TableofContents
TitlePageCopyrightPageAcknowledgementsDedicationForewordIntroduction
TheSilentServiceBuildingtheBoatsTheBoat:ATourofUSSMiami(SSN-755)TheBritishBoats:ATourofHMSTriumph(S-93)RolesandMissionsTheEndofHistory:SubmarinesinthePost-ColdWarWorldOtherPeople'sSubmarines
GlossaryBibliography
"Takesreadersdeeperthanthey'veevergoneinsideanuclearsubmarine."--KirkusReviews
ArareglimpseinsideaLosAngeles-class(SSN-688)nuclearsubmarine...
withTomClancyasyourguide.
OnlytheauthorofTheHuntforRedOctobercouldcapturetherealityoflifeaboardanuclearsubmarine.OnlyawriterofMr.Clancy'smagnitudecouldobtainsecurityclearanceforinformation,diagrams,andphotographstoofferthepublicatrueinsider'sview.Now,everyciviliancanenterthistop-secretworldandexperiencethedramaandexcitementofthisstunningtechnologicalachievement...theweapons,theprocedures,thepeoplethemselves...thestartlingfactsbehindthefictionthatmadeTomClancya#1bestsellingauthor.
ALSOINCLUDESMATERIALONSEAWOLF-ANDVIRGINIA-CLASSSUBMARINES
SUBMARINEincludes:
*Exclusivephotographs,illustrations,anddiagrams*Mockwarscenariosandweapons-launchprocedures*Aninsidelookatlifeonboard,fromcaptaintocrew,fromtrainingexercisestooperations
*Thefascinatinghistoryandevolutionofsubmarines
PLUS:TomClancy'scontroversialviewsonsubmarinertacticsandtrainingmethods
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Fordetails,write:SpecialMarkets,TheBerkleyPublishingGroup,375HudsonStreet,NewYork,NewYork10014.
NovelsbyTomClancy
THEHUNTFORREDOCTOBERREDSTORMRISINGPATRIOTGAMES
THECARDINALOFTHEKREMLINCLEARANDPRESENTDANGER
THESUMOFALLFEARSWITHOUTREMORSEDEBTOFHONOR
EXECUTIVEORDERSRAINBOWSIX
THEBEARANDTHEDRAGON
SSN:STRATEGIESOFSUBMARINEWARFARE
Nonfiction
SUBMARINE:AGUIDEDTOURINSIDEANUCLEARWARSHIPARMOREDCAV:AGUIDEDTOUROFANARMORED
CAVALRYREGIMENTFIGHTERWING:AGUIDEDTOUROFANAIRFORCE
COMBATWINGMARINE:AGUIDEDTOUROFAMARINEEXPEDITIONARY
UNITAIRBORNE:AGUIDEDTOUROFANAIRBORNETASKFORCE
CARRIER:AGUIDEDTOUROFANAIRCRAFTCARRIERSPECIALFORCES:AGUIDEDTOUROFU.S.ARMYSPECIAL
FORCES
INTOTHESTORM:ASTUDYINCOMMAND(writtenwithGeneralFredFranks)
EVERYMANATIGER(writtenwithGeneralCharlesHorner)
SHADOWWARRIORS:INSIDETHESPECIALFORCES(writtenwithGeneralCharlesStiner,Ret.,andTonyKoltz)
CreatedbyTomClancyandStevePieczenik
TOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTERTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:MIRRORIMAGETOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:GAMESOFSTATETOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:ACTSOFWAR
TOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:BALANCEOFPOWERTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:STATEOFSIEGE
TOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:DIVIDEANDCONQUERTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:LINEOFCONTROLTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:MISSIONOFHONOR
TOMCLANCY'SNETFORCETOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:HIDDENAGENDASTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:NIGHTMOVES
TOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:BREAKINGPOINTTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:POINTOFIMPACTTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:CYBERNATIONTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:STATEOFWAR
CreatedbyTomClancyandMartinGreenberg
TOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:POLITIKATOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:RUTHLESS.COMTOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:SHADOWWATCH
TOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:BIO-STRIKETOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:COLDWAR
TOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:CUTTINGEDGE
ABerkleyBookPublishedbyTheBerkleyPublishingGroupAdivisionofPenguinGroup(USA)Inc.
