepolicies?Chineseandinternationalscientistsnowreportthatthe
biomassofgrassdoesincrease,atleastinthefewyearsimmediatelyaftergrazingisbanned,
herdsandherdersremoved.Butmostrecentscientificreportstellusthatcarboncaptureis
greaterwhenthereissteadygrazing,andthatungrazedpastures,fencedofftoexcludewild
antelopeandgazellesaswell,sufferinvasivespeciesinvasion,lossofbiodiversity,reversionto
shrublandandthecrowdingoutofmedicinalherbs.
52|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Youcan’tstepontothesamepasturetwicebecauseit’snotthesamepasture,itkeeps
changing,justlikeHeraclitus’river.Thosewhoaren’tintimatelyconnectedtograsslandmay
notnoticemanyofthosechanges,butwedo,andnowanewgenerationofChineseandTibetan
scientistsdoestoo.Chinawantstobuildaneternal,unchangingpristinegrasslandwilderness
onthosepastures.WeTibetanswantachancetoshowthatourtraditionalmobilityisthebest
kindofcommunity-basedconservation,isbothsustainableandproductive,andcanliftusout
ofpoverty,ifthecommandeconomycanletusproveit.
Harsh Winter: Bleak Outlook
“Harsh Winter; Bleak Outlook” is a powerful account written by a local Tibetan from Dzatoe County in Yushu prefecture, Qinghai, on the everyday difficulties of life for nomads under Chinese policies. The nomad writes that in the desperation of their situation, “People can’t even afford food, and their formerly bulging bellies have started to flatten.” It was received by ICT in 2014 and translated into English as a rare account from Tibet on nomadic lives; an edited version is published for the first time below. The account shows that after the loss of land and their livelihoods, ill-prepared to compete with Chinese migrant workers for employment, more and more Tibetans depend on collecting the fungus known as yartsa gunbu to earn a living. Yartsa gunbu, which in Tibetan means ‘winter worm, summer grass’, is bought by traders and sold to pharmaceutical companies and Chinese medicine clinics across China. But today the fungus is collected at unprecedented rates and is in danger of becoming over-picked. With the additional threat of climate change, the increased dependence on yartsa gunbu by local economies calls for stronger sustainable resource management in the region.104
Afewyearsago,theChinesegovernmentimplementedapolicycalled“Retreatingfromthe
PasturestoBringtheGrassBack”.Manyherdsmenhadtoabandongrasslandsandpastures,
andmoveintotownstosettledown.Theseherdersinitiallyhadsomefantasticdreams.
Theythoughtthatitwouldbewonderfultoliveinthetown.Theyfeltthatlivestockwere
burdensomeandlifewouldbebetterwithoutthem.Nomatterwhat,theythoughtthatYartsa
Gunbu,the“lifesaver”,isthere,andtheirhome,car,cash,andeverythingwillbeinabundance.
Theyneverthoughtthatthe“lifesaver“couldtakeaplungeasitdidthisyear.Nowtheydon’t
havethemoneytopurchasemeat,butter,yogurtandmilk.Theydon’thavetentsandyakdung
forfuelanymore.Inthenewconcretehouse,theyhavetoburnthehighpricedcoalbriquettes,
butthepriceforthebriquettesistoohighforthemtopurchase.Can’tmentionplayingmahjong
and“karimari”(billiards)anymore,aspeoplecan’tevenaffordfood,andtheirformerlybulging
bellieshavestartedtoflatten.
SomepoliciesoftheChinesegovernmentarecutbyaswordtomake“onesizethatfitsall.”
ThesebureaucratsbringpoliciesimplementedinthestreetsofBeijingtoourgrasslands,which
justmessesthingsuphere.Infact,“RetreatingfromthePasturestoBringtheGrassBack”is
notworkinginTibetanpastoralareas,andithascutoffthelifebloodofthepeople.Manyyears
ago,theimplementationofapolicycalled“DestroyalltheRodentsontheGrassland”leadto
104Therearenumeroussourcesontheissue;see,forinstance,interviewswithspecialistDanielWinklerintheSeattleGlobalist,February
3,2014,http://www.seattleglobalist.com/2014/02/03/the-mushroom-that-saved-tibets-economy/19214,andNPR,October12,2011,
InternationalCampaignforTibet|53
thespreadingofmanytonsofpoisonontothegrasslands.Intheend,therodentsdidnotdie,
buttheeagles,hawks,andothernaturalpredatorsofrodents,werekilled.Thus,thenature
ofthefoodchainonthegrasslandwasdestroyed.Theimpactofthispolicycausedlong-term
ecologicaldestructionofthegrassland.
TheTibetanherdsmenaretherealownersofthegrassland;thegrasslandisboththehome
andasourceoflifeforTibetanherdsmen.We,Tibetanpeople,sinceancienttimes,havebeen
livingonthemeadowssurroundedbysnow-cappedmountainsandthebluesky.Depending
mainlyonanimalhusbandry,ourpeoplehaveeatenwellandlivedhappilyforgenerationsafter
generations.WebelieveinBuddhism.WearefaithfullydevotedtoKunchokSum(theThree
Jewels[ofBuddhism]).Wehavelivedinharmonywithnature.Wehavebeenfriendlywith
ourneighboringnations.Ourforefatherswereneitherunabletomakeweapons,norunable
tomakewarstoexpandtheterritory.Itisnotthatourforefathersdidnotknowhowtobring
reformationorchangethingsorbuildanindustrializedcivilization.Itisbecauseofreligious
faith,asenseofcompassion,loveandpeace,andofrespectandcherishingofnatureand
alllivingbeings,thatourancestorsfeltsatisfiedwithbasicandsimplestyleoflife.Asimple
andpeacefullifewithfewermaterialandmoreinnerdevelopmentwasthepursuitofour
forefathers.ItisthisthatmakesourTibetancultureuniqueandattractsattentionfromthe
world’sdevelopedcountries.
