School of Social Sciences Peace and development studies Bachelor’s Thesis
The Role of Diamonds in Sierra Leone
History and Conflict A Study Based on the West African Country Sierra Leone
Author: Kadiri Joseph Osikhena
Tutor: Anders Nilsson Examiner: Manuela Nilsson
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Acknowledgement
My profound gratitude to God Almighty for in him I found the strength and courage in
fulfilling my goals and most especially in my academic pursuit.
Special thanks to the course coordinator and also my tutor Anders Nilsson for his
constructive comments, suggestions and unprecedented support in writing this paper.
Special thanks also to all the teachers at the department of Peace and Development.
To my families, thank you for all the love and support you have offered to me in life. For
without you I would not have had the effort in life and to my friends (both in Nigeria,
Sweden and other parts of the world) too numerous to mention, you are the most
wonderful.
Kadiri Joseph Osikhena Växjö University, © 2009
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Abstract Natural resources as well as mineral resources are one among several important factors
needed for the existence of human beings, and many countries which posses few of these
resources are likely to improve in development. But the opposite has been seen in many
underdeveloped country’s that are rich in natural resources, but they still lack
development, and above all they suffer from conflict in their societies.
The aim of this study is to look into the role which diamonds has played in the conflict
between Sierra Leonean government and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). And
also to relate the behavior’s of both parties in the 1991 conflict to the issue of greed and
grievance in detecting the actual causes.
I was able to conclude in my study that diamonds in Sierra Leone was not the main cause
of the conflict, but it acted as a propelling factor, due to its ability to prolong the war by
generating income for both rebels and government. But grievances emerging from Sierra
Leone’s history are more likely to have been the main driving force for the rebellion
which took place.
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Table of Contents Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. 1 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Research Questions............................................................................................... 7 1.2 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................. 8
2 Methodology and Materials ........................................................................................... 10 2.1 Methods............................................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Case study ................................................................................................ 11 2.1.2 Advantages of Case Study Methods ................................................................ 11 2.2 Secondary and content analyses.......................................................................... 13 2.3 Discussion on Materials...................................................................................... 14 2.4 Evaluation of the sources .................................................................................... 14 2.5 Previous studies on Sierra Leone Conflict.......................................................... 16 2.6 Limitations .......................................................................................................... 17
3 Theoretical framework................................................................................................... 18 3.1 The concept of relative deprivation .................................................................... 18 3.2 Rebellion ............................................................................................................. 19 3.3 Grievance and its connection to rebellion........................................................... 19 3.4 Greed theory and natural resources..................................................................... 21
3.5.1 Comparing insurgency motives within the greed and grievance debate.. 24 4 Diamond history and production ................................................................................... 26
4.1 De Beer ............................................................................................................... 31 4.1.1 De Beers and Diamond Worldwide ......................................................... 31
4.2 De Beer and connection to Sierra Leone ............................................................ 32 5 Sierra Leone’s early history and challenges .................................................................. 33
5.1 Sierra Leone background- pre- independence .................................................... 34 5.2 Sierra Leone Diamond History ........................................................................... 35 5.3 Post- Independence ‘‘1961 onward’’.................................................................. 37
5.3.1 The politics of Patronage ......................................................................... 38 5.3.2 Political power and Intimidation.............................................................. 39
5.4 New External actors and Rise of International Crime ........................................ 39 5.5 End of monopoly and rise of illegal trade........................................................... 40
6 Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 41 6.1 The emergence of a Rebellion in Sierra Leone and conflict (1991 to 2002) ...... 41 6.1.1 Revolutionary United Front (RUF).................................................................. 41
6.1.2 From grievance to grievances .................................................................. 44 6.1.3 The Role of Lebanon ............................................................................... 45 6.1.4 The Role of Liberia.................................................................................. 46 6.1.5 Diamond’s impact on Sierra Leone ......................................................... 46
7 Conclusions.................................................................................................................... 48
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7.1 A Question of Greed or Grievance?.................................................................... 48 7.2 Relationship between Diamonds and the Conflict.............................................. 49
References:- ...................................................................................................................... 51 Literatures ................................................................................................................. 51 Articles...................................................................................................................... 53 Internet Documents................................................................................................... 54
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1 Introduction
Many decades ago, developing countries were in the control of colonial powers, but over
the past decades, most of the underdeveloped countries got their independences from
their colonial countries; discoveries of the abundance of natural resources in many parts
of Africa and other developing countries around the world have been made, ranging from
Gold, Diamond, Oil, etc. This has also created a shift from agricultural products which
had always been a major source of export for revenue and a major source of food
domestically, to relying on the export of these natural resources as their main source of
revenue. Government depends on this huge abundance of resources to control and fund
their projects, of which the western countries are the destination of these resources.
Sierra Leone is located in the West Coast of Africa and covers an area of 72,000 square
kilometers. The country is bounded on the north and north east by the Republic of
Guinea, on the east by the Republic of Liberia and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean.
Sierra Leone which was a former colony of Britain just like many countries in Africa,
gained its independence on the 27th of April 1961. There are approximately twelve
districts, one hundred and forty nine chiefdoms and three hundred and ninety four wards
in Sierra Leone, with Freetown as the capital of the country. There are approximately 13
ethnic tribes in the West African country, but with English as official language, and Krio
as the lingua franca which is widely spoken.1
Sierra Leone is also a country which is rich in one of the most precious natural resources
(Diamond). Just immediately after production started in 1937, Sierra Leone produced
about 1 million carats of diamonds annually, and it increased to 2 million carats in 1960.
1 H Kabbah 2006, Sierra Leone Legal System and Legal Research
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‘‘between 1952 and 1962, the tax paid to the Sierra Leone government averaged between
30 percent and 60 percent of profits, which were significantly high at that time’’.2
The business of diamond had already begun in Sierra Leone before the country got its
independence from Great Britain, and Multinational companies participated in it, legally
or illegally. These great discoveries of diamond that were made, had been believed by
many to be the future source of development, economically and socially for the country.
But little or nothing can be seen in Sierra Leone at present, as the country is still ranked
among the poorest in the world, with life very difficult for its citizens, and the economic
situation being in a critical state.3
Precious and expensive natural resources like diamond would have been a source of
revenue for many countries and in terms of development, it can as well have a positive
impact. Since the discovery of diamond in Sierra Leone in the early 1930’s, the country
has had several authorities in charge, ranging from the previous colonial authorities
(Britain) to the Sierra Leonia government authorities itself. Diamonds have also had great
impacts in the developmental and administrative periods of Sierra Leone. Apart from the
authorities who have administered and controlled these resources since discovery, the
involvement of Multinational companies has also been huge.
Although Sierra Leone achieved its independence peacefully, ‘‘the colonial history of
Sierra Leone was not placid, as the indigenous people had mounted several unsuccessful
revolts against the British rule’’. 4 This struggle might have been due to the
mismanagement and lack of development which was visible during the colonial time and
which was unsatisfactory for the indigenous Sierra Leoneans. According to K David
2 Smillie, L Gberie & R Hazleton, 2000: 18 3 PJM, Sierra Leone 1935-2000: accessed 26/01/2009 http://www.professionaljeweler.com/archives/hottopics/sierraleone1.html 4 US Department of States 2008, Bureau of African Affairs
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2005, the colonial era saw a great separation in the economy of Sierra Leone between the
mining companies and the rest of the economy; this gave a greater control of the industry
to the mining companies by the colonial administration.5
This same mismanagement and lack of proper development that was experienced during
the colonial era of Sierra Leone, continued into the post independence period, and the
1960s and 1970s was overshadowed with state sponsored corruption; a decline in the
economic situation and military rule. The rebellion in 1991 brought a new atmosphere in
Sierra Leone, creating unrest for the country’s 4.5 million people, of which over 75,000
were killed and half of a million people became refugees fleeing to other countries.6
Apart from the RUF which was the main rebel group fighting against the government of
Sierra Leone, we would also see that there were other players from outside the country as
well, who had their own aims and objectives from the Civil War. Example is the former
rebel leader in Liberia who later became president of Liberia (Charles Taylor)m; and the
RUF leader (Foday Sankoh) who was formally a soldier in Sierra Leone army.7
The reason behind the rebellion was not stated clearly over the long period of time, and
the rebels made no demands, apart from their allegations that the government officials
were corrupt and they mismanaged diamond and mineral resources.8
1.1 Research Questions
Sierra Leone which underwent mismanagement during the colonial era and lack of proper
development with the separation of the diamond business which was controlled by the
5 K David, 2005: 8 6 I Smillie, L Gberie & Rhazleton: The heart of the matter, Sierra Leone, Diamond & Human Security. Africa policy E-journal 2000: 26/12/2008 7 K David, 2005: 37 8 A Shah 2001, Sierra Leone 10/04/2009
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British from other sector and which continued into the post independence period, was
characterized by high level of corruption, political mistreatment and there has been
inequality in the country, which has led to a high level of distrust towards the
government, and a feeling of marginalization among the poor citizens.9
The focus of my research paper is basically to look at the role which the abundance of
diamond in Sierra Leone had played in the history of the country as well as in the civil
war which the country went through from the period of 1991 to 2002 when the war was
officially declared ended, and to analyze what kind of negative impact it had on
prolonging the civil war in Sierra Leone, due to the fact that the rebels had gained access
to some control of these diamonds, and were able to finance their rebellion against the
government through smuggling and selling to the international market.