375HudsonStreetNewYork,NewYork10014
Theviewsandopinionsexpressedinthisbookareentirelythoseoftheauthor,anddonotnecessarilycorrespondwiththoseofanycorporation,navy,or
governmentorganizationofanycountry.
Copyright(c)1993,2002byJackRyanEnterprises,Ltd.PublishedbyarrangementwithJackRyanEnterprises,Ltd.
Allrightsreserved.Thisbook,orpartsthereof,maynotbereproducedinanyformwithout
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PRINTINGHISTORYBerkleytradepaperbackedition/November1993Berkleyrevisedmass-marketedition/January2002Berkleyrevisedtradepaperbackedition/May2003
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Clancy,Tom,1947-Submarine:aguidedtourinsideanuclearwarship/TomClancy;writtenwith
JohnGresham.--Berkleyrev.tradepbk.ed.p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences.eISBN:978-1-101-00258-2
1.Nuclearsubmarines.I.Gresham,John.II.Title.
V857.5.C552003623.8'2574--dc21
2002044074
http://us.penguingroup.com
Theauthorgratefullyacknowledgespermissionforuseofthefollowingmaterials:
PhotographsprovidedbytheBritishRoyalNavy,(c)BritishCrowncopyright1993/MOD,reproducedwiththepermissionoftheControllerofHerBritanicMajesty'sStationeryOffice;allrightsreserved;
PhotographsprovidedbytheNewsPhotoDivisionoftheUnitedStatesNavy;allrightsreserved;
PhotographsprovidedbyJohnD.Gresham;allrightsreserved;
PhotographsprovidedbytheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorporation;allrightsreserved;
ForewordcourtesyofR.F.Bacon,copyright(c)1993byR.F.Bacon;allrightsreserved.
Thisbookisdedicatedtothefamilies,friends,andlovedonesofsubmariners,
whoreturnthatlove,aswellastheirloveofGodandcountry,bygoingdownintotheseainsteelboats.
Acknowledgments
Thereisapopularquotethatsays"Failureisanorphan...butsuccesshasmanyfathers."Ifthisbookandtheseriesthatitstartsturnouttobeasuccess,itwillbeduetothevisionandsupportofagreatmanypeoplethroughoutthedefenseandpublishingcommunities.Firstthereistheteamthathelpedmeputittogether.Inthefallof1987,IwasintroducedtoadefensesystemsanalystnamedJohnD.Gresham.Overtheyears,wehavehadmanylivelydiscussions,andwhilewemaynotalwaysagree,thedisagreementsalwayswerethoughtfulandinsightful.Thus,IwaspleasedwhenJohnagreedtoworkwithmeasaresearcherandconsultantonthisproject.BackingupJohnandmewasMartinH.Greenberg,theserieseditor.Marty'ssupportinconceivingthisbookandtheseries,aswellashisguidanceoftheentireproject,havebeenvital.LauraAlpher,theseriesillustrator,createdthewonderfuldrawingsthatresideinthesepages.ThanksalsogotoLieutenantCommanderChristopherCarlson,USNR,BrianHewitt,CindiWoodrum,DianaPatin,andRosalindGreenbergfortheirtirelessworkinallthethingsthatmakethisbookwhatitis.
Whenwestartedthisbook,popularopinionaroundthePentagonwasthatitcouldnotbedone.Ifanyonepersonchangedthat,itwasViceAdmiralRogerBacon,USN(Ret.).AsOP-02,hewasinstrumentalinopeningupthesubmarinecommunitytothepressandthepublicforthefirsttimesincenuclearsubsstartedoperating.Ourspecialthanksgotohim.Inaddition,RearAdmiralThomasRyan,USN(N-87),aswellasRearAdmiralsFredGustavson,USN,andRaymondJones,USN,allprovidedhigh-levelsupport.LieutenantsJeffDurandandNickConnallydidyeomanworkandtolerateddozensofill-timedphonecalls.IntheOfficeofNavyInformation,
LieutenantsDonThomasandBobRossjustkeptfindingwaystomakeithappen.SpecialthankstoRussEgnor,PatToombs,ChiefPettyOfficerJayDavid-son,andthestaffoftheNavyStillPhotoBranchforalltheirtoleranceandsupport.