The1142kmsectionoftherailroadfromGolmudtoLhasatraversesthevasthighaltitudeplainsoncemostly
inhabitedonlybywildanimalssuchastheTibetanantelope,orchiru.Thechiruisincreasinglyendangeredas
theseareas,protectedinthepastbytheirremoteness,havebecomeincreasinglyaccessibleasaresultofroad
andrailconstruction,andthegreateravailabilityofsuitablevehicles.IMAGE:ICT.
54|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
TheIndustrialRevolutionbroughtusthematerialaffluence,butitalsoacceleratedtheprocess
ofthedestructionofbothhumansandtheblueplanet.Scientistsarenowrealizingthisandare
lookingtousforsolutions;evenwhiletheyonceconsideredustobe“stupid”and“barbaric.”
WeTibetanscan’tbeself-defeatingpeople;wecan’tblindlyfollowthetrendtourbanization.In
catchingupwithmoderntechnology,weshouldbeginbystrengtheningourculture,language,
environmentalprotection,andeconomicdevelopmentfocusedonlocalneeds.Wecan’t
loseourculturalheritageandcharacteristics;wecan’tloseourlivestock;wecan’tloseour
grasslands.
Beforethe“ReformandOpeningup”,Dzatoeusedtobewellknownasthe“MillionaireCounty”,
andthereweremillionsoflivestockinthecounty.Inthelate1970sand80s,Dzatoewasranked
firstplaceinYushuPrefectureforitseducationalqualityandachievement.Aftertheyear2000,
YartsaGunbumadeus“Upstarts”.WithYartsaGunbu,the“lifesaverplant”,wehadmoneyand
wegainedalotofweight.Welostinterestindoinganyhardwork;welostinterestinherding
livestock;andourkidslostinterestinstudyinghard.Herdersthrewawaytheirwortak(sling)
andmovedtothecountycapitalwithfantasticdreamstostartaluxuriousandjoyfullife.The
“NomadSettlementProject,“whichluresTibetanherdersintothetown,isthemaincausefor
thissituation.
Themostunimaginablethingisthatthereisnosheeptobeseenanymoreinthevastterritory
ofDzatoeCountytoday.AllthesheephavebeensoldtoChinese,ChineseMuslimsandAmdo
Tibetansbythetruckloadsforcheappricesinthelastfewyears.Today,flocksandflocksof
sheepcanbeseengrazinginagriculturalregionsaroundXiningtoLanzhouandareasinAmdo
alongthe214Highway.PeoplefromDzatoeevencanrecognizesheepwhichtheyhavesold
toChinese,ChineseMuslimsandAmdoTibetansalongthewaywhentheytraveltoXiningor
Lanzhouviaabovementionedplaces.
ForherdersinDzatoe,thewinterof2014hasalreadybeenunusuallycoldandharsh.
Asthesayinggoes,“Withouteatingbittermelon,onewon’tknowhowsweetthehoneyis.”My
dearfolks,wemustlearnsomethingfromthislesson.Pleasedonotforgetouryesterday,take
agoodlookatourtoday,andthinkcarefullyaboutourtomorrow!WeTibetanherdsmen,yak,
sheepandhorsesallbelongtothevastpasturelandsofGedrongDzatoe!Ourpeople,yak,sheep
andhorsesallcannotbeallowedtodisappearonsomeone’swhim.Look,theeagleissoaring
betweenthepeakofthesnowmountainandthebluesky!
November,2014
TheQinghai-TibetrailwayanditsconnectiontoShigatsehasbeencrucialintheexpansionofmininginTibet,makingitpossibletotransportmoreores
outofTibetanareas,manyofwhichwerepreviouslyremoteandinaccessible.ThenewlinktoShigatse(Chinese:Rigaze),picturedsoonafteritsopening
in2014,isessentialforfacilitatingcopperandgoldmininginShetongmen;theproximityoftheminetoamajorriverraisesseriousenvironmental
concerns.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|57
Part Five: The impact of mining on Tibet’s water and environment
“I was born into a Drokpa (Tibetan nomad) family and spent the first years of my life
in the wild eastern part of Tibet. We traveled with our animals from summer to winter
grounds, setting up our yak-hair tents at each site. It was a simple existence and my
daily joy consisted of exploring the nearby mountains with my pet goat. If I was lucky,
I would see wild animals such as nawa (Tibetan argali) and shaba (white-lipped deer)
at close range. Sometimes, I would watch herds of kiang (Tibetan wild ass) running
across the grasslands.
When I was four or five years old, there was a severe drought and the local spring
in our camp began to dry up. Because I was considered an unusual child (although
at that time, nobody knew I would later be recognized as the 17th Karmapa), our
community requested my father ask me to plant a sapling at the source of the spring. I
remember leading prayers with the aspiration that this tree would help provide water
for all living beings nearby. Although I had no idea that what I was doing was an
“environmental” act, or what watershed meant, my love for nature and dedication to
protect the environment sprouted from this seed.
As I grew up and began studying Buddhist philosophy and teachings, I discovered
great harmony between Buddhism and the environmental movement. The emphasis
on biological diversity, including ecosystems—in particular, the understanding
that animate and inanimate beings are parts of a whole—resonates closely with
Buddhism’s emphasis on interdependence.”
