7 . B U D D H I S M I N ~ A N I N E K A L A I

Buddhism e n t e r e d Tamilnadu i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y

B . C . , f l o u r i s h e d i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y A . D . , d e c l i n e d i n t h e

e i g h t h b u t l i n g e r e d on t i l l t h e end of t h e s i x t e e n t h . ' I t

must have been i n t r o d u c e d f i r s t i n t o t h e Tamil Kingdom by

Asoka ' s m i s s i o n a r i e s on t h e i r way t o Cey lon . Hiuen Tsang ,

t h e C h i n e s e t r a v e l l e r who was i n I n d i a f rom 629 t o 646

A . D . , m e n t i o n s t h a t he saw an Asokan p i l l a r of a b o u t a

hundred f e e t h i g h i n t h e c i t y of Kanch i . Talaing

Chronicles, t h e s o u r c e book of Burmese Buddhism, r e v e a l s

t h a t Asoka b u i l t a Vihara n e a r Kanch i , i n which Acharya

Dharmapala s t a y e d and w r o t e 14 commen ta r i e s on P a l i t e x t s .

The g r e a t Buddh i s t d i a l e c t i c i a n s , Asanga, Vasubandhu,

Shankaraswamin , Dinnaga, P a r a m a r t h a and Dhaemak i r th i had

c o n t a c t s w i t h Kanch i , one of t h e e a r l i e s t c e n t r e s of

B u d d h i s t l e a r n i n g . Many Brahmi e p i g r a p h s u n e a r t h e d f rom

d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of T a r ~ i l n a d u d i s c l o s e t h a t c ave -beds were

e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e u s e of B u d d h i s t monks even i n t h e p r e -

C h r i s t i a n e r a .

Buddhism has n a t u r a l l y had an a l m o s t i n c a l c u l a b l e

e f f e c t on t h e a r t , t h o u g h t , l i t e r a t u r e and way of l i f e of

t h e T a m i l s . A iyazZr , who i s a l s o known a s H a r i h a r i p u t r a and

S h z s t a , one of t h e p o p u l a r male d e i t i e s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s

of Tamilnadu, is supposed t o have been o r i g i n a l l y a

Buddh i s t god . ShXstP, Muy?i, ~ u ~ % d r X , Vintiyakii and

DharmarEj'jH a r e some of t h e names of t h e Buddha ment ioned i n

t h e l e x i c o n Amarakosha. The Annapurani s h r i n e found w i t h i n

t h e Kamakshi t emple a t Kanchi f i r s t housed Mhnimekala and

t h a t Kamakshi i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e Buddh i s t goddess

~ a r a . ~

According t o h i s t o r i a n s , t h e r u r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n

Tamilnadu, unde r t h e l a t e r P a l l a v z s and t h e CBlas must have

r e c e i v e d a f i l l i p f rom Buddhism s i n c e i n t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e

l o c a l government w i t h i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c commit tee sys t em

based on t h e Sangha a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h e i n f l u e n c e of

Buddhism may be t r a ~ e d . ~

The impor t ance of t h e wide r a n g e of B u d d h i s t a r t i n

any s t u d y of t h e p h i l o s o p h y and a r t of As ia oanno t be

ove remphas i zed . Many i c o n s of t h e Buddha have been

e x c a v a t e d from Kanch i . The impac t of Buddh i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e

i s t o be s e e n i n t h e v a r i o u s s t y l e s now found i n S o u t h

I n d i a .

The a p s i d a l - e n d e d t e m p l e , t h e p y r a m i d a l - s t o r e y e d t emple , t h e waggon-headed r o o f and t h e c i r c u l a r s h r i n e chamber found i n some t e m p l e s on t h ~ West C o a s t a r e s o o b v i o u s l y B u d d h i s t i n o r i g i n .

The e x t e r n a l d e s i g n s of t h e t e m p l e s of Mahabalipuram,

p o p u l a r l y known a s t h e Seven Pagodas , b e a r s ample t e s t i m o n y

t o t h e B u d d h i s t i n f l u e n c e .

The c o n t r i b u t i o n of Buddhism t o Tami l l i t e r a t u r e is

more v a l u a b l e t h a n t h e o t h e r b e n e f i t s i t migh t have

c o n f e r r e d on t h e Tamil s o c i e t y , t hough u n f o r t u n a t e l y , many

g r e a t B u d d h i s t works i n Tami l have bean i r r e c o v e r a b l y l o s t .

Even t h e i ncomparab l e Sangam a n t h o l o g i e s i n c l u d e a few

poems by B u d d h i s t p o e t s l i k e I i a m p E t i y B r , Cankavaru?ac ,

T B r h t a r a c and C i r u v e ? t F r a i y H r . At l e a s t one of t h e l y r i c s

i n P u ~ a n Z ~ E ~ u i s a f a i t h f u l r e n d e r i n g of a p a s s a g e f rom

Dhammapada, which c o n t a i n s t h e g i s t of t h e e s s e n t i a l

p r i n c i p l e of Buddha 's d o c t r i n e . ' The re a r e a u t h o r s who a v e r

t h a t Vag tuva r , t h e a u t h o r of Tirukkura;, t h e c r e s t - j e w e l of

Tamil c l a s s i c s , must have been a B u d d h i s t . Though t h i s h a s

n o t been proved beyond a shadow of d o u b t , t h e u n m i s t a k a b l e

i n f l u e n c e of B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t on Va; juvar i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n

h i s work. The a r r angemen t of c h a p t e r s is c l o s e l y mode l l ed

upon Dhammapada; most of t h e t e r m s used t o r e f e r t o God i n

t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r which is a g l o r i f i c a t i o n of t h e Supreme

Be ing , a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e Buddha and t h e y a r e t h e

a p p e l l a t i o n s u sed i n some B u d d h i s t works ; h i s e m p h a s i s on

s o c i a l e q u a l i t y , f o r g i v e n e s s , g e n t l e n e s s and f o r b e a r a n c e ,

h i s advocacy of a b s t i n e n c e f rom meat and d r i n k , h i s

condemnat ion of concub inage , and h i s s t r e s s on t h e

impermanence of w o r l d l y t h i n g s and t h e v a l u e o f

r e n u n c i a t i o n p r o c l a i m h i s sympathy f o r B u d d h i s t e t h i c s ; h i s

c h a p t e r on 'Marun tu ' ( ' m e d i c i n e ' ) i s r e p l e t e w i t h e c h o e s

f rom Buddha 's d i s c o u r s e t o Bhhradhva j a on m e d i c i n e .