UpatGroton,Connecticut,wewanttothankLieutenantCommanderRuthNoonan,USN,oftheSUBGRU-2publicaffairsofficeforherguidanceduringourvisit.AllaroundthebaseatGroton,theoperatorsofthevarioustrainersaretobethankedforallowingustotakepartinanumberoftrainingexercises.Thanksalsoshouldgotothepersonnelandstudentsofthesubmarineschool.AlsoatGroton,wewishtothankCommanderLarryDavis,USN,andthecrewoftheUSSGroton,whoopenedtheirboatuptous,despiteitsbeingtornopenformodificationsandweaponsloading.AndtoCommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN,andhiscrewonUSSMiami,wepaythecomplimentofcallingyou"razors."FromonesideoftheAtlantictotheother,thoseyouhavefacedinexerciseshaveonlyonethingtosay:"Whowerethoseguys?"ThanksalsotothecrewsofUSSGreenlingandUSSGatoforsharingtheirvaluabletrainingperiodswithus.
OneofthegreatpleasuresofdoingthisbookwastheopportunitytorekindleourfriendshipwiththefinefolksofHerMajesty'sNavy.RearAdmiralPaulFere,RN,andCommodoreRogerLane-Nott,RN,aretobethankedfortheirsponsorshipofourproject.HereinAmerica,ourwaywaspavedbyRearAdmiralHoddinott,RN,CommanderNickHarris,RN,andLeadingWRENsTraceyBarberandSarahClarke.AttheMinistryofDefence,CommandersIanHewitt,RN,andDuncanFergeson,RN,helpedgetustothemanyplaceswevisited.Mr.AmbroseMooreofthefleetpublicrelationsofficeinNorthwoodistobethankedforhisservicesastourguidetobasesintheU.K.WewouldalsoliketoextendourthankstothecrewofHMSRepulse,whoallowedusabriefvisitintotheworldoftheSSBNforce.Andfinally,ourwarmestthanksgotoCommander
DavidVaughan,RN,andthecrewofHMSTriumphfortheircourtesyandfriendshipoverseveralvisits.HerMajestycanbeproudofDavidandhismen,fortheyhavethesamestoutheartsasDrake,Nelson,andVian.
UpinNewYork,ourthankstoRobertGottliebandthestaffatWilliamMorris.AndatBerkleyBooks,weoweaspecialdebttooureditor,JohnTalbot.ThanksalsotoRogerCooperforhispatienceandsupportofourwork.OurpersonalthanksgotooldfriendsCaptainsDougLittleJohns,RN,andJamesPerowne,RN.ThanksalsotoRonThunman,JoeMetcalf,andCarlisleTrostforsharingtheirwisdomandexperiences.AndtoNedBeach,whotaughtusallto"runsilent...andrundeep."Andlastly,ourlovetoourfamiliesandfriends,whotolerateourtimeawayfromthem,sothatwemighttellourstoriestotheworld.
Foreword
ThetransformationofTomClancy'swonderfulfictionalaccountofsubmarininginTheHuntforRedOctobertotherealityofactualmodernnuclearsubmarinecapabilitiesandoperationsislongoverdue.Nowhebringsauniqueaccountofthenuclear-poweredsubmarine,avitalcomponentofnavalpower,tothepublicforthefirsttime.Thisbookexplainstheworldofunderseawarfare,fromhowpeoplelivewithinasteeltubeformonthsatatime,tothemanyarrowsasubmarineputsinthequiverofnationalmilitarypower.