– Ogyen Trinley Dorje, the 17th Karmapa105
105‘WalkingthePathofEnvironmentalBuddhismthroughCompassion&Emptiness’bythe17thKarmapa,Talkat23rdMind&Life
58|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Tibet,knownasChina’streasure-houseintheWest,isrichinthemineralsChinaneeds,asits
manufacturingindustriesmigrateinland,closertoTibetandfurtherfromcoastalportsand
globalimportsofrawmaterials.Amajorgoalofthe13thFive-YearPlanisforrawmaterials
neededforChina’sgrowthtobesourcedfromTibetratherthanfromimports.106
Large-scalemininghasbeguninTibet,andalltheminesaresituatedinthewatershedsofAsia’s
majorriversthatsupporthundredsofmillionsofpeopledownstream.TheimpactsonTibet’s
waterareprofound.Ascientificstudyofthewaterqualityoftheheadwatersoffourmajor
Asianrivers,theYangtzeRiver,theMekongRiver,theSalweenRiverandtheYarlungTsangpo
(Brahmaputra)togetherwithanevaluationofdrinkingwaterqualityconcludedthat:“Rapidly
increasedminingactivitiesposeahighriskofheavymetalpollutionforthelocalenvironment
andapotentialthreattothedownstreamwaterquality.[…]
“Nearly20yearsofindustrialscaleminingoperationshavebeencarriedoutonthePlateau.The
ongoingoperationsarelackingadequatemanagementandoperatingexperiencecausingpoor
planningandwastemanagement[…].Furthermore,sinceenvironmentalregulationsarepoorly
implementedoverthePlateau,thereisalsoalackofknowledgeontheapparentandpotential
impactoftheseminingactivitiesontheenvironment.Thisisofparticularconcernwithregards
tothePlateau’svastsupplyoffreshwater.AcceleratedwiththeestablishedcentralChinaTibet
railway,large-scaleminingoperationsarelaunchedandmorearetocomeonthePlateau.
MineralprocessingfactoriesarelocatedwithinthemajorrivercatchmentsinthePlateau.
Apparently,thehugeamountsofminingwastesthataregeneratedbytheseactivitiesposea
significantthreattotheregion’ssurfacewaterandthefragileenvironment.”107
conference,‘Ecology,Ethics&Interdependence’.Videoat:http://www.ecobuddhism.org/wisdom/interviews/hhk2011
106AmorecomprehensiveexaminationofthescaleandimpactoftheminingindustryinTibetisbeyondthescopeofthisreport,butICT
recommendsGabrielLafitte’sauthoritativebook,‘SpoilingTibet:ChinaandResourceNationalismontheRoofoftheWorld’’,Asian
Argumentsseries,ZedBooks,2013
107Theresearchfocuseduponanassessmentofpotentialimpactofminingactivitiesontheregionalsurfacewaterquality
inthecentralTibet;asimpleevaluationofthedrinking‐waterqualityinthelargestcityofthePlateau,Lhasa,thecapital
cityoftheTibetAutonomousRegion(T.A.R.).Theresultspresentedprovidednewinformationonthecurrentchemical
characteristicsofsurfacewateranddrinking‐waterinthe“WaterTowerofAsia”andofferbackgroundinformationand
sources.‘WaterQualityinTheTibetanPlateau:ChemicalEvaluationoftheHeadwatersofFourMajorAsianRivers’byXiang
Huang,PublicationsoftheUniversityofEasternFinlandDissertationsinForestryandNaturalSciences,UniversityofEastern
FinlandFacultyofScienceandForestryDepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,Kuopio,2010.Availablefordownloadingat
http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3.pdf
PoliceopenedfireonTibetansatacement
factoryintheTibetanareaofAmdo
(LabranginGansu)onMay15,2010,after
localvillagersgathered,concernedabout
pollutionfromthefactory.Thisimage
showsarmedpoliceinriotgearoutside
thefactoryinMadangTownship.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|59
GabrielLafitte,authorof‘SpoilingTibet:ChinaandResourceNationalismontheRoofofthe
World’,theauthoritativetextonmininginTibet,108writes:“Tibet,Asia’snumberonewater
tower,istoprovidethewater,copper,gold,silverandmanyothermetals,plusenormousflows
ofhydropowertothefactoriesofChongqing,Chengdu,LanzhouandXiningthatmakeallthe
bigbrandconsumerproductsinourpockets.ThistooistransformingTibet,asChina’sresource
nationalismfindsdomesticsourcestosubstituteforimports,primarilyinTibetandelsewherein
westernChina,suchastheUighurregionofnominal‘autonomy’inXinjiang,andthenominally
‘autonomous’InnerMongolia.IfweaddthelandsoftheMongols,TibetansandUighursweare
talkingofhalfofChina,anareabiggerthanthemaximaldefinitionofEurope,fromtheUralsto
Portugal.”109
TheChineseauthoritiesstartedsurveyingandminingTibetinthe1950sandwhiletheindustry
expandedconsiderablyduringeconomicreformsofthe1980sand1990sitgenerallyremained
small-scale.ButasChinahasfacedgrowingshortagesinthedomesticsupplyofrawmaterials
therehasbeenanacceleratedexploitationofTibet’srichmineralreserves-asinfrastructure
hasdeveloped,mineralcommoditieshavebecomeincreasinglyexploited,leadingtoland
degradation,pollution,andharmtolivestockandwildlifebio-diversity.
Toaneconomist,ariseinmineralextraction,orarisentheproductionofwoolanddairy
productswouldbothcountaseconomicgrowth,hencegrowthinpercapitaGDP.Butinreality,
mineralextractionundertakenbylargecorporationsprovidingminimallocalemployment
mayaddalmostnothingtoalocaleconomy.Beijing’slong-haulplansforminingTibetanareas
confersbenefitselsewhere,whileTibetmustcopewithdegradationoftheenvironment,lossof
amenities,resourcedepletion,andasurgeofimmigrants.