Two of t h e f i v e g r e a t e p i c s i n T a m i l , Ku?,talaki;ci

and MatimFkalai a r e a u t h o r e d by men w i t h pronounced

B u d d h i s t l e a n i n g s w h i l e t h e r e s t a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o J a i n s .

K u c ; a l a k r c i by NXtagupta , a s s i g n e d t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y ,

p u r p o r t s t o be t h e s t o r y of a r i c h l a d y , who a f t e r h a v i n g

been d e c e i v e d by h e r robbe r -husband , k i l l s him, j o i n s t h e

o r d e r of t h e N i r g r a n t h a s , d e f e a t s many r e l i g i o u s t e a c h e r s

i n d e b a t e s and f i n a l l y becomes a B u d d h i s t nun a f t e r h a v i n g

been conv inced of t h e g r e a t n e s s of Buddhism. But t h e c h i e f

aim of t h e book is t o g l o r i f y Buddhism and t o denounce

o t h e r r e l i g i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y J a i n i s l c . F o r t h e s t o r y , t h e

e p i c i s i n d e b t e d t o t h e P a l i works :

(1) t h e commentary on t h e Dham~napada by

Buddhaghosha,

( 2 ) t h e commentary c a l l e d Manorathapuram,

( 3 ) J a t a k a s and

( 4 ) t h e T e r i g a t h s commentary .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y o n l y a few s t a n z a s of t h e book a r e a v a i l a b l e

now. ~ T l a ! r Z c i , a n o t h e r minor Kavya i n Tamil w r i t t e n i n

i m i t a t i o n of Ku?;alakt?ci b u t t o d e f e n d J a i n i s m c o n t a i n s a

number of q u o t a t i o n s from i t s r i v a l . Acco rd ing t o a

commentary on ~ T l a k F e i , t h e S a u t r a n t i k a s c h o o l seems t o be

t h e one t h a t was p r e v a l e n t a t t h a t t i m e i n Tami lnadu .

VimbicFra K a t a i (The s t o r y of V i m b i c a r a ) d e a l s w i t h

t h e l i f e of B i m b i s a r a of Magadha, a con t empora ry of Buddha.

Only f o u r l i n e s of t h i s e p i c i n b l a n k v e r s e d e s c r i b i n g t h e

manner of Buddha ' s b i r t h s u r v i v e . S i d d h i i n t t a t t o k a i

( "An tho logy o f D o c t r i n e s " ) and T i r u p p a t i k a m a r e two l o s t

works , known t o u s o n l y i n f r a g n e n t s f rom c i t a t i o n s i n t h e

commen ta r i e s on Ni lake ' c i and on 5 i v a g . n Z n a c i t t i y Z r .

V>acZ~ iyam, a g r a m m a t i c a l work of t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y

w r i t t e n by Buddhamit ra i n honour of ~ F r a RZjFndrH, c i t e s a s

i l l u s t r a t i v e examples p a s s a g e s f rom g r e a t B u d d h i s t works .

The s u r p r i s i n g c l a i m made i n t h e work i s t h a t t h e s a g e

Agas tya l e a r n t Tamil from A v a l o k i t e s w a r a by whom T a m i l

i t s e l f was c r e a t e d . T h e e x t r a c t s q u o t e d i n t h i s book

w i t n e s s t o t h e v a s t v a r i e t y of B u d d h i s t works t h a t m i g h t

have been w r i t t e n i n T a m i l . The v i o l e n t a t t a c k s on J a i n i s m

i n t h e s e works r e v e a l t o u s t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e B h a k t i

Movement, t h e p o l i t i c a l power e n j o y e d by t h e J a i n s migh t

have a l s o been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s u p p r e s s i o n and

d e s t r u c t i o n of B u d d h i s t l i t e r a t u r e .

T h a t XapimZkala i h a s s u r v i v e d s u c h dange rous t i m e s

is a r e f l e c t i o n upon i ts g r e a t n e s s . The t i t l e of t h e book,

which may be t r a n s l a t e d a s 'The J e w e l B e l t ' , is t h e name of

t h e h e r o i n e and of one of t h e g r e a t B u d d h i s t g o d d e s s e s

men t ioned i n t h e J a t a k a s , who a l s o a p p e a r s i n t h e poem. The

e p i c c o n s i s t s of 4861 a k a v a l l i n e s ( a k i n d of b l a n k v e r s e )

i n 30 c a n t o s . The s t o r y g o e s t h a t i ts a u t h o r C z t t a n and

I!aAkb, t h e a u t h o r of C i l appa t ika ' r am, were c o n t e m p o r a r i e s

and t h a t i t was a t t h e r e q u e s t of C z t t a n t h a t t h e o t h e r

w r o t e h i s immor t a l e p i c . Once t h e c o n s e n s u s of o p i n i o n was

i n f a v o u r of a s s i g n i n g b o t h t h e works t o t h e 2nd c e n t u r y