1.2 Aims and Objectives
The main aim and objective of my paper apart from analyzing the impact in which the so
called precious stones (diamonds) played in the conflict which happened in Sierra Leone,
is to as well look into the issue of greed and grievance in the conflict, as some analyst
have argued that the greedy behavior of the rebels for resource wealth was the main
motive for starting the rebellion in 1991, but others argue that it was the result of
historical grievances arising from government mismanagement and corruption.
I have chosen Sierra Leone to do my research among several countries with conflict in
Africa and around the world because the conflict between Sierra Leone and the
Revolutionary United Force carries so many characteristics that can be found in the
Greed and Grievance debate which my research paper will be based upon. Also, I believe
that I can be able to analyze how conflict generates and continues to be sustained through
9 K David, 2005: 9
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the availability of lootable and unlootable resources as have been seen in Sierra Leone
during the period of 1991 to 2002 that the conflict lasted.
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2 Methodology and Materials
A presentation is given below of the method used for this study, its weaknesses and
strength; and why it is appropriate for the paper which is selected of which the West
African country (Sierra Leone) is the main country of discussion. There is also a short
discussion on the materials used.
The main aim of this chapter is basically to explain in a broader view, the approach that is
being used and to pass a better understanding about the methodology which serves as the
basis of this paper on the role of diamonds in the history of Sierra Leone and the conflict.
2.1 Methods
A qualitative method will be used to be able to reach the aim and to answer the research
questions which would practically be done from secondary materials written by other
authors, making it easier because of the possibility of not going on a field research
personally, and saving time in concluding the research study. I am applying this method
in my case study of Sierra Leones conflict because it will save time in my research work
without going down to Sierra Leone and seeking information from the rebels themselves,
which is almost impossible for other authors too in getting first hand information. This
can be seen as one of the major weakness of using secondary materials. But in my work, I
will try to focus on using information which is provided by credible and reliable
secondary sources.
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ase study as a method of doing research is just one out of several different methods of
.1.2 Advantages of Case Study Methods
e preferred form of carrying out research by
2.1.1 Case study
A case study is said to be the well defined aspect of an historical event or episodes in
which a researcher intends to analyze, other than the entire historical event itself.10 In this
case, a researcher has to focus on which aspect of the historical event that the analysis is
going to be based on, and must do this according to the available data. Case study method
has for a long time been used in so many areas of research such as in sociology, political
sciences, social work and psychology. This is quite likely because the case study method
tends to contributes to the researchers knowledge of the social or political phenomena,
depending of the area of focus.11 This method tends to really answer the questions of
‘‘how and why’’, and ‘‘case study method allows investigators to retain the holistic and
meaningful life cycle or international relations and the maturation of industries’’.12
C
carrying out research studies in the field of social science; other methods include surveys
and analysis of archival information. ‘‘But all methods have their advantages and
disadvantages depending on the type of research question, the control of the researcher
over the particular events and the focus which is placed on contemporary as opposed to
historical phenomena’’.13
2
Just as case study methods continues to be th
many researchers, it seems generally that Case study methods have a greater advantage in
10 A. L. George & A. Bennett 2005: 18 11 R. K. Yin 2003: 1 12 R. K. Yin 2003: 2 13 R. K. Yin 2003: 1
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producing clear results were statistical methods and formal methods are weak.14 And this
is because of the following reasons that it has as an advantage over others.
- Conceptual validity: is achieved when a researcher in using a case study method
in carrying out research, and the researcher has the capability to identify, measure
or compare which of the indicators that best represents the theoretical concepts
which is being measured. Example is measuring variables such as democracy,
corruption or power, which are difficult to measure, but by doing a ‘‘contextual
comparison’’, the researcher is able to use analytical equivalent phenomena to
address certain issues. Whereas statistical method ends up with ‘‘conceptual
stretching’’.15
- Exploring Causal Mechanisms: tends to explore the causal mechanisms of every
single case individually in details, and ‘‘it helps to identify what conditions that
are present within a case, and which activates the causal mechanisms’’.16 This
helps the researcher not to make conclusion on a certain case due to the causal
mechanisms of another, because correlation does not imply causation. But
researchers can also use theories on causal mechanisms to give historical
explanations of cases.
- Deriving New Hypotheses: concludes a study with the derivation of a variables
and hypotheses through either field work like, interviews of people who were
present at an event, or historians. The ability to conclude with a new set of theory
may depend on the new variable which the researcher might have derived from
the study, and this theory can then be tested with previously unexamined
evidence.
14 A. L. George & A. Bennett 2005: 19 15 A. L. George & A. Bennett 2005: 19 16 A. L. George & A. Bennett 2005: 21
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- Modeling and Assessing Complex Causal Relations: another merit of case study
method is the ability to put together ‘‘complex causal mechanism such as
equifinality, complex interactions effects and path dependency’’.17 In other for
case study achieve equifinality, the generalization produced must be narrower or
more contingent and this makes this advantage to be relative rather than absolute.
2.2 Secondary and content analyses
Secondary analyses- this generally refers to the studies which are taken from historical
data and informational materials which previously exists or have been written and
analyzed by other researchers, and which is finally used as a source or basis for a new
research or study by someone else.18 This secondary analysis has been applied in my
paper on Sierra Leone, as the materials used were gotten from studies which were
previously carried out by other researchers.
Content analysis- there are some problems which are best researched through content
analysis, and this approach can also take the form of both the qualitative and quantitative
methods of doing research studies. There are three basic requirements that are attached to
this method of research analysis, first is that it should be objective, which means that
‘‘the researcher does not need to follow his own way of seeing the materials, but must
develop an objective category, which will have to represent the contents of the materials
used’’.19 The second is the systematic way in which the researcher needs to follow, and
this refer to the inclusion and exclusion of contents, meaning that the researcher needs to
include certain contents even though it fails to support his or her hypothesis. And the last
17 A. L. George & A. Bennett 2005: 22 18 T. Baker 1999: 269 19 T. Baker 1999: 269
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requirement is that content analysis must ‘‘posses generality’’, meaning that the research
must have a theoretical relevance.20
2.3 Discussion on Materials
During the process of writing this essay, several informational materials were used from
already published books which I got from Växjö university library, as well as other books
which were borrowed from other universities in Sweden through the inter library loan.
Internet articles and journals were also used from the search engine ELIN, as well as
informational materials from the website of the US States Department.
Several articles about the conflict in Sierra Leone, as well as the Greed and Grievance
debate were also used in my paper. Among them are the World Bank project done by
‘‘Collier Paul & Bannon, Ian (2003): Natural Resources and Violent Conflict, Options
and Actions’’; The International Peace Academy Policy Report done by Karren
Ballentine and Heiko Nitzschke, titled ‘‘Beyond Greed and Grievance’’ was also used in
my case study on Sierra Leone conflict; their report was made to show that other factors
applies to conflict beyond greed and grievance which many researchers and government
agencies regards as the general causes of conflicts.
The United Nations Human development Index, as well as the Kimberly Process,
statistics of rough diamond was used to get statistical data.
2.4 Evaluation of the sources
When one is dealing with a primary source such as books, which often have different
views from various authors, it is vital to remain un bias when reading and using them as a
source of information. This is a predicament students have to face when writing a thesis
20 T. Baker 1999: 269
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or researcher writing article. And in the age of internet, information can be posted by
almost anyone, so it is vital for students to evaluate the sources carefully. This evaluation
is built upon a set of methodological rules which is used in order to determine the level of
genuineness in what is read. The four criteria to be taken are written below:21
- Genuineness: - this is to make sure that the source is authentic, and has been
produced by those who are in the right context to do so.
- Simultaneity: - this is to make sure that the source is produced practically at the
same time of the incidence of closely to make it more reliable.
- Independence: - it is to check if the author or writer was an independent witness,
and if the source is primary or secondary.
- Tendency: - this is to make sure that the writer is not one sided, and is not biased
in they way the information is given.22
The most difficult of these criteria, as regards the evaluation of sources which I have used
for my thesis was tendency. When writing a case study or research, a student is always
faced with the problem of the information being biased, and also several authors appear
to be influenced by politics, economics, traditions and social society when writing
materials. So, students are supposed to evaluate information carefully when writing.
Many of the materials I have used are from independent researchers, non-governmental
organizations who have written various materials on the Sierra Leonean conflict and also
materials and information from International Organization such as the World Bank
Project and the United Nations Security Council.