EnvironmentalistsandeconomistswithinChinahavequestionedthechoiceofmineral
exploitationasthebasisofTibetanmodernization.ChineseeconomistsHuAngangandWen
JunwarnthattheheavyemphasisonmineralextractioninTibetwillmakeithardtoprotect
thefragileecosystemoftheTibetanplateau:“Notonlywillthis[strategy]beharmfultothe
protectionoftheenvironment,itcouldalsopossiblyleadtohistoryrepeatingitselfintheform
of‘pollutefirst,putinorderlater’and‘greatdamage,greatpollution’.”110
Anavalancheofrock,mudanddebristhatstruckoneofTibet’smajorminingsites,Gyama
copperandgoldminenearLhasa,onMarch29,2013,focusedattentiononthetollofmining
andindustrializationinTibet.Eighty-threeminers,whoweremostlyChinesemigrantworkers,
werekilled.TherehadlongbeenconcernsabouttheimpactoftheGyama(Chinese:Jiama)
CopperPolymetallicMine,whichisinanareaofhistoricandculturalsignificance,onTibet’s
fragilehigh-altitudelandscape.111
WhiletheChineseauthoritiesdescribeditasa‘naturaldisaster’,researchbytheEnvironment
andDevelopmentDeskoftheCentralTibetanAdministrationvieweditotherwise,statingthe
followinginadetailedreport:“Inordertoacquiremaximumprofitintheshortestpossible
108Ibid
109‘PitchingTibet,inanewkey’,uploadedonhttp://rukor.org/onNovember21(2015)
110CitedinICTreport,‘TrackingtheSteelDragon’,ibid.
111ICTreport,April5,2013,‘DisasterinGyamadrawsattentiontoimpactofmininginTibet’,
http://www.savetibet.org/disaster-in-gyama-draws-attention-to-impact-of-mining-in-tibet/#sthash.33QAsWt2.dpuf
60|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
time,mininginGyamahasbeenpursuedaggressively.Wholeswathesoflandhavebeen
excavatedinseveralsitesandinsomecasesthewholefaceofamountainhasbeenstripped
offintheprocessofexploration,waterdiversion,miningandroadconstruction.Itwasjusta
matteroftimethatsuchlargescaleandaggressiveexpansionofminingwasgoingtocausea
largescaledisaster.TheEnvironmentandDevelopmentDesk[…]believesthatthelandslidein
Gyamaisaman-madephenomenonratherthananaturaldisaster.”112
TherehadlongbeenconcernsabouttheimpactsofminingatGyama,inMaldroGungkar
(Chinese:MozhuGongka)county,approximately42milesoutsideofLhasa.Astudyofwater
qualitybelowtheGyamaminecarriedoutin2010revealedthat:“elevatedconcentrations
ofheavymetalsinthesurfacewaterandstreambedattheupper/middlepartofthevalley
poseaconsiderablyhighrisktothelocalenvironment…andtodownstreamwaterusers.
Environmentalchangessuchasglobalwarmingorincreasedminingactivitymayincreasethe
mobilityofthesepoolsofheavymetals.”113
ProtestsagainstmininginMaldroGungkarstartedintheearly1990ssoonaftertheminers
movedintoexploittheoredeposits.Theminingoperationhasreportedlydriedupspring
waters,poisoneddrinkingwater,killed1,000domesticanimalsanddestroyedfloraandfauna
intheregion.AlthoughlocalTibetansdemandedtheclosureofthemine,inAugust2011,
ChinaGoldInternationalResourcesCorporationstatedthatitwouldstillproceedwithamajor
expansionoftheproject.114
TheQinghai-TibetrailwayanditsconnectiontoShigatsehasbeencrucialintheexpansionof
mininginTibet,makingitpossibletotransportmoreoresoutofTibetanareas,manyofwhich
werepreviouslyremoteandinaccessible.ShetongmenmineclosetoShigatse(Chinese:Rikaze)
intheTibetissuchanexamplefollowingthenewrailconnectiontoShigatse,thatopenedin
August,2014.
112‘AssessmentReportoftheRecentLandslideEventintheGyamaValley:ItsPossibleCauseandImpacts’,theTibetanDepartmentof
EnvironmentandDevelopment,April9,2013,onlineatwww.tibet.net
113Alsosee5.2,casestudyofGyama,‘WaterQualityinTheTibetanPlateau:ChemicalEvaluationoftheHeadwatersofFourMajorAsian
Rivers’byXiangHuang,detailsasabove,http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3.pdf
114‘FatalLandslideDrawsAttentiontotheTollofMiningonTibet’,April2,2013,NewYorkTimes,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/03/world/asia/deadly-tibetan-landslide-draws-attention-to-mining.html;
‘Canadian Treasure Hunt in Tibet Triggers Protest’, EnvironmentalNewsService(ENS),October21,2010,
http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=10488;‘LandslideinGyamaMine:naturalorman-made?’March30,2013,
http://tibet.net/2013/03/landslide-in-gyama-mine-natural-or-man-made/
Aluminiumsmeltingrequiresheavy
supplyofelectricity,fromdamming
Tibetanrivers:MaChu(upperYellow
River)inAmdo/Qinghai.Michael
Buckley:MeltdowninTibetwebsite/
GoogleEarthimage
InternationalCampaignforTibet|61
Shetongmen’sproximitytoamajorriverraisesseriousenvironmentalconcerns,sincethesteep
sitewillhavetosecurelyholdatleast75outofevery100tonnesofrockminedandcrushedto
powdertoextractaconcentratethatcanbesentbyrailtoadistantsmelter.Accordingtorecent
research,thereisalreadyanaturalheavy-metalloadintheriver;anyleakagefromthehillside
damwastetailingscouldbedisastrous.115NotonlywoulddownstreamIndiaandBangladeshbe
affected;iftheplannedwaterdiversionofTibetanriverstotheYellowRiverincludescapturing
theYarlungZangbo,downstreamChina’swaterpuritywouldbethreatenedtoo.
GabrielLafittewrites:“ThegreatriversofTibet,drunkdailybyonebillionpeopleacrossAsia,
naturallycarryaburdenofdangerousmetals,asayounglandstartseroding.Anyfurther
burden,frommininganditsvastdumpsoftailingswaste,wouldbedisastrous.Yetthegoldof
Tibetisfoundeitherinriverbeds(alluvialgold)orinbigdepositsclosetorivers,especiallythe
YarlungTsangporiver,whosebedisliterallythecollisionpointofIndiaandEurasia.