A . D . , b u t now a l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s of t h e two works h a s

r e v e a l e d t h a t b o t h a r e pos t -Sangam works and t h a t

Ma7imFkalai was w r i t t e n a t l e a s t two o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s

a f t e r t h e Sangam c l a s s i c s . S e v e r a l p h r a s e s and images f rom

t h o s e works a r e u sed by C g t t a 2 i n M a ~ i m Z k a l a i . T h e r e a r e

e c h o e s of a t l e a s t t e n p a s s a g e s f rom Pu_ranFiZzu, two f rom

P e r u r a p Z p F ~ ~ u p p Q a i , one f rom T i r u m u r u k K r p p p a i a i , one f roni

Ne;unalvZ;ai, and two f rom ~ k a n ~ ~ ~ c ~ . ~ I f one t a k e s t h e

a v a i l a b l e h i s t o r i c a l , l i t e r a r y and l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e i n t o

c o n s i d e r a t i o n , one may r e a s o n a b l y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e a u t h o r

of Ma"nFka1ai l i v e d i n t h e 6 t h c e n t u r y A . D . '

The s t o r y of Na?imFkalai i s supposed t o be a

c o n t i n u a t i o n of what h a s a l r e a d y been s u p e r b l y t r e a t e d by

1ia6ki; i n h i s Cilappatik~raer. Towards t h e end of t h e

e a r l i e r e p i c , Ka??aki t a k e s r e v e n g e upon t h e Pandya King

f o r hav ing k i l l e d h e r husband u n j u s t l y by b u r n i n g up t h e

c i t y of Madura i . R e a l i s i n g h i s f o l l y , t h e k i n g d i e s of

s h o c k ; Ka??aki is t a k e n t o heaven by some d i v i n e b e i n g s i n

a c e l e s t i a l c a r ; MHtsvi, t h e d a n s e u s e , j o i n s t h e B u d d h i s t

o r d e r a l o n g w i t h h e r d a u g h t e r Ma?imZkalai.

The l a t e r e p i c t a k e s up t h e s t o r y f rom h e r e

b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n of t h e h e r o i n e a t a v e r y

e a r l y a g e . The p u b l i c t h a t h a s admi red t h e mother and t h e

d a u g h t e r a s b e a u t i f u l d a n c e r s d o e s n o t r e l i s h t h e i r j o i n i n g

t h e nunne ry and wan t s t h e younge r one t o f o l l o w t h e

h e r e d i t a r y p r o f e s s i o n of a c o u r t e s a n . But t h e s t r o n g - w i l l e d

maiden i s f i r m even though s h e f i n d s h e r s e l f drawn t o t h e

C61a p r i n c e Utayakumarac , who is i n l o v e w i t h h e r . L a t e r

s h e l e a r n s t h a t t h e r e a l r e a s o n f o r t h i s m a g n e t i c charm i s

t h a t s h e has been h i s w i f e i n a s e r i e s of f o r m e r b i r t h s .

But h e r own i n d o m i t a b l e w i l l and t h e encouragemen t of h e r

mother and t h e h e l p r e n d e r e d by B u d d h i s t a n g e l s e n a b l e h e r

t o f r e e h e r s e l f from human t i e s . The p r i n c e r e l e n t l e s s l y

p u r s u e s h e r b u t s h e i s m a g i c a l l y removed by t h e g o d d e s s

Manimgkala t o t h e i s l a n d of Man ipa l l avam, whe re s h e s e e s

t h e m i r a c u l o u s Buddha s e a t and l e a r n s a l l a b o u t h e r p a s t

l i f e . She s e c u r e s a magic bowl which is e v e r f u l l of food

and r e t u r n s t o h e r p l a c e Kavirippzmpaftin-am and d e d i c a t e s

h e r s e l f t o s o c i a l s e r v i c e . ' To keep t h e p r i n c e away f rom

h e r , s h e t a k e s t h e form of a n o t h e r woman, whose husband , a

V idyadha ra , m i s t a k i n g t h e p r i n c e t o be a s e d u c e r of h i s

w i f e , k i l l s h im. The k i n g o r d e r s h e r a r r e s t and t h e queen

i l l - t r e a t s h e r i n p r i s o n . When a l l h e r m a c h i n a t i o n s p r o v e

f u t i l e , t h e queen r e a l i s e s t h e g r e a t n e s s of M y i m Z k a l a i ,

and s e t s h e r f r e e . The young nun , t h e n , g o e s t o Czvakam,

now i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Suma t r a , and makes f r i e n d s w i t h i ts

r u l e r , who happens t o be t h e f i r s t p o s s e s s o r of t h e magic

bowl i n h i s p r e v i o u s b i r t h . A t ~ a i y c i , s h e g e t s h e r s e l f

g rounded i n v a r i o u s s c h o o l s of p h i l o s o p h y by h a v i n g

d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h l e a r n e d men of d i f f e r e n t f a i t h s . F i n a l l y ,

s h e g o e s t o Kanch i , m e e t s A ~ a v a p a A f i k a l , t h e embodiment of

B u d d h i s t s c h o l a r s h i p and s i t t i n g a t h i s f e e t l e a r n s

Buddh i s t e t h i c s , l o g i c and p h i l o s o p h y . A f t e r a t t a i n i n g

wisdom, s h e s e t t l e s t h e r e p e r m a n e n t l y t o d o penance t o

a t t a i n nirvana.