21 P Esaiasson, M Gilljam, H Oscarsson & L Wängnerud, 2007: 315 22 P Esaiasson, M Gilljam, H Oscarsson & L Wängnerud, 2007: 316 & 317
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2.5 Previous studies on Sierra Leone Conflict
Several authors and researchers have tried to find out the actual reasons for the Civil War.
According to I Smillie, L Gberie & R Hazleton, they conducted a research called ‘‘the
heart of the matter, Sierra Leone diamond and human security’’ in partnership with
Africa Canada. They came to the conclusion that ‘‘the point of the war may not have
actually been to win it, but just to engage in profitable crime under the cover of warfare’’.
This is to say that the RUF’s intention was basically greed and wealth seeking.
Jimmy D. Kandeh who is a researcher at the Nordic Africa Institute in Uppsala, Sweden,
wrote an article on the Sierra Leonean conflict after his several visits to the country. He
concluded that ‘‘the war in Sierra Leone was caused by the untrammeled greed of the
country’s political class. Predatory accumulation by incumbent political elites and their
cronies eroded state capacities, impoverished society, lumpenized youth and elder’s alike
destroyed public confidence in state institutions and sowed the seeds of state collapse and
armed rebellion’’. 23 This means that the rebellion was actually a repercussion of
historical corruption and state failure, which created a certain group of angry and
relatively deprived youths in the country that began a rebellion against the state.
Victor A.B Davies wrote an article in the University of Sierra Leone. He blamed the
weak institutions in Sierra Leone, for making the looting of natural resources possible
without any intervention by the state. According to him, ‘‘the people of Sierra Leone
were suffering through the entire period of the civil war, but the actors failed to end it
because the few people benefiting from the war itself were the (rebel leaders, external
actors, pro-government combatants and even the government themselves)’’.24 Their
interest for economic wealth and the presence of natural resources therefore prolonged
the war.
23 J D. Kandeh: Silencing the Guns in Sierra Leone 24 V.A. Davies, pg 366
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2.6 Limitations
There can be a lot of problems in terms of validity and the reliability of the information
which a gotten from secondary sources when carrying out a research of this nature.
Firstly, there are several materials from various authors and they can be biased in many
ways. Secondly, because the information from the rebels is difficult to get, one might end
up only getting the story of one party in the conflict which might jeopardize the
credibility of the final conclusion. Lastly, even the information that might come from the
rebels cannot be considered credible or reliable, as they are always likely to justify their
actions which are been carried out. So my conclusion on the conflict between the Sierra
Leone government and the Revolutionary United Front is based on secondary sources and
materials.
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3 Theoretical framework
This chapter presents the theoretical framework which will help to guide my research
paper on the role of diamond in the conflict of Sierra Leone. It starts by looking at the
concept of relative deprivation and how it contributes to collective political violence as
well as rebellion, followed by a short description and comparison of the greed and
grievance debate. I have chosen Sierra Leone out of several conflict countries in Africa
because it serves as a good example of the greed and grievance debate, with its
‘‘lootable’’ resources (diamonds).
3.1 The concept of relative deprivation
Relative deprivation can be said to be the level of gap between an individual or a
society’s expectations and their present capacity. This produces some kind of frustrations
which increases in levels just as the gap expands. This can be said to be common in many
societies where there is economic and social instability and the difference in level
between the rich and the poor is larger in size; this level of deprivation can be said to
sometimes lead to a sense of frustration in individuals or society. ‘‘ in
social-psychological terms, collective violence which often becomes the outcome, is a
consequence of shattered hope and aspirations, as well as fear of losing what individuals
has already achieved’’.25
Relative deprivation has three dimensions which are as follows:
- Decremental relative deprivation: shows that the individual or society is unable to
achieve what they expect to get or their previous condition depreciates or worsens.
25 E, Conteh-Morgan 2004: 71
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- Aspirational relative deprivation: shows that individuals may not necessarily lose what
they had, but they tend to assume that their condition is not satisfactory and should have
been much improved.
- Progressive relative deprivation: means that the individual or societies which have had
a long period of economic growth, suddenly experiences a decline in such growth,
thereby leading to frustrations.
3.2 Rebellion
The term rebellion is often differentiated most times from revolution, as it is often
referred to as the unsuccessful attempts to overthrow any existing system.26 Although
sometimes successful, there are however little or no changes in the way the previous
system functions, only a change in leadership. According to T Boswell & W.J Dixon
1993, Karl Marx’s theory of rebellion shows that ‘‘rebellions are a necessary but not a
sufficient cause of a revolution’s success, but it is just a component of revolution and it is
often rare for rebellion to transform social structure after overthrow of a government’’.27
Rebellion which is often carried out against a particular system and how it functions can
be said to result from different causes; examples are relative deprivation and or
grievances as a result of deprivation or frustration. This leads us to the next topic,
rebellion as a form of grievance.
3.3 Grievance and its connection to rebellion
A history of deprivation by any State government can lead to the outbreak of law and
order and violence can erupt. State failure and weakness in connection with the
mismanagement of resource funds by corrupt leaders can be the basis of a rebellion in a
26 E, Conteh-Morgan 2004: 165 27 T, Boswell & W.J Dixon 1993: 682
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country, and warlords are likely to take advantage of this avenue of anger and grievance
in a society to mobilize insurgence against any government. An example is Sierra Leone
which experienced a long era of political mismanagement and corruption by the state,
leading to socio-economic deterioration and institutional failure, causing grievance
against the state government.28 In discussing grievances, three relevant areas which might
lead to grievance will be looked upon: vengeance, political exclusion and inter-group
hatred.
As previously mentioned, grievances can continue to exist in any society due to previous
historic conflict which has taken place before between certain groups, or against the
government which might be seen as a representative of a majority or minority group.29
Such grievances might pass on from different generations, and likely to occur repeatedly,
as we have seen in most African countries.
Political exclusion can give rise to grievances, as previously mentioned, and this can take
different forms. It can occur as a result of political repression or when some groups are
being victimized in a country.30 This was particularly experienced by minority groups in
Sierra Leone just after the independence, when Siaka Stevens from the APC party ruled
the country. However, studies have been able to show that countries that are democratic
have low chances of grievance through political repression, But even democracies may
exclude if a minority group is systematically victimized. This might arise when a country
has an ethnic group that is large and dominant, which makes the smaller groups feel
marginalized.31
28 K Ballentine & H Nitzschke, 2003: 4 29 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 14 30 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 13 31 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 13
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Another circumstance is the result of political exclusion, which occurs when certain class
of the society is being marginalized, such as the poor; this can be a result of economic
inequality, which is an indication of marginalization of these classes, and they can
succeed in using political contest to define their economic position.32 Frustration can
occur from this political or social deprivation and may sometimes lead to collective
violence in societies.33
Inter-group hatred is also a major cause of civil conflict and it is a result of grievance held
against different opposing groups in a society. Inter-group hatred which results in conflict
especially occurs in societies which are multi-ethnic or multi-religious.34 It is prone to
fractionalize societies where division is greater and ideologies are different. A great
number of conflicts in today’s societies are as well resulting from different religious
groups.
3.4 Greed theory and natural resources
According to Collier and Hoeffler (2004) civil wars evolve from the greedy behavior of
rebel groups in organizing an insurgency against the government. This motivation that
has been brought about by greed in many civil wars has been characterized by empirical
works on the causes of civil war, where research has been done on many countries that
have gone through conflicts. An economic analysis has also been done to show that greed
is proxied by the availability of capturable natural resources or primary resources.35 This
can also imply that countries where there is abundance of resources may be prone to
conflict.
32 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 13 33 E, Conteh-Morgan 2004: 72 34 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 12 35 Murshed and Tadjeoddin, 2007: 5
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Although so much has been written about greed in today’s research as well as on the
causes of conflict in modern day society, studies by Collier and Hoeffler have also shown
that greed can act as a propelling factor which may possibly lead to the outbreak of
rebellion in societies. However, the greed hypothesis and natural resource wealth, in
relationship to greed and conflict cannot be centered on greed alone within a given
society as the driving force behind the outbreak of civil war. The ‘‘greedy outsider
mechanism’’ which can result in the interest of greedy third parties in natural resources as
an incentive for civil war, (states or corporations).36 An example is the prolonged Sierra
Leone civil war with the contribution of the neighboring country, Liberia which
contributed to arming and supporting the rebel group. Another one is the grievance
mechanism, which shows that natural resources dependency could be linked to a high
level of grievance among societies rather than greed.37
The relationship between greed and conflict has been the focus of many researchers on
the aim and purpose of rebellion, which sometimes transform into civil war in many parts
of the world. Civil wars today are stemmed from the greedy behavior of a rebel group in
the organization of an insurgency against the government of a country.38
Often, people try to mount a rebellion against the government of a country for their own
selfish interest on the primary resources that are available under the guise of grievance;
but in order to create and control a rebel organization, the rebels have to be paid and
military equipment such as guns would to be purchased.39 Only a large rebel organization
can create a kind of casualties and unrest that can be defined in terms of a civil war and
create much attention, both national and internationally.