“ThesearescientificreasonstobeextremelycautiousaboutminingTibet.Noneofthiswas
known,inscientificcategories,byTibetanvillagersandnomadencampments,yetthey
instinctivelyrecoiledfrommining.Usuallytheiraversiontobreakingthegrasslandsordigging
themountainswasreinforcedbylocallamasurgingrespectfortheoldpre-Buddhistgodsof
earthandwater,stillcapableofcausingtroubleifdisturbed.Thereisaremarkablecongruence
betweensacredsites,sacredforestsandmountains;andareasofhighbiodiversityornatural
valuesespeciallyworthconserving.”116
ItisnotablethatwhiletheChineseauthoritiesclaimtoberemovingpastoralistsfromthe
grasslandsfor‘conservation’,theyareoftenremovedinordertomakewayforminingactivities.
TenzinNorbu,formerlyoftheEnvironmentandDevelopmentDeskoftheCentralTibetan
AdministrationtoldtheBBC:“TheChinesegovernmentsaysthepastoralistsarebeingresettled
mainlytoconservethegrasslandthatitclaimsisbeingdegradedbecauseofunsustainable
pastoralpractices.ButwhatyouareseeingisthattheseTibetansarebeingremovedso
thattheirage-oldpastorallandscanberampantlyminedandthatactuallyhasledtohuge
environmentaldestruction.”117
Tibetanshaveincreasinglybeenpreparedtoprotestagainsttheimpactofminingorother
industrialactivityontheirlocalenvironmentinrecentyearsdespitethedangers.Thefrequency
oftheseminingprotestsinmanyareasofTibet,aswellastherepressiveresponsebythe
Chineseauthorities,iswell-documented.EvenwhenTibetanstakecaretoexpresstheirconcern
peacefullyandmoderately,theyarestilltear-gassed,arrested,tortured,imprisonedoreven
killed.
InAugust(2015),theChineseauthoritiesusedintimidationandthreatsofforcetoblock
attemptsbylocalTibetanstosaveasacredmountainfromuraniumminingatDringwa
115 ‘WaterQualityinTheTibetanPlateau:ChemicalEvaluationoftheHeadwatersofFourMajorAsianRivers’byXiangHuang,detailsas
above
116‘GoldFromTibet:Anupdate,ConflictMineralsinTibet’,November5,2015,http://rukor.org/gold-from-tibet-an-update/#_ftn2
117‘Tibetansdisplacedwithinregion‘amidrampantmining’byNavinSinghKhadka,Environmentreporter,BBCNews,December13,2013,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-25359391
62|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
(Chinese:Zhanwa)TownshipinDzoege(Chinese:Ruo’ergai)County,Ngaba(Chinese:Aba)
TibetanandQiangAutonomousPrefecture,SichuanProvince.118
ChinesepoliceshotdeadaTibetanduringaprotestrelatedtomininginaTibetanareaof
SichuaninAugust,2010,afterpoliceopenedfireonagroupofTibetansprotestingabout
environmentaldamagecausedbyminingintheeasternTibetanareaofKham.119
Thisfollowedanincidentearlierinthesameyear,whenonMay15,2010,policeopenedfire
onTibetansatacementfactoryintheTibetanareaofAmdo(LabranginGansuProvince)after
localvillagers,worriedaboutpollutionfromthefactory,startedtorebuildaroadthathad
beenclosedbytheexpansionofthefactory.Fifteenpeopleweretakentohospitalwithgunshot
woundsorinjuriesfrombeatingsbypolice.120
GiventheprotestsagainstminingbyTibetancommunitiesdeterminedtoprotecttheir
livelihoods,sacredmountainsandpilgrimageroutes,thereisastrongcasetoargueforthe
classificationofspecificmineralsfromTibetas‘’conflictminerals’.Newguidelineshave
beendeveloped,theOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)121Due
DiligenceGuidanceforResponsibleSupplyChainsofMineralsfromConflict-AffectedandHigh-
RiskAreas,thatcoverChina’sminingcompaniesoperatinginCongo,CentralAfricanRepublic,
andotherconflictzones.Theyarethenbesubjecttoaregulatoryregimethateffectivelybans
theentryofconflictmineralsintotheglobalcommoditysupplychain.122WhiletheOECDMoUis
withChinesecompaniesthatimportfromaroundtheworld(andexportworldwide),thesame
ChinesecompaniesminingdepositsinCongo,PeruorPapuaNewGuineaarealsominingTibet.