The s t o r y is f u l l of i m p r o b a b i l i t i e s a n d

s u p e r n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s . But t h e n t h e y a r e common f e a t u r e s

of even more p r o f e s s e d l y s o b e r works on Buddhism. The

B u d d h i s t s and t h e J a i n s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e i r s u b t l e and

complex d o c t r i n e s might a p p e a l t o t h e common p e o p l e o n l y

when t h e y were o f f e r e d by means of i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r i e s and

a n e c d o t e s . C H t t a z makes u s e of a number of s t o r i e s f rom

J a t a k a m a l a , which d e a l i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t a v a t a r s of Buddha,

t o o k s h a p e i n t h e 2nd c e n t u r y A . D . The g o d d e s s H a ~ i m E k a l a ,

t h e g u a r d i a n d e i t y of t h e s e a , a f t e r whom t h e h e r o i n e is

named, i s s a i d t o have s aved one of t h e a n c e s t o r s of

KZvalan f rom g e t t i n g drowned i n t h e s e a . T h i s f e a t of t h e

g o d d e s s is ment ioned i n Shankha J a t a k a and Mahajanaka

J a t a k a . Acco rd ing t o P r o f . L e v y , t h i s s e a - g o d d e s s known i n

Siaui, Burma, Ceylon and Cambodia b e l o n g s t o Sou th I n d i a

where Kanchi o r Puha r had been h e r p l a c e of w o r s h i p . I n

NanimZka la i , t h e r e a r e two r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e w h i t e o a r p e t

of I n d r a which q u i v e r s whenever B o d h i s a t t v a s a r e i n

d i s t r e s s and need h i s h e l p . S e v e r a l J a t a k a s men t ion t h e

y e l l o w s t o n e t h r o n e of I n d r a which s h a k e s on s i m i l a r

o c c a s i o n s .

The i s l a n d of Ma?ipal lavam, where Ma?imBkalai comes

t o know of h e r p r e v i o u s b i r t h and l a t e r g e t s t h e m i r a c u l o u s

bowl, i s now i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a p a r t of t h e p r e s e n t J a f f n a

c a l l e d ' ~ E r a i t t T v u ' . A k i t t a J a t a k a s p e a k s of t h e c o n t a c t s

between Mavipal lavam and Kzvirippat;;in-am. C g t t a n ' s v e r s i o n

of t h e s t o r y a b o u t t h e Buddha s e a t a t Ha? ipa l l avam wh ich he

o c c u p i e s w h i l e s e t t l i n g t h e q u a r r e l be tween two k i n g s o f

NZgartTfu, h i s numerous r e f e r e n c e s t o number s even a s a n

a u s p i c i o u s o n e , h i s men t ion of t h e cus tom c f o f f e r i n g b e t e l

l e a v e s and camphor a f t e r f ood and of Bh ikkun i s

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n r e l i g i o u s d i s p u t a t i o n s a r e a l l ba sed on

i d e a s d e r i v e d from t h e Jatakas. Many of t h e Buddha 's

r r ~ i r a c l e s ment ioned i n t h e Jatakas s u c h a s t h e o f f e r i n g of

h i s e y e s t o I n d r a , who wan t s t o t e s t h i s g e n e r o s i t y , h i s

d e s c e n t i n t o t h e h e l l t o redeem i t s i n h a b i t a n t s , and h i s

p r e a c h i n g t h e Dharaa of G r a c e t o a g a r u d a i n o r d e r t o

p r o t e c t s n a k e s from i t s v i o l e n c e d o f i n d a p l a c e i n

Ma~ime'kalai .

The poem d o e s n o t have a w e l l - k n i t p l o t u n l i k e i t s

p r e d e c e s s o r Cilappatik&am, which t e s t i f i e s t o t h e

a r c h i t e c t o n i c s k i l l of 1;a;kT. To C g t t a ~ h i m s e l f , t h e s t o r y

seems t o be of l e s s e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of

B u d d h i s t i d e o l o g y . A l l t h a t happens i n t h e p r e s e n t and

p r e v i o u s b i r t h s of t h e ma jo r and minor c h a r a c t e r s i s t h e r e

j u s t t o p r o c l a i m t h e g l o r y of Buddha. C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s

a l s o s a c r i f i c e d a t t h e a l t a r of B u d d h i s t p ropaganda .

Ma?imZkalai is a l o v e l y d o l l , a l l t h e t i m e p r e a c h i n g o r

f e e d i n g t h e p o o r . A puppe t i n t h e hands of s u p e r n a t u r a l

f o r c e s , s h e d o e s n o t have t h e t r a g i c g r a n d e u r o f Ka??aki o r

t h e v i t a l i t y of Mztavi i n Cilappatikzram. The s t o r y moves

f a s t b u t l a c k s human i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e t h e p r i n c e ' s l u s t ,

- t h e q u e e n ' s m a l i c e , A p u t t i r a c ' s l o v e f o r t h e p o o r , and t h e

V i d y a d h a r h ' s l o v e f o r h i s w i f e a r e n o t hand led w i t h

s u b t l e t y t h a t is a e s t h e t i c a l l y s a t i s f y i n g . " I n

Ci1appatikd;-am, e t h i c s and r e l i g i o n s e r v e a r t ; i n

Man io~Fka la i , t h e r e v e r s e i s t h e c a s e . " 1 ° I f t h e f o r m e r i s

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e Tami l

l i f e , t h e l a t t e r ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n s a r e r e l i g i o u s and

p h i l o s o p h i c a l . And s o Afpva t a A i i k a i ' s r o l e i s g i v e n a l o t

of i m p o r t a n c e , even though he is n o t v i t a l l y l i n k e d w i t h

t h e main p l o t of t h e poem. He 1s l i k e t h e Greek c h o r u s

inasmuch a s h e knows much more t h a n t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s of

t h e poem and is used by t h e a u t h o r t o r e v e a l h i s o p i n i o n on

what happens . ~ + n t i i n t h e o t h e r e p i c , t hough p l a y i n g t h e

r o l e of a w i t n e s s o r s p e c t a t o r , i s n o t s o s o b e r o r ma tu re

a s Aravaca Afika;, a B o d h i s a t t v a p a r e x c e l l e n c e , whose

s a i n t l i n e s s is acknowledged by e v e r y o n e . Endowed w i t h a

s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n , he knows a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s , and t h e i r

p r e v i o u s and f u t u r e b i r t h s a s w e l l . Prof.Kuppuswami S a s t r i

a r g u e s t h a t Arava?a A;ika; was none o t h e r t h a n Acharya - Dharmapala w h i l e Sesha I y e r i d e n t i f i e s him w i t h D innaga

h i m s e l f . l1 These a r e i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s t i o n s b u t

u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e y b l u r t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s be tween l i f e and

a r t . C E t t a n ' s p o r t r a y a l of t h i s c h a r a c t e r migh t have b e e n

i n f l u e n c e d by h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e l i f e and t e a c h i n g s

of t h e s e g r e a t Acharyas.