36 Murshed and Tadjeoddin, 2007: 9 37 Murshed and Tadjeoddin, 2007: 10 38 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 6 39 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 1
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
23
According to Collier and Hoeffler (2002), rebels are a certain group which is formed in
the society mainly against the government, and they often base their focus on the
production or transportation of primary commodities, which are the basic source of
revenue for any country. They also use that as a source of revenue in financing their
activities such as equipments, and most often purchasing manpower or fighters from
foreign countries.40 Rebellion which often begins by creating unrest due to ideological
reasons may sometimes result to greedy behavior and embezzlement of resource wealth.
3.5 Greed Vs Grievance debate on conflicts The debates on the causes of violent civil wars have frequently been analyzed by several
authors using the greed and grievance factors. The greed factor has been mainly focused
on the fact that civil wars are essentially due to the economic factors and the economic
gains which rebel groups intend to achieve.41 According to Ballentine & Nitzschke, 2003,
statistical correlation between resource abundance and the risk of armed conflict is
explained by rebel aspirations for self enrichment, and/or by the opportunity which
rebellion creates easy access to natural resources for insurgents; with examples to Sierra
Leone and DRC. On the other hand, it can also be concluded that even though Diamonds
in Sierra Leone and other natural resources contributed to the rebellion in these countries,
Charles Cater argues that these insurgents were not out simply to capture lucrative
economic assets for self enrichment, but were rather using this as a means to finance their
socio-economic and political grievances against the state.42
However, the accuracy of these assumptions cannot fully be trusted or relied upon in
several conflicts, and this also remains a major question which surrounds the greed versus
grievance debate, as to how we can agree on a general conclusion of the main goals of
40 Collier and Hoeffler, 2002: 7 41 K Ballentine & H Nitzschke, 2003: 3 42 K Ballentine & H Nitzschke, 2003: 3
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
24
to finance the conflict’’.46 Rebellion is therefore economic power by all means necessary.
rebel combatants. Often these rebel insurgents are not well coordinated like state armies
and their inability to maintain a chain of command can lead to difficulties in maintaining
their main motives, which can sometimes change from political grievances to economic
greed as soon as the rebels are in control of lootable resources.43 According to Paul
Collier, the judgments of combatants as regards to their motive cannot be trusted because
rebel leaders always seek to justify their actions using ‘‘a narratives of grievance’’.
Again, judging the rebels by their actions in economic activities to pure looting for their
selfish needs cannot be fully correct. As previously stated, their actions might be to
finance rebellion for political reasons or wealth distribution.44
3.5.1 Comparing insurgency motives within the greed and grievance debate
According to Collier and Hoeffler (2000), civil wars can be related to ‘‘loot-seeking’’
wars (large-scale banditry), or as ‘‘justice-seeking’’ wars.45 The first can be measured in
terms of the human capital or the per capita, in the sense that the higher the per capita, the
less likely individuals will engage themselves in risky behaviors that are associated with
conflicts; but this is also dependent on the size of the payoffs. I Abdullah (2006), argues
that the underlying assumption in all Collier’s work can be summarized as simply one of
greed/economic calculation. This means that rebels are motivated by the desire to profit
from chaos; such calculations are propelled by the degree to which such criminal
enterprise can result to a viable economic project. Raising the revenue for such a project
might explain why the rebels without a cause have a good chance to succeed in the third
world countries like Sierra Leone. ‘‘The violence and predatory behaviors which occur
during this process may not be the objective of rebel organization, but might be a means
43 K Ballentine & H Nitzschke, 2003: 13
d Hoeffler, 2002 44 Ibid:13 45 Collier an46 I Abdullah, 2006: 12
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
25
ains, and therefore gives little attention to historical issues and also subjective
atters such as the willingness and the commitment of a selected group of people to start
civil wars. There is a
ndency for conflicts which began with a political motive to mutate into securing
On the other hand, Collier and Hoeffler’s work on civil war is clearly centered on
economic g
m
a revolution. This is an important factor in insurgency of civil war, because local support
is a vital aspect which keeps insurgency going. According to I Abdullah (2006), ‘‘it was
college students who inaugurated the insurgency discourse and spearheaded the call to
arms in Sierra Leone, they recruited marginal youths, including the future leaders of the
RUF for military training in Tajura, Libya, from 1987 to 1989’’.47 It is unlikely that the
issue of resources was the main driving force which brought the students together during
this period or the issue of finance, as a key element in the proposed project. The main
propelling factor was the commitment and willingness of the participants to start a
guerrilla war against the government. This has more to do with the objective conditions
rather than the availability of natural resources or economic gains.
There has also been a notion on the greed vs grievance debate about the changing of
balances over time among rebels as well as combatants during
te
short-term economic benefits, as a result of capturable natural resources that are available
to combatants. This notion is sometimes inconclusive because non-separatist conflict
consists of combatants who participate due to different goals, and it is difficult to have
control over combatants unlike regular armies. ‘‘regardless of whether economic interests
are primary or secondary, when non-separatist insurgents have access to lootable
resources, it tends to change the character of the conflict in consequential ways’’.48
tine & H Nitzschke, 2003: 13 47 Ibid:13 48 K Ballen
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
26
Diamond history and production
iamonds can be gotten from two main sources, and they are both known as kimberlite,
ut have primary and secondary deposits. The primary deposits are diamonds which are
otten from basic volcanic rock, referred to as kimberlite, and the secondary deposits
which are gotten from the alluvial deposits of weathered kimberlite. These kimberlite are
known to exist everywhere in the world, but it is not all that are ‘‘diamondiferous’’ to be
4
D
b
g
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
27
e features of diamond, then the term
‘‘kimberlite pipe’’ is used to refer to them.49
, and sand are been washed away by the
ea, depositing them around different areas, which can be found by ordinary people with
roducing countries also led to a rise in the
roduction of diamond worldwide from 300,000 carats in 1870 when it was first
mined, but if they are minable and contains larg
The process by which the kimberlite pipes are mined requires large funding, and it is
often carried out by large companies with huge amount of investments and heavy
machines are used to dig tunnels in order to extract diamonds from underground. But
another process which is often used in getting diamonds are the ones which are obtained
from alluvial fields, that is been created by the disintegration of volcanic rock
(kimberlite). In this process, diamond, gravels
s
a simple sieve and shovel, using it to separate the gravel and sand to obtain diamonds.
This process is common in countries like Sierra Leone, where local people are seen all
around the mining areas due to the fact that they do not need experience or heavy
equipments to get out diamonds in such areas.
Until 1867 when diamonds were discovered in South Africa, there was only two places in
the world were diamond could be found, which was in India (dates from antiquity) and
the Brazilian diamonds that were discovered in 1725. But since its discovery in the
southern African country in 1867, an overwhelming number of countries have been
identified with the production of diamonds, bringing the number to 27 high producing
countries. The increase in number of diamond p
p
discovered in South Africa to 3 million carats in 1920, 42 million carats in 1970, and
approximately 115 million carats in 2000,50 Below is a list of countries which currently
produces diamonds.
49 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:16 50 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:17
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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(000 carats)
Year 1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
The two tables below shows the amount of diamond produced in selected countries in
West Africa, comparing with the amount of diamonds which are exported.
Table 1 Various West African countries and diamond production in selected years
8.5Sierra Leone 78 243 347 158 255 213 270 104
Liberia
100
100
150
150
100
150
150
150
150 Guinea
127
97
153
167
381
365
2
05 205 205
Ghana
650
700
656
591
740
632
715
830
800 Ivory Coast
12
15
15
15
84
75
302
307
307
Source: Complete Report, Sierra Leone, Diamond and Human Security: January 2000, page 34
Table 2 Diamonds exported to Antwerp from l te a s c
19 1
99
9 1 9
9 19 19
West African Countries in same years Se ec d Ye r (000 arats)
Year 90
991 1 2 19 3
9 4 1 95
96
97
1998
Sierra Leone
1
83
344 52
33
534 1
6 455
566
803
770
Liberia
5,523
658
1,909
5,006
3,268
10,677
12,320
5,803
2,558
Guinea
287
374
526 1021
875
780
439
533
596 Ghana
597
675
689
526
498
643
608
531
n.a.
Ivory Coast
825
946
868
683
605
1614
2214
885
n.a. Complete Report, e m H cu ua pa
The table above shows the volume o p o o se st Afri
countries and the amou i e e o
Sierra Leone was the approxima ure n
on e g unlicensed S a d d 9 9
igures, tally
with their exports to Antwerp for example Ghana, which produced (632,000 carats in
Source: Sierra L one, Dia ond and uman Se rity: Jan ry 2000, ge 3551 f diamond r ducti n in the We can
nt wh ch wer export d. The amount of diamond exp rted from
te fig s in various years before the United Nations Ba
xportin ierra Leone n iamon in 1 9 .