Twiceinthiscenturysubmarinewarfarehasthreatenedtheexistenceofmajorpowers.Submarineshavealwaysbeenaflexibleandadaptablenationalasset,capableofmanyrolesandmissions.ThesubmarinesofWorldWarIandIIhadsomeinherentstealthandcouldsubmergetoconductattacks,butthispropertywaslimitedbyalackofsustainedpowerwhileunderthesea'ssurface.Theadventofnuclearpropulsionmadethesubmarineatrulystealthyplatform.Aso-calledstealthaircraftcanstillbeseenbythenakedeye.Anuclear-poweredsubmarineistrulyinvisibleandnotreadilydetectable.Itistheoriginalstealthmachineandcanremainundetectedindefinitely.Fromthisenduringcovertnessspringstheawesomepowerofthemodernsubmarine.Throughtheadvancesofballisticandcruisemissiletechnologythestrategicnucleardeterrencemissionandlandattackcapabilityhavebecomeanintegralpartofthismilitarypower.Fordecadestheprincipalmissionofasubmarinehasbeentosinkshipsandsubmarines.Today,thenuclear-poweredsubmarine'sabilitytoaffecteventsonlandisoneofitsdominantfeatures.
WithTomClancyasourtourguide,letusviewthesubmarine'shistory,itsmissions,thepeopleandtheirfamilies,thetraining,the
boatitselfwithallitscompartmentsandsystems,andconsiderwhatthesecando.Ifyouspendyearsonthebridgeofasubmarine,asIhave,youwillnoticehowthedolphinsthat"ride"thecrestoftheexhilaratinglybeautifulbowwavealongthetear-shapedsubmarinehulldosoatdifferentpositionsfordifferentclassesorshapesofsubmarines.Why?Ihavealwayswondered.Thistouryouareabouttotakewillcomeclosetoansweringsuchquestions,whichareinherenttothemystiqueofasubmarine.
Imaynotagreewithallofthepointspresentherein,butIdobelievethatuponcompletionofyourtouryouwillunderstandwhythesubmarineistheonlynavalplatformthatcombinesstealth,surprise,survivability,mobility,andenduranceinasingleunit.Theemploymentofthesecharacteristicsprovidesanationwithaformidablemaritimepower,whichshouldbeunderstoodbythepublic.
--ViceAdmiralRogerBacon,USNDeputyChiefofNavalOperationsforUnderseaWarfareJanuary1993
Introduction
Submarine.Theverywordimpliesstealthanddeadliness.Ofalltheconventionalweaponsusedbytheworld'sarmedforcesthesedays,noneismoreeffectiveordangerousthanthenuclearattacksubmarine(SSN).SinceitscreationintheUnitedStatessomefortyyearsago,theSSNhasbecomethemostfearedweaponintheoceansoftheworld.ThemodernSSNisastealthplatformwith70percentoftheworld'ssurfaceunderwhichtohide,itsendurancedeterminednotbyfuelbutbytheamountoffoodthatmaybecrammedintothehull,anditsoperationallimitationsdeterminedmorebytheskillofthecommanderandcrewthanbyexternalfactors.
Understandingthecapabilitiesofthemodernnuclear-poweredattacksubmarinerequiresacertainsophisticationonthepartofbothapotentialadversaryandavisitor.Visually,asubmarineistheleastimpressiveofphysicalartifacts.Itshulldoesnotbristlewithweaponsandsensorsasdosurfacewarships,andforonetoseeitsimposingbulk,itmustbeindrydock.Onthoseraremomentswhenasubmarineisvisible,thismostlethalofshipsappearsnomorethreateningthanahugeseaturtle.Yetdespitethat,thetruecapabilitiesofthemodernSSNaremosteasilyunderstoodintermsofmythorthemodernequivalent,asciencefictionmovie.Hereisacreaturethat,likeRidleyScott's"Alien,"appearswhenitwishes,destroyswhatitwishes,anddisappearsimmediatelytostrikeagainwhenitwishes.Defenseagainstsuchathreatrequiresconstantvigilance,andeventhen,thiswillbeineffectivemuchofthetime.Thustherealimpactofthenuclearsubmarineisasmuchpsychologicalasphysical.