Even i n t h e c a s e of i t s v e r s e fo rm, MarimFkalai c u t s

a s o r r y f i g u r e when compared w i t h i ts t w i n e p i c . C E t t a n ' s

a b s o l u t e m a s t e r y of t h e akaval form c a n n o t be c a l l e d i n

q u e s t i c n , s i n c e he can u s e i t e f f e c t i v e l y i n t h e n a r r a t i v e

a s w e l l a s i n t h e m e d i t a t i v e p a r t s of t h e poem. But t h e

akaval moves on w i t h o u t t h e r e l i e f of l y r i c s whe reas i n

~ilappatikgram t h e monotony of t h e akaval i s avo ided by t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of f o l k - s o n g s and a l s o

p a s s a g e s i n p o e t i c p r o s e . C E t t a n ' s g e n i u s , i t i s t o be

conceded , is e v i d e n t i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s of n a t u r a l s c e n e s

and i n t h e t e l l i n g images he employs .

I t i s more a s a r e p o s i t o r y of B u d d h i s t l o g i c , e t h i c s

and p h i l o s o p h y t h a n a s an a r t i s t i c s u c c e s s t h a t Mapimzkalai

i s remembered t o d a y . And t h e a u t h o r would have c e r t a i n l y

f e l t rewarded by t h i s k ind of r e c o g n i t i o n a c c o r d e d t o h i s

work. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l e p i s o d e s i n t h e poem r e v e a l i n g h i s

h a t r e d of r e l i g i o n s o t h e r t h a n Buddhism. He was t o o

e n t h u s i a s t i c a B u d d h i s t t o c a r e f o r o t h e r c u l t s . J a i n i s m

v e r y o f t e n becomes h i s b u t t of r i d i c u l e . I n C a n t o 1 1 1 , a

J a i n a s c e t i c i s j e e r e d a t by a d r u n k a r d . I n C a n t o IV, t h e

s t o r y of C u t a m a t i , whose f a t h e r ' s s u f f e r i n g s a r e a l l e v i a t e d

by a l a r g e - h e a r t e d B u d d h i s t Bh ikshu , d e p i c t s a few c a l l o u s - J a i n a s c e t i c s . I n Can to X I I I , t h r o u g h A p u t r a , t h e a u t h o r

denounces Hindu s c r i p t u r e s , v e d i c s a c r i f i c e s and Brahmins

C G t t a n i s s e e n a s an e x p e r t i n b o t h o r t h o d o x and

h e t e r o d o x s y s t e m s of I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y and a s an a b l e

a p o s t l e of B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y i n C a n t o s 27, 29 and 30 ,

where M y i x i z k a l a i i s supposed t o make an i n - d e p t h s t u d y of

S a i v a v a d a , Va i shnavavada , Brahmavada, Vedavada, Bhu tavada

and a l s o J a i n i s m and Buddhism. C Z t t a ~ c h o o s e s a woman f o r

h i s p u r p o s e t o d r i v e t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e Buddha gave

woman an i ndependen t s t a t u s and p l a c e d h e r on a f o o t i n g of

e q u a l i t y w i t h man. When Buddhism a t t a i n e d i t s peak of g l o r y

i n Tami lnadu , B u d d h i s t s i s t e r h o o d s must have been v e r y

common. P r a i s i n g Therigatha a work c o n t a i n i n g v e r s e s

a s c r i b e d t o b h i k s h u n i s , Dr .Rhys Dav ids o b s e r v e s ,

A good many of t h e s e v e r s e s a r e n o t o n l y beautiful i n form b u t a l s o g i v e e v i d e n c e of a v e r y h i g h d e g r e e of t h a t m e n t a l s e l f - c u l t u r e which p l a y e d s o g r e a t a p a r t i n t h e B u d d h i s t i d e a l of t h e p e r f e c t l i f e . Many of t h e women who j o i n e d t h e o r d e r became d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r h i g h i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t s a s w e l l a s f o r mora l e a r n e s t n e s s . Some women of acknowledged c u l t u r e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d n o t o n l y a s b e i n g t h e t e a c h e r s of men and a s expound ing t h e d e e p e r and s u b t l e r p o i n t s of t h e Dharma, b u t a l s o a s h a v i n g a t t a i n e d t h e G r e a t P e a c e which is t h e f i n a l r e s u l t of i r e l l e c t u a l i l l u m i n a t i o n and m o r a l e a r n e s t n e s s . $5

I n 6 t t a ; ' s work, t h i s supreme p o s i t i o n is a c h i e v e d by a

woman f rom a c l a n o f c o u r t e s a n s .

He g i v e s a l u c i d and p ro found e x p o s i t i o n of Buddh i s t

l o g i c i n Can to 2 9 . S ~ c h e r b a t s k y f e e l s t h a t Hinayana

B u d d h i s t s knew l i t t l e a b o u t l o g i c a l s c i e n c e . M a i t r e y a and

t h e l e a r n e d b r o t h e r s Asanga and Vasubandu, t h e f o u n d e r s of

t h e Yogacara s c h o o l of Buddhism, were t h e f i r s t g r e a t

B u d d h i s t t h e o l o g i a n s who showed i n t e r e s t i n l o g i c and

e p i s t e m o l o g y .