Comparison between the two table shows that most country’s production f
51 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:35
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
29
at 150,000 carats of diamond
in 1998, exported a total number of approximately 2.5 million carats of diamond
in reserves in turn export less diamonds compared to a countries like
dollar.
1995, and exported 643,000), almost a close gap. Compared to Sierra Leone which
produced a total of (8,500 carats in 1998, but exported a total of 770,000 carats to
Antwerp in 1998).
- Liberia on the other hand, which production stands
to Antwerp.
However, these statistics does not include diamonds which were exported to other places
from Sierra Leone, example: Israel, India, New York and De Beers CSO. This statistics
still creates some kind of confusion as a result of which countries like Sierra Leone which
has much diamonds
Liberia which has a larger export, this might be due to the smuggling of diamonds away
from Sierra Leone into Liberia, and tagging them as Liberia diamonds to deviate
international awareness.
The statistical table in the next page has been collected from the public statistics section
of the Kimberly process and rough diamond statistics, and it is showing a selected
amount of high producing diamond countries worldwide and their regions. The volumes
of diamond produced by various countries are shown in approximate; according the
figures provided by various government statistics, and the values of diamond after
production is given in US
Table 3: Annual Global summary of diamond production in selected countries
Annual Global Summary: 2007 Production Summary Report
Production Country Name Volume, cts Value, US$ US$/ cts Angola 9,701,708.71 $1,271,955,353.15 $131.11Australia 18,538,645.31 $364,629,604.10 $19.67Botswana 33,638,000.00 $2,960,144,000.00 $88.00Brazil 256,964.00 $25,807,516.00 $100.43
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
30
43Canada 17,007,850.00 $1,657,014,734.47 $97.Central Africa Rep 467,710.53 $59,857,870.53 $127.98D R Congo 28,452,496.25 $364,783,294.22 $12.82Ghana 3 $25.93894,783.20 $23,202,421.7Guinea 1,018 46,101,145.27 45.25,722.90 $Israel Lesotho 454,014.21 8.64 22.77$328,146,96 $7Liberia 21,699.74 $2,657,541.58 $122.47Namibia 2,266,09953 $715,434,111.10 $315.71Russia 38,291,200.00 $2,625,100,500.00 $68.56Sierra Leone 603,623.04 $141,565,685.21 $234.53South Africa 15,210,833.33 $1,417,331,400.12 $93.18Tanzania 279,332.57 $28,315,098.53 $101.37Togo 17,362.03 $1,709,643.50 $98.47Zimbabwe 695,015.99 $31,400,903.61 $45.18 Source: Kimberly Process Certification Diamo ote: this table inc
untries from the rough diamond st Kimberly p scheme and does n
.
ve also shows th of d inside Sierra L
high, compared to other A ducing Botswana and
relatively small coun ight be due to the smuggling of dia
side Sierra Leone which were not recorded by the authorities; the instability due to the
e Appendix for Annual Global Summary: 2007 Imports, Exports and KPC
ounts.
duction
Scheme, Rough nd Statistics 2007. N ludes just
selected co atistics of the rocess certification ot include
all countries
The table abo at the volume iamond produced eone is
not as frican pro countries like Ghana
which are tries. This m monds
in
civil unrest might also have led to a low production of diamonds in the country.
Refer to th
C
According to the findings of Smillie, Gberie and Hazleton (2000) in their report,
government officials in Sierra Leone have estimated that about large numbers of the
country’s diamond production has been stolen or has been exported illegally, so this is
not therefore including in the table above, making the amount of recorded pro
lower, compared to other countries.52
52 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:18
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
31
and manages affairs within the Central Selling
rganization (CSO), while the lather takes care of all Diamond operations in Namibia,
ell as all trading companies with them which includes the Central Selling
d in the country, with another buying office in
reetown and still participated in the new highly competitive diamond business.
years have grown to be able to generate billions of dollars annually, with the mining and
4.1 De Beer
The name ‘De Beer’ was actually derived from two companies, De Beer Consolidated
Mines Limited (DBCM) with headquarters in Kimberly, South Africa and De Beers
Centenary AG (DECAG). The former controls most activities which includes mining of
diamond offshore in South Africa,
O
Botswana, as w
Organization (CSO). The main function of the CSO is to search for diamonds all over the
world, including getting from its own mines, and with its location of offices all over the
world, it is able to buy diamonds from outside sources and in turn sell them to
sightholders, whom are practically designated by De Beer. De Beer is said to purchase a
large majority of all the diamonds worldwide, and through the CSO, they set the prices by
manipulating both supply and demand.53
Subsequent chapter will discuss about how De Beer’s business continued to flourish in
Sierra Leone until the rise of illegalities in 1956 and the aftermath of independence in
1961; when SLST was nationalize to allow the participation of other companies in the
diamond business inside Sierra Leone by the new indigenous government. But De Beers’
Sierra Leone Selection Trust still remaine
F
4.1.1 De Beers and Diamond Worldwide
As I have previously mentioned, the business of diamond is very massive and over the
53 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:22
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
32
jewelry,
orth US $49.4 billion’’, but this huge industry is regarded to be largely controlled by
just a single company which dictates the price and also supply up to around 70 and 80
utput. 54 ‘‘According to Smillie, Gberie &
1984, selling the remaining shares to the Precious Metals
ompany (PMMC), which was owned by a Lebanese businessman in Sierra Leone.56 But
n’t end there, as the company still
oes not have any dealings with diamonds from
ierra Leone, De Beer still has an office in Monrovia, Liberia, where it purchases
production of diamonds from several country who are supposed to reap the benefits of
these. ‘‘Each year the diamond industry sells 67.1 million pieces of diamond
w
percent of the world’s rough diamond o
Hazleton 2000, De Beer practically controls the flow and sets the prices of rough
diamond worldwide’’. 55
4.2 De Beer and connection to Sierra Leone
The relationship between De Beer and Sierra Leone which was over the years cordial
until after independence when the industry was nationalized, leading to the creation of
several other diamond rivals, leaving De Beer on a struggling position. This, as
previously discussed, made the company to give up its involvement with diamonds in
Sierra Leone officially in
C
the relationship between De Beer and Sierra Leone did
held some rights of offshore mining.
According to the report of Smillie, Gberie & Hazleton 2000, ‘‘De Beers still held
concessions and rights for offshore mining in Sierra Leone, and in 1997 the company had
a tentative plans to re-open a small purchasing office in Freetown’’, but it was not
successful due to continued hostilities and unstable governments in Sierra Leone.57
Although, the company maintains that it d
S 54 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:21
55 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:22 56 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:5 57 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:28
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
33
does
ot deal on diamonds which are transferred to Monrovia by smugglers and illicit traders.
Sierra Leone’s early history and challenges
his part looks into Sierra Leone’s historical period and the challenges which were been
ced by the government as well as the people of Sierra Leone. This type of historical
formation can be useful in determining the factors which triggered the conflict and can
lso be important to analyze the greed and grievance model.
Arriving at a final conclusion on the cause of the conflict in Sierra Leone can be very
challenging because the greed and grievance model both can be proven to be the reason
why the rebels of Sierra Leone carried out their attacks. On one hand, it can be concluded
that the rebels acted out of their greedy nature which is supported by many analyst, but on
diamonds from the open markets. But as this report has previously shown, Liberia has
been a major transit point for the smugglers of diamonds from Sierra Leone, and this is
difficult to identify whether those diamonds are not been purchased by De Beers buying
office in Monrovia, Liberia, so it is quite a difficult task to conclude that De Beer
n
5
T
fa
in
a
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
34
vance, which grew from
the country’s history.
n America were taken from
ierra Leone to the islands off the coast of the southern United States; and during the
ierra Leone became a British Protectorate, but the benefits of the
ountry’s abundant resources were rarely channeled to the people of Sierra Leone, as the
, agricultural products and
ntury, Freetown housed the British governor who was in
harge of several other West African countries, Gold Coast (Ghana) and The Gambia
the other hand it can also be concluded that they acted out of grie
5.1 Sierra Leone background- pre- independence
Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the first countries in the region to come in contact with
the Europeans. The first slaves that were brought to Norther
S
1700’s, the trade was lucrative as a lot of slaves were needed to work in the plantations of
South Carolina and Georgia.58
The British helped freed slaves from the United States, Nova Scotia and Great Britain
to return to Sierra Leone in 1787 and to establish a settlement called ‘‘Province of
Freedom’’.59 In 1896, S
c
rule was centered for export of primary goods such as iron
diamonds. The rural areas were largely ignored, and the urban centers were mainly for
trade and administrative activities; a means to channel out raw materials from the
country.60
In the beginning of the 19th ce
c
Settlements, and Sierra Leone’s educational system was one of the best in the region due
to its adoption of the British University pattern, and was a regular choice for other
English speaking African countries in the west coast.61 The country is bounded on the
north and north east by the Republic of Guinea, on the east by the Republic of Liberia 58 U S Department of States 07/12/2008 59 U S Department of States 07/12/2008 60 K David, 2005: 8 61 U S Department of States 07/12/2008
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
35
e are approximately twelve districts, one hundred and forty nine chiefdoms
nd three hundred and ninety four wards in Sierra Leone, with Freetown as the capital of
w Sir Milton Margai appointed the Chief Minister, and later became the
rime Minister in 1960.63
neighboring West African country Ghana, were they were currently based at that time.