118ReportbytheTibetanCenterforHumanRightsandDemocracy,April24,2015,
http://www.tchrd.org/chinese-miners-threaten-tibetans-trying-to-save-sacred-mountain-from-uranium-mining/.TCHRDreported:
“AccordingtoreliableinformationreceivedbyTCHRD,onAugust10aminingteamsentbytheChinesegovernmentproceeded
tostartminingatDrakzong,asacredmountaininDringwa.JustthenalargenumberofTibetansgatheredatthesitetostopthe
miners,withTibetansexplainingtotheChineseminersthatitwasinauspicioustomineatthesacredsiteandthatminingwould
havedisastrousconsequencesontheenvironmentalstabilityoftheregion.Inresponse,theminersthreatenedtocallthepolicefor
obstructingtheirwork.DespiteprotestsfromTibetans,theminingteamhasalreadymadepreparationstostartmininguranium;
miningmachinesandequipmenthavebeenbroughttothesite.Uraniumwasinitiallyminedmainlyforproducingnuclearweapons
andsincethe1960s,formanufactureintonuclearreactorfuel.Beingbothradioactiveandatoxicheavymetal,uraniummining
cancontaminateair,soilandwater.”Alsosee:TibetWatchreport,EnvironmentalProtestsontheTibetanPlateau,January2015,
http://www.tibetwatch.org/uploads/2/4/3/4/24348968/environmental_protests_on_the_tibetan_plateau.pdf
119 ICTreport,
https://www.savetibet.org/chinese-government-admits-to-fatal-shooting-of-tibetan-in-mining-protest/#sthash.BXKBriF9.dpuf
120ICTreport,
https://www.savetibet.org/chinese-government-admits-to-fatal-shooting-of-tibetan-in-mining-protest/#sthash.BXKBriF9.dpuf
121http://www.oecd.org/
122GabrielLafittehasdocumenteddetailsofconflictovertheextractionofgold,lithium,uraniumandcopperinhisserieson‘Conflict
MineralsinTibetonhiswebsiterukor.org
InternationalCampaignforTibet|63
To Amnye Machen A poem by ‘The Plateau is my Home’
This poem, by an unnamed Tibetan writer, is an impassioned tribute to a range of mountains in north-eastern Tibet, considered the most sacred in the Tibetan area of Amdo, a place of pilgrimage. The poem, entitled ‘To Amnye Machen’ by a Tibetan blogger calling themselves, The Plateau is my Home, was posted on a Tibetan language website, a TibetCul blog, on September 5, 2011. The poem, translated below by the literary website High Peaks Pure Earth highlights environmental damage in Tibet caused by mining and is another example of social media discussion on this issue.123
EventhoughIhaveneverseenyou
EventhoughIhaveneverbeenatyourside
Iknowyourstalwartfigure
Standingfirmlyintheboundlessspacebetweenheavenandearth
Onyourvenerableforeheadthathaspassedthroughthousandsofyears
Arethecleansnowflakesshininginthesunoftheplateau
Underyourvast,peacefulandsmoothfeet
Isthesoundofpraisessungtoyoubytheplateauherders.
YouareoneoftheninesacredmountainsofTibet
Yourfameisfirmlyestablishedthroughouttheworld.
YouaretheDharmadefenderofAmdo
Yourgoodnameiswidelyknown.
However,today,thewheelsofgreed
Arerunningoverthegrassland,enteringdirectlyunderyourfeet
Theybringbombs,trucks,andexcavators
Andotherbizarretoolsthatareusedbydemons
Toexcavatethehiddengemsinyourbody
Thepeoplewhohavebeenguardingyouformillionsofyears
Areunabletoguardyouanymore
Theycanonlyendureinsilence
Theironlychoiceistowaithelplessly…
Onedaytheywillbeforcedtomoveout
Sayinggoodbyetearfullytoyourbeautifulandwarmembrace.
Wherewilltheygo?
Theywillbeplacedontheedgeofthebarrendesert
Henceforth,onoursacredAmnyeMachen
Thewhiteflocksofsheepwillneverbeseenagain
Thesongoftheherderswillneverbeheardagain
Thosefilthygreedypeoplewillsoonmercilesslystifleyou
123ForotherHighPeaksPureEarthpostsaboutTibetanconcernsaboutmining,see“2006AppealLetterAgainstMininginAmdo,Tibet,
ResurfacesOnline”,“KumbumOnAJourney”,“ImpoverishedMatöCounty”ByWoeser,“AnAppealLetterfromKumbumMonastery”,
and“PleaseStopthe‘Development’ofMountKailashandLakeManasarovarforProfit”ByWoeseronhttp://highpeakspureearth.com
InternationalCampaignforTibet|65
Recommendations for protection of Tibet the ‘Third Pole’ at the Paris climate change conference and beyond
Tibet-theworld’shighestandlargestplateau-isofincreasinggeopoliticalsignificance.Itis
inastrategiclocationinAsia,whichhastheworld’sfastest-growingeconomies,fastest-rising
militaryexpendituresandfiercestcompetitionforresources.Tibethasthelargestreserveof
accessiblefreshwateronearthandisthesourceofmostofAsia’smajorrivers,supplyingwater
tomillionsofpeopledownstream.Assuchitneedstobebroughtbacktocenterstage.Thereis
aneedfortheinternationalcommunitytore-evaluateTibetasanissuetiedtoAsianandglobal
security,atthecenterofAsia’sunfoldingfuture.Tibet’spresentislinkedtoChina’sfuture.Tibet
needsseriousattentioninglobaltalksonclimatechange,andChina’sstrategiestoaddress
climatechangeneedtoinvolvetheTibetanpeople.
TheInternationalCampaignforTibetmakesthefollowingrecommendations:
Governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldhelpensuretheinclusioninthe
ParisclimateagreementatCOP21ofstrongprovisionstoensurethatactionstoaddress
climatechangeupholdhumanrights,124aredrivenbytheneedsofvulnerablegroupsand
ecosystemssuchasTibetansontheTibetanplateau,andincorporatetraditionaland
indigenousstewardship.125
TheChinesegovernmentshouldallowpastoraliststoliveinprotectedareasincludingnewly
createdNationalParksontheTibetanplateauandtocontinuethepracticeofpastoralism
-giventhatcurrentpolicyonthesettlementofTibetannomadshasledtoincreased
rangelandsdegradation.TheChinesegovernmentshouldnotengagein‘greengrabbing’
(displacementbyconservation).
124TheU.N.HumanRightsCouncilinGenevaadoptedanewresolutiononclimatechange
andhumanrightsinJuly(2015).SeereportatClimateChangeNews,July6,2015
http://www.climatechangenews.com/2015/07/06/climate-change-is-a-matter-of-human-rights-agrees-un/
125IUCNontheimportanceofreconcilingindigenousandprotectedareas:Reconcilingindigenouspeoplesandprotectedareas:rights,
governanceandequitablecostandbenefitsharing’,DiscussionPaperbyPeterBilleLarsen,withcontributionsfromGonzaloOviedo,
IUCN,Gland,February2006,https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_reconciling_ip_and_pa.pdf
66|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
GlobalexperienceshowsthatthemosteffectivewayofachievingREDDobjectives126isby
includingpastoralistsaspartofthesolutionratherthanexcludingthemaspartoftheproblem.