C x t t a c p r o v e s t o be v e r y w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e

w r i t i n g s of Naga r juna , M a i t r e y a , Asanga, Vasubandu, Dinnaga

and o t h e r s i n h i s t r e a t i s e on B u d d h i s t l o g i c , which r u n n i n g

t o more t h a n 400 l i n e s c o n t a i n s t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e of t h e i r

w r i t i n g s . The c l o s e r e semblance between Nyayapravesa and

what Cgttai? s a y s i s s t r i k i n g . But a c l o s e s t u d y of t h e two

by s c h o l a r s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e p o e t i s more an i n t e r p r e t e r

t h a n a mere t r a n s l a t o r of Nyayap ravesa s i n c e he e l u c i d a t e s ,

i l l u s t r a t e s and a t t i m e s makes changes f o r t h e b e t t e r . 1 3

The Madhyamika s c h o o l of Mahayana Buddhism spoke of f o u r

p r amanas o r s o u r c e s of knowledge: p e r c e p t i o n , i n f e r e n c e ,

oompar ison and t e s t i m o n y . The Yogacara s c h o o l of t h e l a t e r

p e r i o d a d m i t t e d o n l y two p r a m a n a s - p e r c e p t i o n and

i n f e r e n c e . Vasubandu ' s c o n t e n t i o n was t h a t t h e s e two

p ramanas a r e enough t o u n d e r s t a n d and communicate

knowledge. C Z t t a c a c c e p t s t h i s v i e w . Whi le p r e s e n t i n g t h e

five-membered s y l l o g i s m of t h e N a i y a y i k a s , he f o l l o w s t h e

N y a y a s a s t r a of Aksapada and i t s e a r l i e s t commentary by

Va t syayana , a c c o r d i n g t o which t h e f i v e i n s t r u m e n t s of

knowledge a r e t h e s i s , r e a s o n , example , a p p l i c a t i o n and

c o n c l u s i o n . M a p i m F l f a l a i d e a l s e l a b o r a t e l y w i t h t h e f i r s t

t h r e e l i m b s of s y l l o g i s m and c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e l a s t two

may be i n c l u d e d i n t h e t h i r d , whe reas N y a y a p r a v e s a d o e s n o t

men t ion t h e l a s t two. C 8 t t a n l ists n i n e f a l l a c i e s of

t h e s i s , f o u r t e e n f a l l a c i e s of r e a s o n and t e n f a l l a c i e s of

example . N y a y a p r a v e s a m e n t i o n s t h e same, w h i l e i n t h e o t h e r

l o g i c a l t r e a t i s e s w r i t t e n b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e s e two

w r i t e r s , t h e numbers v a r y .

I n t h e l a s t c a n t o of M a p i m z k a l a i , i n which t h e r e i s

a ' s t u n n i n g d i s p l a y of C a ' t t a a ' s knowledge of Buddhism

g a t h e r e d from a l a r g e number of P a l i and S a n s k r i t t e x t s ,

p h i l o s o p h y may n o t come " a s f e l t t h o u g h t i n t h e p r o p e r

e m o t i o n a l c o n t e x t " . He re p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i ews a r e n o t

e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of g l o w i n g m e t a p h o r s . P e r h a p s

C z t t a n ' s i n t e n t i o n i s t o w r i t e a manual on B u d d h i s t

p h i l o s o p h y i n an e l e g a n t Tami l and he h a s e m i n e n t l y

succeeded i n t h a t a t t e m p t . The c a n t o examines t h e t h e o r y of

Dependent O r i g i n a t i o n and Four Noble T r u t h s , t h e t hemes of

t h e Sermon t h a t t h e Buddha d e l i v e r e d a t t h e Deer P a r k i n

B e n a r e s . C g t t a c u s e s N a g a r j u n a ' s e l u c i d a t i o n of t h e t w e l v e

n i d a n a s i n Mulamadhyamika Kar i ka i n t e r m s of a s e r i e s of

n e g a t i v e s

T h e r e i s n e i t h e r o r i g i n a t i o n ( u t p a d a ) nor c e s s a t i o n ( u c c h a d a ) , n e i t h e r permanence ( s a s v a t a ) , n o r impermanence ( n i r o d h a ) , n e i t h e r u n i t y ( e k a r t h a ) nor d i v e r s i t y ( n a n a r t h a ) , n e i t h e r coming i n (agamana) n o r g o i n g o u t ( n i r a p a n a n a ) i n t h e p r i n c i p l e , p r a t i t i y a saou tpada .

The f o l l o w i n g t w e l v e n i d a n a s a r e men t ioned by Cztta;: 1.

i g n o r a n c e , 2 . d i s p o s i t i o n s , 3 . c o n s c i o u s n e s s , 4 . name and

form, 5 . s i x s p h e r e s of o p e r a t i o n , 6 . s e n s e c o n t a c t , 7 .

f e e l i n g , 6 . c r a v i n g , 9 . c l i n g i n g , 1 0 . becoming, 11. b i r t h ,

1 2 . d i s e a s e , o l d a g e and d e a t h . His p r e s e n t a t i o n of how

t h e s e o p e r a t e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i n

"Mahavngga" o f Vinaya P i t a k a . He p o i n t s o u t v e r y

e f f e c t i v e l y t h a t i f t h e o r i g i n a t i o n of t h e t w e l v e n i d a n a s

l o d g e s one i n bondage, t h e c e s s a t i o n of them g a i n s one

l i b e r a t i o n . The B u d d h i s t s c h o l a r s of C B t t a c ' s t i m e had

examined t h e n i d a n a s f rom d i f f e r e n r p o i n t s of v i e w . The

c i r c l e of n i d a n a s is d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r g r o u p s on t h e b a s i s

of c a u s e and e f f e c t . They a r e a l s o s t u d i e d i n t e r m s of t h e

t h r e e c o n n e c t i o n s found among t h e f o u r g r o u p s . The t h i r d

a n a l y s i s is grounded on t h e c o n c e p t of t h r e e l i v e s s i n c e

t h e c h a i n of t h e t w e l v e n i d a n a s e x t e n d s o v e r t h r e e l i v e s ,

t h e p a s t , t h e p r e s e n t and t h e f u t u r e . I n t h e f o u r t h

a n a l y s i s , t h e y a r e g rouped u n d e r t h e t h r e e e l e m e n t s of

c a u s a l law, v i z . , d e l u s i o n , a c t i o n and m i s e r y . C H t t a l

e x p l a i n s a l l t h e f o u r a n a l y s e s .

