TAKING OUR BREATH AWAYHealth Risks from Florida’s Electric
Power Plants
The Florida Clean Power Coalition (FCPC)
November 1998
The Florida Clean Power Coalition (FCPC) gratefully acknowledges and thanks the Educational Foundation of America, the Energy Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trusts and the Turner Foundation for their generous support in making this report possible.
The FCPC includes the following organizations which are responsible for publication of this report:
Florida Consumer Action Network (FCAN)
Legal Environmental Assistance Foundation (LEAF)
Contact: Steve Murchie Contact: Gail KamarasMercede Executive Plaza 1114 Thomasville Road, Suite E1804-C North University Drive Tallahassee, Florida 32303-6290Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33322 (850) 681-2591(954) 423-3226 e-mail:
[email protected] or [email protected]: [email protected]
Project for an Energy Efficient Florida (PEEF)Florida Public Interest Research Group (FPIRG) Contact: Bill JonesContact: Lynn Tyrrell 707 East Park Avenue704 West Madison Avenue Tallahassee, Florida 32301Tallahassee, FL 32304 (850) 222-0808(850) 224-3321 e-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]
This report is available on the following websites: FCAN - www.fcan.orgPEEF - www.lewisweb.net/creative FPIRG - www.pirg.org/floridapirg
Hard copies are available from the above FCPC member organizations for $5.
Taking Our Breath Away (November 1998)
The FLORIDA CLEAN POWER COALITION works to improve human health and the environment through reducing air pollution from electric power plants and increasing energy efficiency and clean renewable resources.
_Printed on recycled paper
TAKING OUR BREATH AWAYHealth Risks from Florida’s Electric Power
Plants[We] impose the cost of pollution on people who breathe, so the people who pollute can avoid the cost of control. I think this is backwards.
-- The late Edmund S. Muskie, U.S. Senator
Overview
Air pollution kills more than 50,000
people a year in the U.S. -- more than traffic
accidents, breast cancer or AIDS. Though our
air has gotten cleaner, even with current
pollution standards in place, it is not clean
enough to avoid making millions of people sick.
Electric power production is a major contributor
to air pollution and its health impacts.
Florida’s electric power plants are
significant sources of air pollution, releasing
hundreds of thousands of tons of dangerous
pollutants each year into the air we all breathe.
Breathing high levels of ozone smog, fine
particles, acid aerosols, and hazardous air
pollutants puts the health of millions of Florida
residents at risk. Still other poisons, like
mercury, affect human health through the
aquatic food chain. Millions of tons of carbon
dioxide emissions contribute to global warming
which could have severe health effects. All
these pollutants come from power plants.
In 1997, Florida’s largest power plants
emitted nearly 320,000 tons of ozone smog-
causing nitrogen oxides (NOx ), almost
700,000 tons of fine particle- and acid rain-
forming sulfur dioxide (SO2) and more than
120 million tons of global warming-carbon
dioxide (CO2) into our air. Surprisingly,
mercury pollution is neither measured nor
restricted by state or federal environmental
agencies; however, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that one-
third of mercury pollution comes from coal-fired
power plants.
Ironically, nearly 30 years after passage
of the federal Clean Air Act in 1970, we still
have health-threatening air pollution problems.
A loophole in the Act exempted power plants
built before the early 1980's from having to
meet the same clean air standards as new plants.
In fact, exempt plants pollute at four to ten times
the rate of new plants. Many of Florida’s coal
and oil-fueled power plants take advantage of
that loophole, creating excess emissions over
new standards. This means Florida has a
significant number of dirty older power plants
(primarily coal-fueled) that disproportionately
pollute and threaten our right to breathe safe air.
Florida’s dirtiest dozen power plants for 1997
were:
1. BIG BEND (TECO)* Excess tons: NOx 31,764, SO2 84,4912. CRYSTAL RIVER (FPC) Excess tons: NOx 32,345, SO2 86,2263. GANNON (TECO)* Excess tons: NOx 27,648, SO2 56,6744. SMITH (GULF) Excess tons: NOx 4802, SO2 52,8355. CRIST (GULF) Excess tons: NOx 7023, SO2 30,062*6. SEMINOLE (SMNL)* Excess tons: NOx 13,256, SO2 23,2207. FT. MYERS (FPL) Excess tons: NOx 7178, SO2 19,8298. SANFORD (FPL) Excess tons: NOx 7479, SO2 21,2589. ST. JOHNS RIVER (JEA) Excess tons: NOx 17,264, SO2 10,25510. BARTOW (FPC) Excess tons: NOx 2676, SO2 21,26511. RIVIERA (FPL) Excess tons: NOx 4256, SO2 19,31012. ANCLOTE (FPC) Excess tons: NOx 4083, SO2 19,157
[Based on excess emissions in 1997 over new plant equivalents. * incomplete reporting]
The problem could worsen with retail
competition in the electric power industry if
citizens and government do not call on all
electric power producers to take responsibility
for the environmental health problems they
cause. Competition could allow consumers to
choose their power suppliers similar to how we
choose a long distance phone company.