Pasturesarenotthreatenedbygrazingbutsustainedbyflexible,mobile,lightgrazingherds,
bothwildanddomestic,andpastoralistcommunitiesarebestmotivatedtorehabilitate
degradedlandswhentheyhavesecurelandtenureandarenotdisplaced.
TheChinesegovernmentshouldimposeamoratoriumonthesettlementofTibetan
pastoralnomadsdisplacedbydevelopmentorconservation,pendinganindependent
assessment,includingalegalreview,ofpoliciesthatrequireorproducedisplacementand
resettlement,theconfiscationofpropertyandtheimposedslaughteroflivestock.China
needsTibetannomads’traditionalecosystemsknowledgeofthegrasslands.
ICTurgessupportforrecommendationsfromtheU.N.SpecialRapporteurfortheRightto
Food,encouragingtheChineseauthoritiestoengageinmeaningfulconsultationswith
herdingcommunities,includinginordertoassesstheresultsofpastandcurrentpolicies,
andexamineallavailableoptions,includingrecentstrategiesofsustainablemanagement
ofmarginalpasturessuchastheNewRangelandManagement(NRM)inordertocombine
theknowledgeofthenomadicherdersoftheirterritorieswiththeinformationthatcanbe
drawnfrommodernscience.127
TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsprohibitsdeprivingany
peoplefromitsmeansofsubsistence,andthe1992ConventiononBiodiversityacknowledges
theimportanceofindigenouscommunitiesasguarantorsandprotectorsofbiodiversity(Art.8
j).Chinahasratifiedbothoftheseinstruments.
Theintensificationofhydro-damconstructiononallmajorTibetanrivers–inareasof
highseismicrisk-hasbeenemphasisedinChina’s13thFiveYearPlan.Giventheevidence
presentedinthisreportandbynumerousexpertsinChinaandinternationallyonthe
dangersofsuchlarge-scaledamminginsuchafragileandsignificanthigh-altitudeplateau,
thispolicyrequiresurgentreconsiderationbyinternationalexpertsandtheChinese
leadership.Thereshouldbeamoratoriumonbuildingoflargedamsontheplateau.The
Chineseauthoritiesmustconductathoroughenvironmentalimpactassessmentbefore
implementingsuchpotentiallyirreversiblyharmfulprojects.
Theprospectofamegaprojectthatinterruptstheenvironmentalflowoftheupper
Yangtze,impoundsanddivertsbillionsofcubicmetersofwatertothenorththrough
Ngaba(Chinese:Aba)prefectureinTibetrequiresurgentreconsiderationandindependent
internationalexpertiseinordertoevaluatewhetheritissuitableforsuchaprojectto
proceed,givenitsimplicationsforthefragilehigh-altitudeecosystem,provisionofwater
downstream,andregionalsecurityconcerns.
126Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradation(REDD)isamechanismthathasbeenundernegotiationby
theUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)since2005,withtheobjectiveofmitigating climate
changethroughreducingnetemissionsofgreenhousegasesthroughenhancedforestmanagementindevelopingcountries.Asa
mechanismunderthemulti-lateralclimatechangeagreement,REDD+isessentiallyavehicletofinanciallyrewarddevelopingcountries
fortheirverifiedeffortstoreduceemissionsandenhanceremovalsofgreenhousegasesthroughavarietyofforestmanagementoptions.
127RecommendationsputforwardbytheSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFoodOlivierSchutterin2010followinghisvisittoTibet.
Beijing,December23,2010,http://www.srfood.org/images/stories/pdf/press_releases/20101223_china-mission-press-release_en.pdf
ThecurrentSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFoodisHilalElver.
InternationalCampaignforTibet|67
Governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldthroughpublicstatements,bilateral
channelsandinternationalinstitutionsexpressconcernsovertheunsustainable
developmentofTibet’swaterresourcesandthegovernanceofriversarisingfromTibet,
onthebasisoftheplateauandbeyondbeingconsideredasavitalwater-shedarea.128
ThisrequirestreatingtheTibetanwatershedasasupranationalunitessentialtoeffective
conservation,multilateralcoordinationandcooperation,andeffectivewaterdemand
managementandclimatechangemitigation.Multilateral,multinationalinstitutionsneed
tobeinvolvedinordertonotonlysetstandardsbuttoholdriverinepartiesaccountablefor
impactsupstreamanddownstream.
Encouragingtrans-boundarycollaborativedecision-makingandgovernanceoftheTibetan
plateau’swaterresources,includingallregionalandlocalstakeholders,willenhancethe
effectivenessofmitigationpoliciesandpromoteequitableadaptationstrategiesthatcan
reducetheriskofconflictovercompetitionforwaterresources.
Wetlanddesiccation,bothanthropogenicandinducedbyclimatechange,nowthreatens
biodiversity,agriculturalproductivityandrurallivelihoodsacrosstheTibetanplateau.The
Chineseauthoritiesmustbeurgedtoremediatewatermeadowhabitatsasatoppriorityto
preventmethaneemissionsandbiodiversityconservationoutcomesandtoenhancerural
livelihood.
Internationalorganizations,governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldencourage
theChinesegovernmenttoupholdtheprincipleoffree,priorandinformedconsent(FPIC)in
relationtoalldecisionsoverdevelopmentofTibet’sresources,includingallminingprojects
ontheTibetanplateau.Bothpubliclyandprivately,expressconcernsovertheimpactof
miningontheenvironmentandcommunitiesontheTibetanplateau,andtheramifications
fortheregion.Urgetheadoptionoffargreaterenvironmentalandsocialstandardsfor
mininginTibet.