InApril1982,theMondayafterArgentina'sseizureoftheFalklandIslands,IhappenedtohavelunchwithasubmarineofficerandsogotmyfirsthintofwhatanSSNcoulddo.TheRoyalNavy,myfriend
toldme,wouldverysoondeclarethatoneofitsboatswasintheareaofthedisputedrocks.Noonewouldbeabletodisputetheclaim,which,myfriendwenton,wouldprobablybefalse."Buttheonlywayyouknowforsurethatasubisoutthereiswhenshipsstartdisappearing,andthat'sanexpensivewaytofindout."Thisispreciselywhathappened,ofcourse.ThemerepossibilitythattheRoyalNavyhadoneormoreofitssuperblycommandedSSNsintheareaimmediatelyforcedArgentinatoreevaluateitsposition,andtheArgentineanNavy,aleadplayerinthedecisiontoseizetheislands,wassoonrenderedimpotentbyitsinabilitytoconfirm,deny,ordealwiththemerepossibilitythatanSSNmightbelurkinginthearea.
Asapracticalmatter,theFalklandIslandsWarwasdeterminedatthatpoint.Ownershipofanyislandisdeterminedbycontroloftheseasaroundit,andArgentinacouldnotcontrolthesea.TheRoyalNavy'sSSNspreventedthat,thefirststepintheRN'scampaigntoestablishitsownsea-controlposture,makingasuccessfulinvasionpossible.ThesinkingofthecruiserGeneralBelgranowastheunnecessaryconfirmationofwhatshouldhavebeenobvious.Whilethenuclear-poweredattacksubmarinemaynotbethemostusefulwarshipintheworldsinceitcannotperformeverytraditionalnavymission,itcandenyanadversarytheabilitytoexecuteanymissionatsea.
"Herebemonsters,"thechartsofancientmarinersusedtosay.Theyweren'trightthen,butcurrentcharts,especiallythoseonsurfacewarships,mightprofitablybemarkedtoshowthatoutsidethethirty-fathomcurve,yes,therebemonsters.Nuclear-poweredmonsters.
TheSilentService
EarlyHistory
Whentracingtherootsofthemodernsubmarine,oneisusuallyfacedwithanumberofdifferentplacestostart.LegendhasitthatAlexandertheGreatdescendedintotheoceanin332B.C.nearthecityofTyre,inaprimitivedivingbell.ThegreatmindofLeonardodaVinciissaidtohavecreatedaprimitivesubmersibleboatofwoodenframedesigncoveredingoatskins,withoarsprovidingpropulsionthroughwaterproofsweeps.ABritishcontributiontoearlysubmarineconceptscameinthelate1500sfromWilliamBourne,acarpenterandgunmaker.Itincludedtheconceptofdoublehullconstruction,aswellasballastandtrimsystems.ThefirstconceptforamilitarysubmarinecamefromaDutchphysicist,CorneliusvanDrebbel.Inadditiontoactuallybuildinganddemonstratingaprimitivesubmersible,heproposedadesignspecificallycreatedtodestroyotherships.
ItwastheUnitedStates(albeitstillcoloniesinrebellion)thatcreatedthefirstworkablemilitarysubmarinedesign.In1776,aYaleUniversitystudentnamedDavidBushnelldesignedtheappropriatelynamedTurtle.TheTurtlewasanegg-shapedsubmersibleboatthathadtheabilitytosneakuponaship,submergeundertheintendedvictim,boreadrillbitwithawaterprooftimebombattachedintothebottomofthehull,andescapebeforethebombwasdetonatedbyaclockworkfuse.Itwaspropelledbyahand-crankedscrew,andhadroomforoneoverworkedcrewman.
OnthenightofSeptember6,1776,SergeantEzraLeeoftheContinentalArmytooktheTurtletoattackHMSEagleoftheBritish
squadronblockadingBoston.Butwhenhemaneuveredunderneath,hewasunabletoattachhisbomb.Duringhisescape,hewasfollowedbyBritishsoldiersinarowboat.Frantic,hereleasedthebomb,which2explodedliterallyinthefacesofhispursuers.Thoughallpartiesescapedunhurt,itwasapromisingstarttothemodernmilitarysubmarine.
Thisearlysubmarine,theTurtle,wasusedin1776bytheContinentalArmytoattacktheHMSEagleoftheBritishblockadesquadronoutsideofBoston.
JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
AmoresubstantiveadvancewastheNautilus,designedbytheAmericanRobertFulton,whowouldgoontodesignthefirststeamboat.TheNautiluswasadistinctimprovementovertheTurtleinthatitcruisedundertheintendedvictim,towingtheexplosivebombortorpedo,asitwasthencalled,untilthebombcontactedthetargetanddetonatedwithacontactfuse.Thedesignwasanexceptionalsuccess,destroyinganumberoftargetvesselsintestruns.TheFrench,whoweresufficientlyimpressedtoawardFultonacontract,actuallyconsideredforatimeusingitintheplannedinvasionofBritain.By1804FultonwasdemonstratingtheboattotheBritish,whodespisedtheideaforitsunderhandednatureand,moreimportantly,itspotentialtosweepBritishshipsfromcoastalzones.Intheend,FultonreturnedtoAmericatobeginworkonhissteamboats.
TheCSSHunley,thefirstsubmarinetosinkanenemywarship,theUSSHousatonic,in1864.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ItremainedfortheAmericanstocreateasubmarinethatwouldactuallysinkanenemyvesselinwartime.In1863asubmersibleboat
wasdesignedbyConfederatearmyofficerHoraceHunley.Hisboat,theCSSH.L.Hunley,waspropelledbyeightmenturningahand-crankedpropeller.Forarmament,anexplosivemineortorpedowassecuredtoalongsparprotrudingoutinfrontoftheHunley.TheideawasfortheHunleytoramthespartorpedointothesideofatargetship,whereitwouldbedetonated.
UnfortunatelytheHunleywasdifficulttohandle,andseveralcrews,alongwithherdesigner,werekilledduringtestdives.NeverthelessonOctober17,1864,theHunleyattackedtheUnionsteamcorvetteHousatonicintheharboratCharleston,SouthCarolina.IntheensuingattacktheHunleysanktheHousatonic,althoughsheherselfwasalsosunk.Asubmarinehadfinallydrawnbloodincombat.
OverthenextfourdecadesanumberofdifferentsubmarinedesignsevolvedinvariousEuropeancountries.Inthe1880sareallypracticaldesignwasbuiltinAmericabyanIrishimmigrant,JohnHolland.OriginallybackedbytheFenianSociety(anearlyNorthAmericanfreeIrelandsociety),itwasdesignedtoallowIrishseparatiststoattackunitsoftheBritishfleet.In1900HollandwonasubmarinedesigncompetitionheldbytheU.S.Navy.FromthiscontractcametheUSSHolland(SS-1),thefirstpracticalcombatsubmarine.TheHollandincludedsuchinnovativefeaturesasself-propelledtorpedoesfiredfromareloadabletube,abattery-poweredelectricmotorforsubmergedoperations,andanadvancedhullshapetoallowittomoveefficientlythroughtheseas.ThedesignwassosuccessfulthattheU.S.NavyeventuallyboughtatotalofsevenHolland-designedboats.Ironically,theBritishevenboughtsomeoftheHollandboatsfortheRoyalNavy.Holland'scompany,theElectricBoatCompany,continuestobuildsubmarinesaspartofGeneralDynamicsCorporation.
GermansubmarineU-58alongsideUSSFanning(DD-37)tohavehercrewremovedafterbeingforcedtosurfaceNovember17,1917.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
WorldWarI
TheperiodbeforeWorldWarIsawanumberofinnovationsinmilitarysubmarines.Thisincludedthedevelopmentofdieselengines,improvedperiscopesandtorpedoes,andthedevelopmentofwirelesstechnology,whichallowedthemtobedirectedfromshorebases.WithinamonthoftheoutbreakofWorldWarI,theGermanUnterseebootfleet,orU-boatsastheycametobecalled,weresinkingBritishnavalunitsintheNorthSea.Inonewell-knownincidenttheelderlyU-9sankthreeBritisharmoredcruisers,causingover1,400
casualties.Throughoutthewar,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowerstookatollofeachother'swarships,especiallyintheGallipoliCampaignintheDardanelles.