Companies that can make the cheapest
electricity will beat the competition. This will
create an incentive to electric companies to
operate the cheapest (and dirtiest) plants more
often and for a longer time. New power plants
meeting today’s stricter Clean Air Act standards
have pollution control equipment that greatly
reduces pollution and the damage it causes. But
because the cost of pollution control is part of
the cost of new plants, they cannot compete with
older coal plants having minimum or no
controls.
The health and environmental
consequences of air pollution are not included
in what customers pay for electricity from
exempt power plants. As a result, the health
costs from power plant pollution are imposed
on taxpayers and health care recipients. Every
taxpayer bears the cost of Medicaid payments to
treat illnesses caused by air pollution. Florida
spent more than $326 million from July 1996 to
July 1997 to treat 69,000 Medicaid patients with
asthma, an illness associated with air pollution
(see discussion below). In addition, as health
care patients and health insurance customers,
everyone pays for air pollution-related health
care costs in higher insurance premiums.
Healthy People 2000, a report prepared by the
Centers for Disease Control and others,
estimated the costs of outdoor air pollution in
1994 at $40 - 50 billion (On a per person basis,
Florida’s share would be about $2.5 billion).
More importantly, the report attributes between
50,000 and 120,000 pre-mature deaths per year
to air pollution. People with respiratory
diseases die, on average, three years earlier than
the average life expectancy.
Regulated Power Plant Pollutants and Their Health Effects
OzoneWhat Is It? It is a highly corrosive, invisible
gas.1 It is the main ingredient in smog
(particulates, discussed below, often make smog
visible). Ozone is our nation’s most widespread
air pollution problem.
1 It is easy to be confused about ozone. In the upper atmosphere, it acts as a sunscreen, protecting Earth. At ground level, where we all breathe, it is dangerous.
How Is it Produced? It is created when
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and other air pollutants
combine in sunlight and high temperatures to
form ozone smog. In most places, ozone is
worse in summer. In Florida, the air circulation
from the seas and frequent summer rains often
“wash” ozone out of the air. But in late spring
and early fall, re-circulation of land-sea breezes
play an important role in the build-up of smog
that does not go away quickly. In 1998, Florida
environmental and health officials issued the
state’s first statewide smog alert a few days
before Memorial Day weekend. [See box (next
page) on ozone alerts.]
What Are its Health Effects? Generally, small
airways in people’s lungs can become damaged
somewhat like a smoker’s lungs. Also, the
lung’s defenses are weakened and people
become vulnerable to increased infection.
Ozone burns (oxidizes) people’s lungs and is a
powerful respiratory irritant. It causes airways
to become swollen and inflamed, resulting in
scarring and decreased breathing ability.
Exposure to ozone, even for healthy
individuals, may cause:
Ø temporary reduction in lung function;
Ø cough, throat irritation, chest pains on
deep breathing, nausea and
shortness of breath;
Ø increased airway sensitivity, leading to
increased respiratory
inflammation and infection;
Ø worsened symptoms from outdoor
exercise.
The most vulnerable are children,
people with respiratory illness (e.g., asthma,
bronchitis, emphysema) and those who exercise
outdoors. Children are at increased risk
because:
OZONE ALERTS -- 1998
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) adopted tighter ozone smog standards in July 1997 that will become effective sometime after 2000. State environmental and health agencies issue public alerts when standards are violated for longer than a minimum period. In late May to early June 1998, Florida had 22 ozone days that exceeded the current (old) standard of .12 parts per million for one hour and 28 days that exceeded the proposed (new) standard of .08 parts per million over 8 hours.
Reporting of ozone alerts by the media, especially weather forecasters, would help to educate and warn the public about this dangerous condition. During ozone alerts, people are recommended to stay indoors if possible and not to exercise outdoors.