OECDduediligenceguidelinesonconflictmineralsinthecommoditychainaregaining
worldwideuse.129GivenTibetandistressandwidespreadprotestsagainstmininginTibet,
mineralsextractedfromTibetmeetthischaracterizationandanycompanypotentially
sourcingmineralsormetalsfromTibetshouldbeheldtoaccountforextractingconflict
minerals.
Thereshouldbeurgentre-evaluationofthedramaticincreaseinwithdrawingwaterfrom
protectedareaswhereglaciersarealreadyshrinkingforanexpandingbottledwater
industry.Carbonemissionsoftheextratechnologiesandtransportationneededtobring
theproductfromsourcetomarketshouldalsonotbeignored,inparticularlygiventhe
emphasisfromtheTibetAutonomousRegiongovernmentinpromotingtheexportof
bottledwater.
128Ithasbeencharacterizedasthe‘GreaterAsianWater-Shed’–seeEarthEconomics,http://eartheconomics.org/Page76.aspx.A
watershedis“thatareaofland,aboundedhydrologicsystem,withinwhichalllivingthingsareinextricablylinkedbytheircommon
watercourseandwhere,ashumanssettled,simplelogicdemandedthattheybecomepartofacommunity.”(JohnWesleyPowell,
scientistgeographer,citedbytheUnitedStatesEnvironmentProtectionAgency:http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/whatis.cfm).
129OECDDueDiligenceGuidanceforResponsibleSupplyChainsofMineralsfromConflict-AffectedandHigh-RiskAreas,
http://www.oecd.org/corporate/mne/mining.htm
68|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange
Internationalorganizations,governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldurge
independent,internationalscientificassessmentsofthechangesintheTibetanplateau’s
ecosystems,waterresourcesandlandusepolicies,anddatasharing.Theparticipation
ofscientistsandrelevantstakeholdersfromTibetandfromthosenationsthatdepend
onTibet’swaterisnecessaryforrigorousexamination,analysisandinterpretationof
conditionsontheplateau.Thiswillfacilitateanequitableanddurableapproachtoadapting
toandmitigatingtheaffectsofclimatechangeintheregion,includingscience-based
ecosystemrestorationandmanagementoftheplateau’sgrasslandsandforests.
Internationalgovernmentsandglobalinstitutionsprevailedupontofundschemeswithin
thePRCshouldpayattentiontolanguageusedandinvestigatewhetherprojectsproposed
toenhanceconservationorpovertyalleviationdonotinvolvenomadsettlement,building
oflargedams,fencingofgrasslands,orsimilar.
Themajordonorgovernments,includingtheEuropeanUnion,shouldmaintainand,where
possible,expandtargetedprogrammaticassistanceforTibetans,including:supportfor
sustainable,culturallyappropriatedevelopmentassistancetoTibetancommunities;
educationalandculturalexchangeanddevelopmentprogramstargetedtoTibetans,both
inTibetandinexile.Donorsshouldestablishlegallybindingprojectprinciplestogovern
officialdevelopmentassistancecarriedoutinTibetanareas.Concernedcountriesshould
specificallytasktheirembassiesandconsulatestoexpandtheiroutreachtoTibetan
communitiesandmonitoringofthesituationinTibet,includingbymaintainingaspecific
actionofficeronTibetintheembassy.
HumanrightslawimposesproceduralobligationsonStatesinrelationtoenvironmental
protection,includingduties:toassessenvironmentalimpactsandmakeenvironmental
informationpublic;tofacilitatepublicparticipationinenvironmentaldecision-making,
includingbyprotectingtherightsofexpressionandassociation;andtoprovideaccessto
remediesforharmStatesshouldprovideaccesstoenvironmentalinformation.Chinamust
urgentlybringitspoliciesinconformitywiththeseinternationalstandards,particularly
withregardtoitslandusepolicyinTibet.
Stateshaveanobligationtoprovideforaneffectiveremedyforviolationsofprotected
rights,andhumanrightsbodieshaveappliedthatprincipletohumanrightswhose
enjoymentisinfringedbyenvironmentalharm.Chinamustcompensatethosewhohave
sufferedfromenvironmentalharm,inparticularthosewhohavelosttheirlivelihoodsor
whohavebeenexposedtotoxicsubstancesorwaste.
Stateshaveobligationsnotonlytorefrainfromviolatingtherightsoffreeexpression
andassociationdirectly,butalsotoprotectthelife,libertyandsecurityofindividuals
exercisingthoserights,includingwhentheyareexercisingtheirrightsinconnectionwith
environmentalconcerns.130Chinamustrespecttherightsofprotesters,inparticularrefrain
fromusingdisproportionateforce.
130ReportoftheIndependentExpertontheissueofhumanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean,healthyand
sustainableenvironment,JohnH.Knox,‘Mappingreport‘,30December2013,A/HRC/25/53;alsonoteReportoftheIndependent
Expertontheissueofhumanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean,healthyandsustainableenvironment,John
H.Knox,‘Compilationofgoodpractices’,A/HRC/28/61February2015.
ICT United States1825JeffersonPlace,NW
Washington,DC20036
UnitedStatesofAmerica
Phone:+(1)202-785-1515
Fax:(202)785-434
www.savetibet.org
ICT EuropeVijzelstraat77
1017HGAmsterdam
TheNetherlands
Phone:+31(0)203308265
Fax:+31(0)203308266
www.savetibet.nl
ICT GermanySchönhauserAllee163
10435Berlin
Germany
Phone:+49(0)3027879086
Fax:+49(0)3027879087
www.savetibet.de
ICT Belgium11,ruedelalinière
1060Brussels
Belgium
Phone:+32(0)26094410
Fax:+32(0)26094432
www.savetibet.fr
Tibetfromspace,showingthemountainrangesandvasticefields.ImagecourtesyofNASA.DanielMiller,an
expertonTibet’snomads,haspublishedaseriesofimagesofTibetfromspaceinhisbook‘TibetfromSpace:
AstronautPhotosoftheTibetanPlateauandHimalaya’.