and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Sierra Leone which was a former colony of
Britain just like many countries in Africa, gained its independence on the 27th of April
1961. Ther
a
the country.62
Although Sierra Leone appeared to be peaceful during the colonial era compared to other
countries in the region, the colonial history of Sierra Leone was not so smooth, as the
indigenous people tried to mount a few revolts against the then British rule, showing that
they were not so satisfied with the colonial administration of the country, but these
revolts were unsuccessful. But most of the twentieth century colonial history of Sierra
Leone was very peaceful however, and the country successfully got its freedom from the
British colonial rule peacefully without any violence. Its 1951 constitution included a
framework for decolonization, and local ministerial responsibility was introduced in
1953, which sa
P
5.2 Sierra Leone Diamond History
Diamonds which were first discovered in Sierra Leone in a small town called Kono
District in 1930 is said to be among one of the world’s best and high quality diamonds. It
came about when a group of geological survey team led by N.R Junner and his Assistant
J.D. Pollet found a piece of crystal near the Gboraba stream, and this subsequently was
made known to the British who were the colonial authorities at that time.64 The assistance
of the British company De Beer was needed in Sierra Leone, and they came in from the
ierra Leone Legal System and Legal Research 62 H Kabbah 2006, S
63 U S Department of States 07/12/2008 64 I Smillie, L Gberie & RHazleton, 2000:41
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
36
1935 between the Colonial authority and De Beer’s Sierra
eone Selection Trust (SLST which was formed following an agreement between the
ated African Selection Trust CAST), giving
create in the future.
An agreement was made in
L
Sierra Leone government and the Consolid
the exclusive right of mining and prospecting diamond for a period of 99 years. The
company was also subjected to pay an income tax of 27 percent of its profit made, and
also create a special development fund for the district of Kono.65 Another group which
were there to be satisfied by the company were the local chiefs from the region who were
the original owners of the lands were the discoveries were made, but they did not pose
any threat to neither the mining company nor the government, as they were almost
unconcerned, and unable to comprehend the long term impact which the diamond mining
would
De Beer’s Sierra Leone Selection Trust enjoyed its absolute monopoly in Sierra Leone
diamond industry for many years with some kind of satisfaction from the local chiefs
who had no problems with the foreign mining company, this lasted until 1956 when the
presence of illegal and unauthorized miners (consisting of Lebanese businessmen) inside
Sierra Leone started to pose a treat for the company’s monopolistic pattern, and these act
was brought huge losses and also created a breakdown of law and order which the
company could not control even with its private securities employed. In 1956, the number
of illicit miners grew to nearly 75,000 in Kono district, and the majority of the problem
was blamed on the SLST itself, which had some of its internal members involved in the
illicit act or supporting illegal mining activities.66
65 I Smillie, L Gberie & RHazleton, 2000:41 66 I Smillie, L Gberie & RHazleton, 2000:41
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
37
as in its system of government which
as undemocratic. Apart from the 1960’s and beginning of the 70’s, the country had two
rded as revolving around just a few
he visibility of division in ethnicity was common after independence in 1961, when
5.3 Post- Independence ‘‘1961 onward’’
After the achievement of independence in 1961, the lack of development and
mismanagement which was introduced by the British was not largely changed, the new
development pattern also saw a huge separation between the mining companies (De Beer)
and the rest of the country’s economy.67 This development pattern was continued by the
indigenous Sierra Leoneans who took over the affairs of the country from their colonial
masters.
Another area was the administration of Sierra Leone which took the same direction of the
colonial and the new independent Sierra Leone w
w
decades of one party rule, and power was rega
particular ethnic group, mainly the Temne speakers of the north and the Mende speakers
of the south and east, which brought about the issue to ethnicity in politics of Sierra
Leone. The Mende were largely involved in the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), of
which Milton Margai became the first Prime Minister of Sierra Leone, while most of the
Temne supported the All People’s Congress (APC).68
T
appeals to ethnicity became the cheapest way to win supporters in any election in Sierra
Leone. The Mende tribe was dominant in Sierra Leone Peoples Party (SLPP), while the
other which was the All People’s Congress (APC) got most of its supporters from the
Temne tribe.69 The SLPP was created by the first Prime Minister Milton Margai, and it
tried to bring the various ethnic group together by appointing people from other tribes,
but these attempts to unite the country was not seen as successful, due to the fact that
67 K David, 2005: 8
68 K David, 2005: 14 69 K David, 2005: 14
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
38
arrangements, and also because
e first Prime Minister was a Mende.70
the elections and took over power in 1967,
hich was visible in the Army, Police, and even labor
leaders whom were been appointed and brought into parliament, police and army chiefs
en created with the growing poverty and isolation of the rural
reas, and lack of equity in resource distribution, due to overcentralization. ‘‘Socio
other opposition groups had the notion that the SLPP leadership did not seem to pay
much attention to regional balancing in power-sharing
th
5.3.1 The politics of Patronage
With the independence already gained in Sierra Leone and the future of the country in the
hands of just a few people, and also with the politics of ethnicity becoming a great
priority in the country, patronage was seen not just to those who are in the same ethnic
groups, but also to win support of all those who were seen as creating any obstacles in the
way of the ruling elites.
Siaka Stevens who became a prominent figure in Sierra Leone even before the country’s
independence, created the APC which won
but it only ruled by favoritism w
were brought into cabinet. Recruitments of police were been done by bribery and money
was been used to buy higher positions in the force in return for bags of rice and other
gains which they made when they are already members.71
Grievances was also be
a
economic development was confined to Freetown, and a few other towns, leading to the
feeling of deprivation in the rural community and countryside’s’’.72
lton, 2006: 21 70 A Ayissi and R. E. Pou
71 K David, 2005: 19 72 A Ayissi and R. E. Poulton, 2006: 21
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
39
he use of violence or the threat
f violence, and the ruling elites from the APC often force people who try to protest with
here was sometimes factionalism in the army during the early period of 1968 which
resulted in a coup plot against Siaka Stevens, and this led to the creation of a special
rity Division (SSD), and they were usually well
armed unlike the weakened armed forces. This group was also formed from the APC
External actors and Rise of International Crime
ond business, and this finally led to an
5.3.2 Political power and Intimidation
The Sierra Leonia politics was very much associated with t
o
the use of the police and army who were often on their side, top generals and high ranked
officials in these forces were been appointed by the APC from their stronghold, and
thereby marginalizing others who were from other parties or other ethnic groups.
T
security force known as the Special Secu
stronghold and informally recruited APC thugs, and their mission was to practically
reduce the strength of the military involvement, and also to intimidate other opponents of
the APC, as well as local chiefs. Example was in 1977 when they stopped the protest by
Fourah Bay College students against the APC.73
5.4 NewIn the 1930s when De Beer arrived in Sierra Leone, the SLST had enjoyed absolute
mining rights of diamonds over the years in Sierra Leone which was assigned to them by
the colonial administration and was suppose to last for a period of 99 years.74 But soon
came the new ways discovered by illegal miners, whom were not assigned the right to
collect diamond from Sierra Leone, these however was said to be made up of a majority
of Lebanese traders who were inside Sierra Leone and discovered that the illegal process
was a quick way to make out money from the diam
d 10/01/2009 eweler.com/archives/hottopics/sierraleone1.html
73 K David, 2005: 17 74 PJM, Sierra Leone 1935-2000: accessehttp://www.professionalj
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
40
ncontrollable situation, were the security of the mining areas were surrendered to those
e Prime Minister.76 The amount of illicit
iners and traders increased in 1971 when the SLST was nationalized, and a new route
h the Mano River. The ongoing
u
international investors which were there.75
5.5 End of monopoly and rise of illegal trade
When Siaka Stevens became Prime Minister of Sierra Leone in 1967, he created the
National Diamond Mining Company (NDMC) in 1971, which effectively nationalized
SLST; taking a total number of 51% of the total SLST shares and SLST owning just 49 %
of previous shares. The new NDMC board was supposed to comprise 11 members, which
six would come from the government and the remaining five would be from the SLST;
but Siaka appointed a Lebanese Businessman Jamil Mohammed to take charge of affairs,
but all important decisions were still made by th
m
was discovered to move diamonds into Liberia throug
situation forced the new government to ask all foreign companies to provide their own
private security in the country; but more diamonds continued to be sent out of the country
to Liberia. These diamonds were sold out tagged as Liberian diamonds, and also forcing
De Beer to open a buying office in Monrovia, when it saw the booming business of
diamond inside Liberia. De Beer tried to handle the problem inside Sierra Leone by using
its buying offices in Liberia to purchase diamonds, but finally ended its business in Sierra
Leone in 1984, when it sold its remaining shares to the Precious Metals Mining Company
(PMMC), a company that was set up by the Lebanese trader Jamil Mohammed.77
75 PJM, Sierra Leone 1935-2000: accessed 10/01/2009 http://www.professionaljeweler.com/archives/hottopics/76 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:45
sierraleone1.html
77 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:45
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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Analysis .1 The emergence of a Rebellion in Sierra Leone and conflict (1991 to
002)
.1.1 Revolutionary United Front (RUF)
ver the years, the situation in Sierra Leone had continued to deteriorate economically
nd otherwise, and the frustrations began to emerge from ordinary civilians who were
deprived their own rights; their resources been stolen by few elites, and there was no
hope for improvement in the situation. These were as a result of the corrupt regime of the
All Peoples Congress (APC), which concentrated on embezzling the country’s wealth,
66
2
6
O
a
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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a large proportion of marginalized and frustrated youth.78 Consequently,
y
united front (RUF) in launching their attacks into the country, as well as recruiting
er.