Ø their airways are narrower, making
inflammation effects worse;
Ø they breathe more air per pound of body
weight than adults; and
Ø they spend more time outdoors,
especially in seasons when
ozone is worst.
Many medical studies show a link
between higher ozone levels and increased
hospital admissions and emergency room visits
for respiratory distress. Most effects of ozone
are short-term and associated with higher
exposure, but long-term exposure appears to be
a serious concern that is being studied by the
medical community.
Particulate Matter (PM)
What Is It? A potentially deadly pollutant,
PM is a “grab-bag” of pollutants that includes
small, solid particles (soot), gas and liquid
chemicals, and aerosols. Larger soot particles
that we can see are not as dangerous as the very
small ones we can’t see.
How Is it Formed? Larger particles typically
include substances like wind-blown dust from
vehicles or agricultural activity. Particles formed
by burning coal, gasoline, oil and diesel fuels are
much smaller. Currently regulated larger PM is
referred to as PM-10. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
emissions from power plants are a primary
ingredient in PM-10 and in soon-to-be-regulated
finer particles -- PM-2.5.
Asthma - A Special Concern: Asthma is a chronic condition in which airways are constricted, resulting in labored breathing, wheezing, coughing and inflamed and swollen airways. Asthma affects about 15 million Americans. It is now the number one chronic childhood illness in the U.S. The prevalence of asthma rose 61% from 1982-1994, with a dramatic 69% rise in childhood asthma. Physician office visits for asthma rose 50% from 1980-1994 and asthma accounted for one of six emergency room visits by children in 1996. The Centers for Disease Control reports that Americans suffer more than 100 million days of restricted activity each year from asthma. Medical and lost work costs are expected to rise from $6 billion in 1990 to more than $14 billion in 2000. As noted above, Florida Medicaid spent more than $326 million in the last fiscal year to treat asthma patients in this state.
Children - five million have asthma; every two minutes a child 15 years or younger is taken to a hospital emergency room for an asthma attack. The death rate for persons under 19 years has increased 78% from 1980-1993. 10 million school days are lost each year. Air pollution is recognized as an important factor in triggering asthma episodes.
African Americans - are 26% more likely to suffer childhood asthma than whites.
Puerto Ricans - one in five children have asthma, the highest rate of any ethnic group.
While air pollution is not the underlying cause of asthma, it does worsen its frequency and intensity. EPA has estimated that 250,000 asthma cases could be eliminated by its new PM-2.5 and ozone standards.
Asthma disproportionately affects children, women, African Americans, Puerto Ricans and people living in urban areas:
What Are its Health Effects? Fine particle
pollution can kill. Thousands of deaths each
year are associated with PM pollution, even at
levels below current federal standards. The
EPA estimated that about 15,000 deaths per year
could be prevented by its new PM standards.
Fine particles are breathed deep into the
lungs and may not be expelled. Typical heath
effects include: runny or stuffy nose, sinusitis,
sore throat, wet cough, burning or red eyes,
wheezing, dry cough, phlegm, shortness of
breath, chest pain, and increased symptoms from
asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)What Is It? SO2 is an invisible gas created
when the sulfur contained in coal, oil or diesel
fuel is burned.
How Is it Produced? Roughly 70% of total
U.S. SO2 emissions are from coal-fired power
plants. In Florida, over 95% of SO2 is from
power plants. SO2 reacts chemically in the air
to form acid particles (PM), sulfuric acid, and
other sulfates -- all of which are dangerous.
What Are its Health Effects? When inhaled,
SO2 and its by-products (e.g., acid aerosols)
may cause a range of health effects. At high
levels, it can reduce lung function in healthy
people. Asthmatics, particularly children, are
very vulnerable. SO2 triggers swelling in
airways that chokes off breathing. SO2
combines to form ammonium sulfate aerosols, a
major component in fine PM pollution discussed
above.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)What Is It? NOx is a family of chemical
compounds; two principal chemicals are nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
How Is it Produced? Nitric oxide is emitted
from cars and power plants and changed in the
air to nitrogen dioxide, which is then changed to
fine particle (PM) nitrates or gaseous nitric acid.
When exposed to sunlight, NOx reacts with
other chemicals to form ozone smog.
