Terrestrial Ecosystem Services & Biodiversity: Pollination & Pollinators
Peter G. Kevan, FRSC
University Professor Emeritus
University of Guelph
Plant Sex!
Go away ! I
want to be
autogamous
$ Billions to agriculture• 1 in every 3 bites
of food we eat!
$ value for ecosystem services … various huge estimates, but … the world would be different without pollinators … invaluable!
Migratory & Winter-
Resident Birds
• Forest seeds & fruits for
energy stores
Black bears and forest
berries
• Sows feed on berries →
gain fat (2kg/day) for
hibernation →
milk for cubs →
strong & healthy in spring:
Too few berries → …!
Shortages since the dawn of
agriculture
• Figs
• Dates
Amos of the Old
Testament: a fig-
piercer (2800 BP)
Herodotus 2500 BP
Babylonian date pollination
by hand 3700 BP
For apples in the Maritimes
Native bees (many species)
effective (J. Macoun 1923, 1924)
Insecticides problematic,
studies by W.H. Brittain
and team (1928-1932)
in Annapolis Valley, NS
Solution
John Macoun
W. H. Brittain
Honeybee husbandry
Hive deployment
Hive-mounted
pollen dispensers
Ontario Agricultural College
Nova Scotia Agricultural College
University of Manitoba
Simon Fraser University
other institutions
AAFC, Provincial Apiarists
Changes in pesticide application policies and legislation (Bees Acts across Canada, Ontario first in 1887)• Do not spray blooming crops!
Bees ActR.R.O. 1990, REGULATION 57
Spraying of fruit trees
18. No person shall spray or dust fruit trees during the period within
which the trees are in bloom with a mixture containing any poisonous
substance injurious to bees unless almost all the blossoms have fallen
from the trees. R.S.O. 1990, c. B.6, s. 18.
Alfalfa in the Canadian West
F.W.L. Sladen (1918) advocated Megachile spp. for pollination
To the 1940s, system seemed effective (Salt 1940)
High productivity of alfalfa seed leads to expansion of fields
By 1950s, problems!
Sladen
Huge alfalfa fields, no Megachilenesting habitat, except around edges
Seed Yields drop: 1000 to 15 kg/ha(Stephen 1955)
Solution
Alfalfa leafcutting
bee husbandry
G. Hobbs,
Lethbridge, AB (perfected by mid 1960s)
Gordon Hobbs
Bumblebee cultureMB Plowright & Jay 1966ON Kevan et al. 1991 BC Dogterom 1998 ON Morandin et al. 2001- 2BC Winston team 2003-4
Still air
Hand pollination• Labour costs $$$
• Reliability
• Timing
First records: Quebec, 1820s; Ontario, 1830s
Industrial growth for honey and other hive products
1891 = 145,000 colonies for 1.5 million kg of honey in Ontario
ProblemsPesticides
Diseases
Parasites
Economics
Solutions
Pesticides
• legislation, product labeling, use reduction
Diseases
• sanitation (ON Foul Brood Act 1889, 1906)
• bee breeding for resistance
Parasites
• Border closures banning import problems
Profitability
• Honey prices vs. cost of opperation
Bee breeding programs(incl. Instrumental insemination)
Selection for overwintering & honey productionResistance to tracheal mites (Nasr, 1980 on)
Resistance to Varroa mites (Nasr & Wilson 1990s)
Research centres:AAFC (Beaverlodge AB); U of Guelph; U Manitoba; Simon Fraser U.; others
Colony losses in most of Canada
• Overwintering losses: up to & over 30% of
colonies/year
• Cost = $5+ Million/year to the industry
Costs of Pest, Parasite & Disease
management rising
Pollination demands rising
Crying need for more R & D!
Maritimes & Quebec
Canadian production
• 300 Million kg/yr
Exports = $323 Million
Must be pollinated by bees
• Buzz pollination
• Wild bees (70+ species)
• Honeybees
Blueberry Pie
Ecosystem & Pesticides
• Before Fenitrothion used
against spruce budworm
Blueberry Pie
Ecosystem & Pesticides
• During Fenitrothion use
This example: New
Brunswick
Other similar
examples: Quebec,
Ontario
New Brunswick’s Blueberries, Bees, and Pesticides
Crop loss ≈ 0.7 million kg/year !
Fenitrothion
Solutions
• Litigation
• Restraining orders
• More science
Other pesticides
Other pollinators
Other plants
Other places
Disrupted ecosystem
function
Reduced pollinator
diversity and abundance
Reduced fruit & seed set
Solution
• Tighter control on forest pesticide use
• More emphasis on biocontrol
• Recognition of pollinators in forest
ecosystem function
New Brunswick blueberry story was the start of a major trend in
pollinator conservation worldwide
Est. value = $1.3 to $1.7 Billion annually
in Canada
• 300,000 colonies for hybrid canola seed
• 35,000 colonies for blueberries
• 15,000 colonies for fruit trees
• @ average $120/ colony = $42 Million in
hive rentals/year
Honey = $110 Million/year (28 Million kg)
Commodity Value (Annual) Bee value (annual)
Apples >$100 Million
Alfalfa seed >$40 Million $15 – 20 Million (LCbees)
Blueberries $400 Million
Greenhouse Tomatoes $290 Million $3.7 Million
(bumblebees)
Honey $110 Million $42 Million (hive rentals)
Just to mention a few, major crops!
What about Pollinator Shortages & Economic Impacts ?
Insect pollination has an
estimated worth for food
and fibre production of
$217 Billion/year globally
Pollinator shortage
= crop reductions =
higher price of
production =
consumer pays …
but … if prices are set internationally, Canadian farmer pays
Economics of Pollination Shortfalls
Convention on Biological Diversity
• São Paulo declaration on pollinators (1998)
• International Pollinators Initiative (FAO - 2000)
• Global biodiversity initiatives (GBIF, IABIN)
The Forgotten Pollinators Campaign (1995)
North American Pollinator Protection
Campaign (2000) (Charles was involved)
Regional & National Initiatives follow
NRCanada (1981) Pesticide Pollinator Interactions
AgCanada (1989) National Workshop, Winnipeg
Ent. Soc. Canada (1997) Pollinators & Mother Earth
Canadian at International & US meetings (1992, 1995-1999, 1998-2006)
Assessment of Canadian Legislation (2007) (Tang, Wice,Thomas & Kevan: Int. J. Biodiv. Sci. & Mgt. 3:46-55 ) (with special help from Charles)
US NRC (2007) Status of Pollinators in North America
$5 Million for 5 years NSERC funding Charles agreed to serve as 1st Board of Directors Chair
27 Institutions & 50 Scientists cooperating on:
• Wild pollinator diversity
• Managed pollinator health & sustainability
• Plant reproductive needs
Insect pollination & wind pollination
• Ecosystem function, complexity & conservation
• Predictions
Climate & land-use changes
Economics & Policy issues
Pollination intrigued Charles as multidisciplinary, practical and ecological• Environment
• Sustainability
• Economy
• Trade & Commerce
• Conservation
• National & International Human Welfare
• Major policy ramifications
• Legislation