er
the other two top members of the RUF (Kanu and Mansaray), whom
ad previously helped in launching the first insurgency attacks. These acts created
thereby creating
the situations of these individuals made them an easy target for the new revolutionar
man-pow
The Revolutionary United Front (RUF) which was led by Foday Sankoh, a form
member of the Sierra Leonean army, before he was jailed and later exiled; together with
some NPFL military personnel and as well as mercenaries from Burkina Faso; formed
this insurgency group. At first, the rebel group was seen as a combination of angry youths
trying to oppose the government due to past grievances which they have had and to try to
liberate the country from corrupt leaders. But the mission of the RUF was soon changed
from been politically motivated, to just another common rebel group in Africa, made up
of rogues and touts. This became the case when they started threatening, raping, and
killing these same people whom they have previously claimed to protect.79 This even led
to the execution of
h
confusions as to what the real aim and purpose of the RUF were; and whether their
mission in Sierra Leone was actually grievances towards the government, or greed
towards the resource wealth.
The first RUF invasion into Sierra Leone came from Liberia. It is believed that the Sierra
Leonean conflict was a spill over from the civil war in Liberia, which was between the
Charles Taylor led NPFL rebel group and the Liberian government in 1989. It was from
these rebel held town in Liberia that some group of armed Sierra Leoneans, backed by
Taylor’s NPFL first launched attacks into Kailahun district, on the Eastern part of Sierra
78 A Nilsson, 2008: 110 79 K David, 2005: 36
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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with the help of well equipped troops from Guinea, halted
e rebels. In July 1991, the rebels were significantly dominant in most of the towns they
from 6,000 to about 14,000 soldiers in 1992.82
preferred operating at night as rebels, extracting diamonds, raping, and stealing from
Leone.80 Their success led to further advancement into the country, which made them
attack towns like Bomaru and Senga within few months; the next point was the town of
Daru located in southern Kailahun, but the swift intervention of the Sierra Leonia
government forces, combined
th
had captured, including the Kailahun District and the Diamond-rich town of Kono that
remained under their control.81
The retreat of the rebel group was seen as a little success for the Sierra Leonean
government and the SLA at that time; but the corruption which loomed around in the
country’s administration soon grew into the army, as many senior officers who were
supporters of the APC began to embezzle funds which were meant for other troops that
were engaged in the battle. The result of this was a growing anger of frustration within
the army, which led to the seizure of power from the APC on April 1992 by a group of
lower ranked army officers, led by Valentine Strasser. This new government called
themselves the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC), and in no time began a
large recruitment in the SLA; rising
The new government began to make some progress in the country as well as organizing
its military against the RUF. The SLA launched an attack against the RUF positions in
1993, and this made the rebels to change their tactics of operating in densely populated
areas, to a new style of operating from the bushes; making it difficult for the army to
determine their positions. Apart from the new style which the RUF had adopted, another
problem that SLA had was within its own army; bad soldiers known as the ‘sobels’.
These group of soldiers felt deprived and marginalized by their own superiors, and
80 W Reno, 1998: 113
37 81 K David, 2005: 36 &82 A Nilsson, 2008: 110
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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obel’ and the weakness of the SLA, made the rebels launch a comeback in the country,
These new clashes created problems for the new government, which were already starting
civilians. These acts by the so called ‘sobels’ created fear among civilians, and reduced
the trust they had on the SLA; thereby boosting the powers of the RUF. The combination
‘s
and this time they extended up to the outskirt of Freetown.83
6.1.2 From grievance to grievances
Although the new government which was formed in Sierra Leone after the overthrow of
Joseph Saidu Momoh by a group of low ranked soldiers led by Valentine Strasser in the
April 29th 1992 coup plot, made little success in its aim to re-stabilizing the West African
country and try to put an end to the conflict by eliminating the RUF with its newly
formed military (SLA).84 There were a lot of problems due to these acts which were
being carried out by ‘sobels’. The trust for the government depreciated in the society, and
the local communities started protecting themselves with the creation of a local militia
from traditional hunting societies; solely to fight back against these irregular soldiers
‘sobel’ and the RUF’s attacks.85
to loose control of their own military. There was a break down of law and order in the
society, as well as an unstable or less powerful government; the newly formed Mende
militias also created tensions within the country. Amidst all these, the NPRC government
decided that elections would be carried out in the country in February 1996, but this was
widely unaccepted by the RUF. Irrespective of the RUF’s threats to the electorate and the
general public, the election was held in Sierra Leone and a new government came into
1
83 A Nilsson, 2008: 111 84 K David, 2005: 93 85 A Nilsson, 2008: 11
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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e tribe of the country.86
diamond was said to be high inside Sierra
banese involvement in
siness was related to the Lebanese civil war, and from the
late 1970s to the early 1990s, the Sierra Leone diamond was use by some of the militias
power with Ahmed Tejan Kabbah from the Sierra Leone Peoples Party (SLPP), which
was supported greatly by the Mend
The new government by Ahmed Tejan Kabbah, also had the same aim by the last
government in trying to stop the conflict by eliminating the RUF, but they had a different
strategy in doing this, as they were reluctant to use the SLA in these operations, but
preferred to use the Mende militias instead. This began to create a whole new form of
grievances not only with the Mende and Temne tribes of Sierra Leone, but it created
grievances and hatred against the government by the SLA, who were feeling deprived
from the way the new government handled and treated the army.
6.1.3 The Role of Lebanon
The presence of Lebanese traders dealing with
Leone, and according to Smillie, Gberie & Hazleton 2000, these traders were active in the
illegal mining and trading of diamonds in the West African country even before the
industry was said to have been nationalized. The visibility of these traders grew
enormously when the industry was nationalized and they began to work hand in hand
with the new Siaka Stevens Sierra Leones government who began to sideline De Beer.87
According to Smillie, Gberie & Hazleton, Another aspect of the Le
the Sierra Leone diamond bu
as a source of funding through which they got from informal taxes or reliefs, helping
different factions in raising funds internationally for various groups back in Lebanon.88
86 A Nilsson, 2008: 111
. Hazleton, 2000:46
. Hazleton, 2000:46 87 I Smillie, L Gberie & R88 I Smillie, L Gberie & R
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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ccording to Keen David 2005, ‘‘the Sierra Leonean war effectively spilled over from
h
attacks against his rebel positions.90 But despite this, we would see that a great Liberian
Sierra Leone even before the RUF conflict began, this was
first started during the great diamond rush in the 1950s, when a huge amount of diamonds
December 2000 the United Nations Security Council decided to place an embargo on
every export of gems out of the troubled West African country Sierra Leone, which was
6.1.4 The Role of Liberia
A
the civil war which began in Liberia in 1989, when a small group or rebel crossed into
Sierra Leone in 1991 from NPFL territory’’.89 And also, many believed that the ex-
Liberian rebel leader (Charles Taylor) wanted to punish Sierra Leone because of its
support for the monitoring troops from ECOMOG (Economic Community of West
African States Military Observer Group), which used Sierra Leone as a base to launc
influence has been seen in
started to go out of Sierra Leone through Monrovia, because of probably the porous
borders, and the ‘‘untaxed prices offered by dealers who created offices in Monrovia’’91
so that they could buy diamonds which has been stolen through the borders into Liberia.
Despite having little diamond reserves, Liberia continued to export a pretty much higher
volumes of diamond into the world market, and in the 1950s, an estimated 20 percent of
all the diamonds sold in to the world were smuggled away from Sierra Leone, probably
through Liberia which had several diamond marketers relocating to Monrovia.