What Are its Health Effects? NOx is a
potent pollutant by itself, and it also is an
essential component in the formation of other
dangerous pollutants. Like ozone, NOx
corrodes lung tissue. Studies show that animals
exposed to NOx are less able to fight bacterial
A SNAPSHOT OF FOUR MAJOR POLLUTANTS
EPA regulates the following four"criteria" air pollutants:
Particulate Matter, commonly known as soot, is linked to about 50,000 American deaths each year.
Sulfur dioxide, an invisible gas that poses a severe threat to asthmatics, is also the main cause of acid rain.
Ozone, or smog, literally burns holes through the cells of the lung, leaving children and adults unable to breathe normally.
Nitrogen oxides are gases formed by smokestacks and other sources that lead to formation of particulate matter and ozone and may themselves be linked to lung disease.
infections and their risk of viral infection increases.
The Electric Power ConnectionElectric utilities are required to report emissions of SO2 and NOx to EPA. The graphs below
[Figures 1-4] show the total tons and the rate at which Florida’s dirtiest dozen power plants emitted those
pollutants in 1997. While many people think only of cars as contributors to ozone, Table 1 shows that
electric utility NOx pollution is significant compared to cars. Generally, power plants exempt from the
Clean Air Act produce these pollutants at 4 to 10 times the rate of new facilities (see Figures 1-4):
The following shows how much NOx was generated by Florida’s largest electric utilities in 1997 and how many cars would produce the same NOx emissions:
Utility NOx tons/yr As much as*
FLP 56,300 2,252,000 carsFPC 59,000 2,368,000 carsGULF 18,000 720,000 carsJEA 27,800 1,112,000 carsSMNL 20,900 836,000 carsTECO 74,200 2,968,000 carsTOTAL 256,200 10,256,000 cars
*Calculation based on U.S. EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Lab figures for cars, minivans and light trucks.
Hazardous Air Pollutants
Congress, in 1990, classified more than
160 substances as hazardous air pollutants
(HAPs or air toxins) that are known to cause
irreversible and serious illness. Health effects
that may result from long-term exposure to
HAPs include birth defects, cancer, reproductive
problems, nerve disease and poisoning. Coal-
fired power plants emit many air toxins,
including arsenic, chromium, and mercury.
Oil-fired plants are also sources of nickel.
MERCURYMercury is a pollutant of great concern
because it is highly toxic and accumulates in the
body. One main way mercury gets in the human
body is through fish that people eat from lakes,
rivers and coastal
waters where mercury
has contaminated the
fish. Mercury builds
up in the food chain, from microscopic animals
to the fish we eat. Mercury is so powerful that a
20-acre lake can be contaminated by as little as
1/70th of a teaspoon of mercury. While many
foreign governments have made the phase-out of
mercury a priority, power plant emissions of
mercury are not currently monitored or regulated
in the U.S.
At high levels, mercury can disrupt
nervous, immune, hormone and enzyme
functions of human cells. Mercury can harm the
central nervous system and can result in mental
retardation and blindness in fetuses and small
children. (See Table 2 for a list of health
effects). Studies consistently find that fetuses
and children are more at risk because their
bodies and brains are still developing. Mercury
particularly affects language, attention and
memory abilities in children. People who rely
on self-caught fish for food (subsistence fishers),
recreational anglers and Native Americans are
also at high risk.
Health advisories for many waterbodies
in Florida warn pregnant women and children
from eating fish; other waterbodies also have
advisories against eating certain types of fish
from those waters or eating it more frequently
that once a week. More than 2000 miles of
rivers and 183,000 acres of lakes are under
mercury health warnings in Florida.
Human Health Effects from Mercury * Kidney damage Brain damage in unborn children Coordination problems (spasms) Stomach cramps, nausea, diarrhea Fluid in the lungs High blood pressure Low grade/intermittent fevers Redness of palms and soles Numbness or tingling Irregular heart beats Genetic abnormalities Skin irritation
* Effects not listed in any particular order
Unfortunately, most of those waterbodies have
no warning signs posted. Regional DEP offices,
state Health Department offices and the Florida
Freshwater Fish and Game Commission can
provide specific information. (See also:
http://www.state.fl.us/gfc/fishing/health.) See
Table 3 for mercury levels in commonly
consumed fish.
EPA issued a 1997 report to Congress
showing that coal-fired power plants are the
largest source of mercury air pollution in the
U.S. -- about 32% of mercury in the
environment comes from coal plants. Older coal
power plants, exempt from modern clean air
standards, generally pollute the most. EPA has
proposed to issue an information request to
electric utilities to monitor mercury in coal and
in some emissions and to report that information
publicly to EPA. Utilities strongly oppose
EPA’s request to gather that information or to
make it public.