What Can to 30 g i v e s is a s u c c i n c t summary of

B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y , meant f o r t h e common r e a d e r . Always

keep ing i n mind t h e n o t e of wa rn ing sounded by t h e Buddha

a g a i n s t m e t a p h y s i c a l s u b t l e t i e s , C F t t a n n e v e r m i s s e s t h e

wood f o r t h e t r e e s . But t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t h a s been r a i s e d

t i m e and a g a i n by a numbar o f Tami l s c h o l a r s c o n c e r n s t h e

i d e n t i t y of t h e B u d d h i s t s c h o o l e x t o l l e d by CEittan, s i n c e

t h e a u t h o r h imse l f d o e s n o t men t ion which of t h e e i g h t e e n

s e c t s f a l l i n g unde r t h e two xiain d i v i s i c n s of H i n a y a n a and

Mahayana he h a s i n mind. Those who c l a i m t h a t C a t t a n i s an

a r d e n t s u p p o r t e r of S a u t h r a n t i k a Y o g a c a r a , a Mahayana s e c t

promoted by t h e d i s c i p l e s of Vasubandu, a r g u e t h a t C Z t t a i ' s

work r e s o u n d s w i t h e c h o e s f rom l e a d i n g Mahayana t e x t s l i k e

Buddha C a r i t a , L a l i t a v i s t a r a , and L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a . He

s a y s t h a t numerous Buddhas who were a v a t a r s of God l i v e d i n

t h e p a s t . L i k e Ashvaghosha, he a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e good

omens a t t h e t i m e of Buddha 's b i r t h . I n s p i r e d by M a t r o e t a ' s

Hymn of Four Hundred V e r s e s ( C a t u h - S a t a k a S t o t r a ) and Hymn

of 150 V e r s e s ( S a t a p a n c a s t i k a S t o t r a ) he h a s i n c l u d e d a f e u

hyn~ns of h i s own i n which t h e v a r i o u s names and

a p p e l l a t i o n s of t h e Buddha a r e r e c o u n t e d . 1 4 As i n t h e

Mahayana t e x t s , Buddha is r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e s u n i n many

p l a c e s . The a r h a t s of Hinayana a r e u n s o c i a l r e c l u s e s

i n t e r e s t e d i n s e t t i n g t h e l r own l a n d s i n o r d e r whereas t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a s of Mahayana a r e s a v i o u r s of mankind. The

p o r t r a i t s of A s v a ? a Afika; and x p u t t i r a 2 i n d i c a t e t h a t

Ca t t aLZr ' s sympa th i e s a r e w i t h t h e c u l t of B o d h i s a t t v a . I n

ManimZlfalai, t h e r e a r e i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s y s t e m of

Buddha 's t r i - k a y a , (Dharma, Sambhoga and Niramana K a y a s ) .

a s a l i e n t f e a t u r e of Mahayana Buddhism.

Those who b e l i e v e t h a t C z t t ? champions t h e c a u s e of

Hinayana p o i n t o u t t h a t h i s r e p e a t e d t r i b u t e s t o t h e p a t h

of t h e p i t a k a s of t h e G r e a t One must be a r e f e r e n c e t o

Hinayana. I n t h e t e m p l e a t P u h a r , t h e Buddha was

r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y by h i s f e e t . A l so t h e r e a r e n o a l l u s i o n s

t o t h e Madhyamika s c h o o l o r t o Naga r juna anywhere i n t h e

t e x t .

What h i s t o r i a n s have t o s a y a b o u t Buddhism i n t h e

Tamil c o u n t r y may h e l p u s r e s o l v e t h e c o n t r c v e r s y . S i r

C h a r l e s E l i o t c a t e g o r i c a l l y s t a t e s t h a t " o u r a v a i l a b l e

documents i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e Buddhism of Sou th I n d i a was

a lmos t e n t i r e l y H i n a y a n i s t , a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t of

C e ~ l o n " . ' ~ Hiuen Tsang, who v i s i t e d I n d i a i n t h e 7 t h

c e n t u r y , w r i t e s t h a t i n Drav ida t h e r e were 10,000 monks o f

t h e S t h a v i r a s c h o o l . Though a z e a l o u s H a h a y a n i s t , h e s a y s

t h a t h a l f t h e monks of I n d i a were d e f i n i t e l y H i n a y a n i s t

w h i l e l e s s t h a n a f i f t h had e q u a l l y d e f i n i t e Mahayan i s t

c o n v i c t i o n s . The S t h a v i r a s , S a r v a s t i v a d i n s and S a m m i t i y a s

a r e t h e t h r e e H i n a y a n i s t s c h o o l s f r e q u e n t l y men t ioned . The

S t h a v i r a s , t h e well-known C e y l o n e s e s e c t , were found

c h i e f l y i n t h e Sou th and i n E a s t B e n g a l .