6.1.5 Diamond’s impact on Sierra Leone
After careful analysis, the United Nations also discovered that illegal diamonds had a role
in fuelling and prolonging conflicts in countries like Sierra Leone and Angola, and in 1
89 K David, 2005: 36 90 K David, 2005: 37 91 I Smillie, L Gberie & R. Hazleton, 2000:48 & 49
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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r 70 years
since its discovery in the West African country, but according to the United Nations
level of human development in 179 countries,
tends, and the distribution of wealth is very poor. It is as
portant to look into the diamond in Sierra Leone when talking about the conflict
adopted by the Security Council’s resolution 1306 on 5 July 2000.92 But the country is
not just a new player in the production and exportation of Diamond throughout the world,
and the problem associated with the production of Diamond inside the country did not
just erupt recently.93 Sierra Leone has been a producer of Diamond for ove
Human Development Index which rates the
Sierra Leone stands as the country with the lowest Gross National Products in the world,
(with HDI of 0.329%) and is last in the UNHDI report. This of course is different,
compared to some other African country that are rich in Diamond, and this has had a
positive effect in their own economy, example of these is Botswana which has a medium
human development, and is ranked 126 in the Human Development Index with a HDI of
0.664 in 2006.94
There is not doubt that diamond has been very influential in Sierra Leone since its
discovery in the West African country even before independence. It has been the
country’s greatest sources of income from its trade, even though high majorities of the
diamonds are being smuggled or are controlled by just a few elites (mainly government
officials and rebels) and their counterparts in the country. A country like Sierra Leone
with such an enormous amount of diamonds might have been among the richest and most
satisfied country’s in the world, but Sierra Leone is still ranked as one of the most poorest
country today, and instability has been constant in its economy, as the gap between the
rich and the poor continuously ex
well im
in Sierra Leone, as many writers have argued that the diamond has been the main source
which fuelled the conflict in Sierra Leone, and the main reason why the RUF attacked the
92 UN, Conflict Diamonds, Sanctions and War 93 PJM, Sierra Leone 1935-2000: accessed 10/01/2009 http://www.professionaljeweler.com/archives/hottopics/sierraleone1.html 94 UNDP, Human Development Report, 2008 Statistical Update
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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he big question is whether the rebels in Sierra Leone started the conflict against the
government due to greed for economic wealth, or grievances which they had against the
government? This question I believe can be answered by looking into the country’s
history which shows a tendency for a backlash or rebellion from the people of Sierra
government in the first place, due to their anger on the distribution of resources and
wealth in the country. These diamonds also propelled and prolonged the civil war, in the
sense that it was used to fund several activities by both the rebels and the government,
examples is purchasing weapons and ammunitions for fighters of the different factions.
Unlike other natural resources like Oil and Natural gas which requires high sophisticated
equipment to extract which makes them unlootable, Diamonds are very much different,
as they are regarded as lootable natural resources and rebel groups have easy access to
them due to the fact that they can easily be extracted, using unskilled labor, and also easy
to smuggled or transported because they are small in sizes. According to K Ballentine & J
Sherman (2003) ‘‘the more lootable a resource is, the more likely it is to benefit a rebel
group, and the more unlootable it is, the more likely it is to benefit the government’’,95
But in diamonds, both parties are likely to benefits from controlling areas were they are
located, which were the Kailahun and Kono districts.
7 Conclusions
The main aim of this paper has been to look into the influence of diamonds in the history
of Sierra Leone and the conflict which happened from 1991 to 2002. However, not all
countries in Africa that are resource rich, are bound to engage in conflict; example
Botswana. Sierra Leone has been an exceptional case due to the emergence of a Civil
War.
7.1 A Question of Greed or Grievance?
T
95 K Ballentine & J Sherman, 2003: 56
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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onomic crisis in the country, corruption which created a huge gap
between the rich and the power, and also the lose of control of the country’s own military
elationship between Diamonds and the Conflict.
e government of Sierra Leone and the
Leone due to the ec
and security forces. The RUF took advantage of the weakness of the state and its
unpopular support the government had, to recruit a large number of fighters during their
campaign, because of the grievances the people had towards the government.
7.2 R
Diamonds are the main source of revenue for th
expectations of the people depend on these diamonds industries in order to be fulfilled.
According to K Ballentine & H Nitzschke, 2003: ‘‘recent quantitative research indicates a
strong correlation between natural resources abundance in a given country and the risk of
armed conflict, and the impact of the conflict varies according to the type of resources
that are available (lootable or unlootable)’’.96
The diamonds in Sierra Leone was a major source of revenue to the Revolutionary United
Front during the conflict period and access to these natural resources helped in acquiring
arms for their campaign.
In conclusion, I would say that the diamonds was not the major cause of the civil war in
Sierra Leone, but grievance which has generated from the historical period inside Sierra
Leone. This means that the diamonds was just acting as a propelling factor, that was able
to fuel the conflict by helping both the rebels and the government to purchase more
ammunition and manpower in order to continue fighting. This conclusion is based on the
following reasons which were discovered during my research:-
96 K Ballentine & H Nitzschke, 2003: 4
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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inary citizens.
d from Sierra Leone. He came back to Sierra Leone after
undergoing military training in Libya, and carried out his attack through Liberia.
rge number of manpower
for the rebels to recruit easily for their attacks.
ntries such as Liberia. It is
believed that Charles Taylor of Liberia participated in arming the RUF, as a result
cture, which
rovided social amenities for its people. The future of Sierra Leone depends on its
government, and with the help of the United Nations peacekeepers, the country has being
able to make some progress towards reconstruction.
- Historical Inequality which was present before independence and even after
independence among the elites and ord
- The formation of RUF can be linked to previous student association. They had
previously rioted in the country several times, before their first leader (Foday
Sankoh) was exile
- The oppression of citizens by the government and misuse of the country’s wealth
through various level of corruption, leading to lack of development.
- The breakdown of various social economic structure and amenities in the country
such as lack of schools and unemployment, created a la
- The external factor which involves neighboring cou
of the grievances he had with Sierra Leonean government for allowing ECOMOG
to use the country as a base for launching attacks in Liberia. Sierra Leone had also
earlier refused him access to launch his insurgency against previous Liberian
government from Freetown.
However, it would have being very difficult for the RUF to gain support from the local
people inside Sierra Leone, suppose there was a good governmental stru
p
School of Social Sciences Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
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erences:-
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Bannon, I & Collier P (2003): Natural Resources and Violent Conflict, Options and
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Smillie I, Gberie L & Hazleton R, (2000): The Heart of the Matter, Sierra Leone,
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A
Appendix I
Annual Global Summary: 2007 Impo E ts and tsrts, xpor KPC Coun Summary Report
Import Export C Counts KP Country Volume, cts Value, US$ US$/ cts Volum s Value, US$ $/ cts p Export e, ct US Im ort Angola 32.60 174 8,520,485.75 $1,129,774,806.55 $1 Australia 443,606.37 11,796,179.34 $26.59 19,862, .6 463,99 3 3.36 8 174 137 2 $ 8,61 .41 $2 11 Botswana 222,860.50 119,446,442.21 $535.97 34,962,965.9 $3,170,056,591.20 0.67 5 67 8 $9 22 Brazil 6,606.65 201,628.45 $30.52 168,070.79 18,017,143. 07.20 54 $ 17 $1 10Canada 1,034,728.60 128,007,497.57 $123.71 17,444,702.8 $1,693,808,096.90 7.10 0 298 3 $9 32 C A Rep 417,710.53 59,857,870. 43.30 107 $ 53 $1 D R Congo 28,331,376.3 609,833,223 1.53 1,360 5 $ .00 $2 Ghana 865,,612.78 27,863,557. 2.19 134 $ 48 $3 Guinea 108,761.62 2,316,683.39 $21.30 1,009,732.96 50,197,581. 9.71 8 154 $ 82 $4Israel 23,901,390.12 5,858,193,455.77 $245.10 23,580,428.6 $4,135,209,707.34 75.37 , 6,717 7 $1 10 917 Lesotho Liberia 224,936.88 $164,073,484.32 29.42 22 $7 Namibia 148,028.51 108,178,510.88 $730.80 2,266,463.84 748,052,673 30.05 94 60 $ .92 $3Russia 202,018.11 20,229,218.37 $100.14 28,874,732.8 $2,002,499,682.82 0.04 1,695 1 $7 38Sierra Leone
41.51 30,045.00 $723.80 603,623.04 34.53 374 $141,565,685.21 $2 1
South Africa
1,239,334.28 2,113,894,527.23 $1,705.67 13,889,687.8 $1,867,334,580.89 34.44 1,392 9 $1 440
Tanzania 2,541.80 487,356.85 $191.74 275,681.04 $28,496,515.65 $103.37 107 30 Togo 13,091.71 $1,242,952.50 $94.94 4 Zimbabwe 286.51 13,248.15 $46.24 489,170.76 $23,377,870.35 7.79 17 $4 2