Mercury Levels in Commonly
Consumed FishThe top 10 types of fish consumed by Americans and their average mercurycontents in micrograms per gram weight(parts per million):
Catfish 0.088 & 0.16*Clam 0.023Cod 0.121Crab 0.117Flounder 0.092Pollack 0.15Salmon 0.035
Scallop 0.042
Shrimp 0.047Tuna 0.206
The daily level considered safe by EPA is0.1 micrograms per gram weight (ppm).
Source: U.S. EPA, Mercury Report to Congress, 12/97.
*Two studies surveyed different types of catfish.
Global Warming, Power Plants and Our Health
The Earth’s climate is changing in
significant part because human activities, such
as burning coal, oil and natural gas in power
plants, are altering the chemical make-up of our
atmosphere through the build-up of “greenhouse
gases” -- carbon dioxide (CO2), methane,
nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Although there is uncertainty about exactly how
and over what time period this will happen,
climate experts are sure it is happening and
observations indicate that detectable changes are
underway. Even some major CO2 polluters like
3M, Lockheed and British Petroleum recognize
the problem and are urging action. However,
the vast majority of electric utilities still deny
global warming is real.
In the last century, average temperatures
in Florida have increased by two degrees and are
projected to increase by three to four degrees by
2100. Such seemingly small changes can make
a big difference. The frequency of extremely
hot days in summer is expected to increase; it is
likely that severe storms and huricanes may
intensify. The intense drought, fires and flood
experienced in 1998 may be examples of global
warming’s effects.
Global climate change poses serious
risks to human health. Higher temperatures may
increase heat-related deaths and illness.
Scientists recently suggested that 28 people die
in Tampa each year from heat-related causes; as
many as 68 additional deaths could occur with a
three degree temperature increase. People at
risk include the very old, the very young, and
those with pre-existing heart and lung disease.
State and federal programs will be strained to
provide assistance, including social and health
services, Medicare and Medicaid and health
insurance.
Global warming is likely to increase
incidents of infectious diseases carried by
insects and rodents (vectors). Potential diseases
include encephalitis, hantavirus, malaria and
dengue fever. Populations at risk for
encephalitis include rural residents, outdoor
recreationists, and outdoor workers.
Government programs involved include vector
control programs, social and health services,
Medicare and Medicaid and health insurance.
Sea water warming and sea level rise are
already occurring and increased cases of marine-
borne disease, such as from algal blooms, are
also probable. Populations at risk include
coastal residents, marine sport fishermen and
commercial fishermen. Government programs
strained will include food inspection programs,
social and health services, Medicare and
Medicaid and health insurance.
Finally, increases in extreme weather
events like drought, flood and intense
hurricanes, can be expected. Populations at risk
include coastal residents, the elderly, the very
young, the poor and those without access to
health care. Government programs involved
will include disaster relief funds, social and
health services, Medicare and Medicaid and
health insurance.
Florida’s electric utilities produced
more than 120 million tons of carbon dioxide
in 1997 alone. Old coal-fired power plants
cause the lion’s share of the problem. The graph
below shows total tons released into the air by
Florida’s worst CO2 emitters. (See Fig.5.)
Florida’s rapidly growing population
and a trend toward increased consumer use of
electricity are increasing CO2 emissions.
However, Florida could decrease CO2 emissions
significantly by reducing reliance on old,
inefficient coal power plants. Even better,
Florida has an
abundance of
solar energy
from the sun
that remains
untapped.
Florida cities and counties participating
in a federally-sponsored Cities for Climate
Change program include: Broward ,
Hillsborough, Miami-Dade, Orange, and
Sarasota Counties and Miami Beach, Riviera
Beach, and Tampa. This program is aimed at
acting locally to slow the Earth’s warming and
to improve local air quality and livability. If
you live in one of the participating cities or
counties, contact their environmental office to
find out what they are doing.
SolutionsFortunately, Florida is in a unique
position to benefit from energy efficiency and
from the use of clean energy technologies such
as solar energy. Floridians spend more than $20
billion a year on fuels. 2 None of that fuel is
produced in-state, which means our fuel dollars
spent to run power plants have few, if any, local
economic benefits.
State policies supporting solar energy
resources and energy efficiency are on the
books, but are not being seriously pursued.