These h i s t o r i c a l d e t a i l s make it c l e a r t h a t t h e

Buddhism of N a ~ i m F k a l a i h a s t o be Hinayana, s i n c e i t was

t h e dominan t s c h o o l i n t h e S o u t h even a s l a t e a s t h e 7 t h

c e n t u r y . Then how a r e we t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of

some Mahayanis t p r i n c i p l e s i n i t ? S i r C h a r l e s E l i o t s a y s

t h a t t h e S a u t r a n t i k a s , t hough accoun ted H i n a y a n i s t s , mark a

s t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of Nahayana, s i n c e t h e y n o t o n l y

a s c r i b e d superhuman powers t o t h e Buddha, b u t b e l i e v e d i n

t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e t h r e e b o d i e s . L i k e most o f t h e

H i n a y a n i s t s o f h i s t i m e , C F t t a ~ was n o t a v e r s e t o u s i n g

some of t h e Mahayanis t p r i n c i p l e s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e

s u p e r i o r i t y of Buddhism o v e r o t h e r r e l i g i o n s .

The p r o p a g a t i o n of Buddhisn i s t h e e h i e f mo t ive of

Hanim&alai. The t h r e e C a n t o s which d i s c u s s r e l i g i o u s

d o c t r i n e s may be c u t o u t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g any damage t o t h e

a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y of t h e work. I t i s r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e

o n l y i n t h e t h i r d s e n s e i n which T . S . E l i o t u s e s t h e t e r m ,

i . e . , t h e work o f a man who s i n c e r e l y w a n t s t o f o r w a r d t h e

c a u s e of a r e l i g i o n . And it must have s u c c e e d e d a s

p ropaganda l i t e r a t u r e , s i n c e i t s example was f o l l o w e d by a

few g r e a t Tami l w r i t e r s of t h e t i m e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it

c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e s e n s e of

d e v o t i o n a l p o e t r y l i k e t h e w r i t i n g s of Nayanmars and Alwars

i n Tamil o r of Dan te , H e r b e r t , Vaughan and Hopkins . I n

C a n t o s 27, 29 and 30 , p h i l o s o p h y r e m a i n s a s p h i l o s o p h y and

d o e s n o t become p o e t r y . But i f Maj~lmFkalai f a i l s a s a poem,

i t f a i l s o n l y by t h e h i g h e s t s t a n d a r d s of a r t , s i n c e i t i s

more l e a r n e d t h a n l i t e r a r y and more p r o p a g a n d i s t t h a n

a r t i s t i c .

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 . Fo r an accoun t of t h e b i r t h , g rowth and d e c l i n e of Buddhism i n Tamilnadu, s e e T.N.Vasudeva Rao, Buddhism in the Tamil Country ( A n n a u ~ a l a i Nagar: Annamalai U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 9 ) .

2 . Ibid. , p , 2 8 0 .

3. Ibid. , p . 282

4. Ibid. , p ,306

5 . The l y r i c n o . 187 i n PuranZiiru by AvvaiyBr is an a r t i s t i c r e n d e r i n g of v e r s e z c . 9 8 i n Dhammapada, which means t h a t t h e g r e a t n e s s of a c o u n t r y d e p e n d s n o t on t h e n a t u r e o f i ts t e r r a i n b u t on t h e goodness of t h e p e o p l e .

6 . F o r a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of Tirukkuzal and Dhammapada, s e e T a ~ i n g y a k a A t i k a f , ~ i r u v ~ l l u v a r (Annamalai Nagar : Annamalai ~ n i ; e r s l t y , 1967) : '

7 . S .N .Karidaswamy ,Buddhism as Expounded in HanimFkalai

(Annamalai Nagar : Annamalai U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 2 7 .

8 . U . V . S a m i n a t h s I y e r is of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t ManimSkalai was w r i t t e n i n t h e 2nd c e n t u r y A . D . But most modern s c h o l a r s would a s s i g n i t t o t h e 6 t h c e n t u r y A . D . F o r a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of i t s d a t e , s e e K . V . Z v e l e b i 1 , Tamil Literature, (Wiesbaden: O t t o H a r r a s s o w i t y , 1 9 7 4 ) , p . 1 4 1 .

9 . I t is n o t e d i n t h e Mahavamsa and I - T s i n g ' s "Record of t h e Bu-ddhist R e l i g i o n a s P r a c t i s e d i n I n d i a and t h e Malay A r c h i p e l a g o " t h a t t h e Buddha ' s n ~ i r a c u l o u s alms-bowl came u n d e r t h e p o s s e s s i o n of g r e a t men i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of I n d i a and C e y l o n .

1 0 . K. V . Z v e l e b i l , Tamil Literature, p , 1 4 1 .

11. Prof .S.Kuppuswami S a s t r i ' s " P r o b l e m s of I d e n t i t y i n t h e C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y of I n d i a - A ~ a v a i ~ a At iga ; " i n t h e Journal of Oriental Research, 1927 , Gp. 191-201 and K.G.Sesha I y e r ' s "The D a t e o f Manimekalai" i n t h e Journal of Oriental Research, 1927 , pp .322-24 a r e w o r t h r e a d i n g .

1 2 . Quoted i n P.Lakshmi Narasu , The Essence o f Buddhism ( D e l h i : B h a r a t i y a P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 1 2 0 .

13. F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y a s r e v e a l e d i n ManimFkalai, s e e S.K.Krishnaswamy I y e n g a r , Manimek&lai in its Historical Setting (London, 1928 j , S.N .Kandaswaxiy, Buddhism as Expounded in Maniriielialai, and N .Vanamamalai , "Manimeka la iy in Buddham" i n TaaiLar PappFifum Tattuvamum, (Madras : New C e n t u r y Book House, 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 135-189.

1 4 . M a t r c e t a was a famous B u d d h i s t p o e t p a t r o n i z e d by K a n i s h k a . C g t t a n ' s hymn p r a i s i n g t h e f e e t of t h e Buddha i s found T n C a n t o X I .

1 5 . S i r C h a r l e s E l i o t , Hinduism and Buddhism (London: R o u t l e d g e & Kegan P a u l L t d . , 1 9 2 1 ) , 11, 96.