Electric companies and government decision
makers do not consider the substantial health
costs of our current energy choices. Some states
put an actual dollar value on pollution damage
and consideration is being given in other states
to pollution taxes in place of real property or
sales taxes.
Meanwhile, Florida residents have some
of the highest average monthly electricity bills
in the nation because of our almost exclusive
dependence on electricity to run our homes and
businesses. Aggressive use of energy efficiency
measures could significantly reduce the amount
of electric energy Floridians use. Bringing clean
energy technology manufacturers and energy
2This includes gasoline for vehicles, natural gas, oil, coal and nuclear materials for power plants. Slightly less than half goes for generation of electricity.
efficiency services to Florida could create 2-5
times the number of jobs as power plants for
each unit of energy produced or saved and could
move Florida into the 21st century using clean
renewable energy sources. We could not only
grow our domestic market for solar
technologies, but are well suited to serve as the
export center to growing world markets in the
Caribbean, Latin America and Africa.
Renewable energy technologies could
help Florida meet state air quality goals. In
addition, Florida could reduce its health care
costs and the damage that pollution causes to all
its citizens - particularly those most vulnerable.
Public health, medical and other health-related
professions need to be more aware of the full
implications of air pollution to good health and,
in turn, help to educate others. All citizens need
to demand more healthful air and energy
choices.
Conclusions
Recommendations
« Clean up old, dirty power plants. By the year 2000, all plants must meet modern emission standards for nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide currently met by newer power plants (1.5 lbs per megawatt hour for NOx and 3.0 lbs per megawatt hour for SO2).
« Set strict limits on emissions of mercury for all power plants. Currently, there are no limits on power plant emissions of mercury. Power plants should be required to reduce mercury emissions significantly.
« Set strict limits on emissions of carbon dioxide for all power plants. Currently, there are currently no limits on power plant emissions of CO2. Standards are needed to require power plants to reduce CO2 emissions to a level consistent with a cautious approach to global warming.
« Ensure that any electric industry restructuring encourages "green power." Any move towards retail competition at the federal level must include mechanisms to ensure deployment of clean, renewable resources and energy efficiency technologies.
«
We must eliminate the loophole
exploited by Florida’s old fossil plants for too
many years and encourage cost-effective
solutions to meet new clean air standards.
Utilities can take steps at each old dirty plant to
come into compliance with modern standards.
Pollution control equipment, fuel-switching to
relatively cleaner natural gas and retiring
obsolete units are options. If all old plants,
nationwide, are held to the same standard, none
will have the "dirty is cheap" advantage and all
Floridians will have a healthier future.
In order to reduce harmful power plant
pollution and remove unfair subsidies that keep
cleaner energy resources from being used,
federal policy makers must resolve to end the
clean air loophole subsidy given to older power
plants. New power plants must meet
performance standards that are four to ten times
stricter than old plants. It's time to put "term
limits" on the loopholes and phase them out
quickly.
The health damage and health care costs
associated with air pollution from old power
plants are unacceptable. Citizens armed with
information can demand that changes be made
to ensure our air is safe to breathe. Citizens and
government must continue to expand efforts to
encourage clean energy technologies like solar
energy and energy efficiency alternatives to
dirty “dinosaur” power supplies. We need to
make sure these dinosaurs become extinct so
that we won’t!
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Burt, Catharine & Knapp, Donna, “Ambulatory Care Visits for Asthma: U.S. 1993-94,” 277, Centers for Disease Control, 9/27/96.
Dickey, Jefferson, MD, Health Effects of Ozone and NOx, unpublished draft, July 1998.
Dickey, Jefferson, MD, “No Room to Breathe: Particulate Air Pollution and Excess Mortality,” nd.
Dockery, Douglas, et al., “An Association between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities,” New England Journal of Medicine, v. 329, pp. 1753-9, 1993.
Health Effects of Ground-Level Ozone, Acid Aerosols and Particulate Matter, Ontario Medical Assn. May 1998.
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Health Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution, American Lung Assn. 1996.
Korrick, Susan, et al., “Effects of Ozone and Other Pollutants on the Pulmonary Function of Adult Hikers,” 106 Environmental Health Perspectives 2, 2/98.
Moore, Curtis, Dying Needlessly: Sickness & Death Due to Energy-Related Air Pollution, Univ. Of Maryland, REPP Issue Brief, 2/97.
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