DuringWorldWarItheGermansconsistentlyledtheworldintheproductionofnewU-boats.ButtheinternationalrulesconcerningattacksonmerchantshipskepttheGermansfromfullyutilizingtheirpotential.Germanyfearedthatunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare,withthepracticeofnotwarningthevictim,mightbringtheUnitedStatesintothewar.By1915theneedtoisolateBritainfromhersourcesofwarsuppliescausedKaiserWilhelmtodeclareunrestrictedsubmarinewarfareanactivepolicy.SoonGermansubmarinesweretakingahugetollofmerchantshippingandthreateningtowinthewaragainstBritainallontheirown.ButaftertheoceanlinerLusitaniawassunkbyU-20in1915,theUnitedStatesenteredthewaronthesideoftheAllies.ItwouldtaketwomoreyearsfortheAlliestowinthewarandbeatbacktheU-boatthreat.
SoimportantwasthesubmarineinWorldWarIthatawholenewformofnavalconflict,antisubmarinewarfare(ASW),wasborn.FromitcametechniquessuchastheconvoyandtheQ-ship(armedmerchantdecoy),aswellasweaponsandsensorssuchastheantisubmarinedetector(ASDIC/sonar),andthedepthcharge.AndsodeadlyhadtheU-boatsbeenthatGermanywasspecificallybannedfromhavingthemundertheTreatyofVersailles.ThevictorsofWorldWarIsplituptheremainingU-boatsforexaminationandtesting.ThatmighthavebeentheendofmilitarysubmarinesexceptthattheseedsofWorldWarIIwerecontainedintheTreatyofVersailles,andthemilitarysubmarinewouldcontinuetodevelop.
WorldWarII
Duringtheperiodbetweentheworldwars,submarinedevelopmentcontinuedatasteadypace.IntheUnitedStatesandBritaineffortswereconcentratedonthecreationoflong-range"fleet"submarinesdesignedtosupportthebattlefleets,whilenationssuchasJapan,Russia,andItalydevelopedsubmarinesmoreforcoastaldefense.OnceAdolfHitlerhadrisentopower,GermanysecretlybegantorebuilditsdreadedfleetofU-boats,indirectviolationoftheTreatyofVersailles.BythebeginningofWorldWarII,anumberofimprovementsweremadetothesubmarinesthemselves,suchastorpedoeswithmagneticfusesandsonars,andevensmallradarsets.AndinGermany,theUnitedStates,andEngland,navalleadershadevolvedveryspecificplansonhowtobestusetheseimprovements.
Bytheoutbreakofwarin1939,GermanyhaddeployedhersmallfleetofU-boatsatsea.Withinhours,theU-30sanktheoceanlinerAthena,signalinganotherroundofunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare.Withinafewweeksoftheopeningofhostilities,theU-boatshadsunkanumberofBritishwarshipsandmerchantvessels.TheBritishrespondedwithaseriesofpatrolsbytheirownfleetofsubmarines,damagingseveralGermancruisersandsinkingseveralU-boats.Inaddition,mindfulofthedamageinflicteduponmerchantshippinginWorldWarI,theBritishimmediatelyinstitutedasystemoftransatlanticconvoysandbegantobuilduptheirASWforces.ButGermanfortunessoaredwiththecaptureofFranceandNorwayin1940,andoncetheseprizeshadbeenwon,U-boatscouldbebasedmuchclosertotheconvoylanessupplyingBritain.TheBattleoftheAtlanticwasonandwouldnotbecompletelydecideduntiltheendofthewarin1945.
U-185sinkingbythesternafterbeingbombedbyplanesfromUSSCore(CVE-13)inthecentralAtlanticonAugust24,1943.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
TheBattleoftheAtlanticwasabattleofstatistics:tonnageandnumbersofshipssunkversusnumbersofU-boatsavailableandsunk.ForAdmiralKarlDonitz,theGermanU-boatcommander,itwasabattletogetthegreatestnumberofU-boatspossibleoutontotheconvoyroutes.Todothisheimplementedwhatwerecalledwolfpacktactics,settingalargenumber(tentofifteen)ofU-boatsontoa
convoyallatthesametime.Forawhile,particularlyduring1941and1942,thetacticsworked.NolessafigurethanSirWinstonChurchillwasreportedtohavesaid,"TheonlythingthattrulyworriedmewastheU-boatmenace."Hehadmuchtobeworriedabout,forAdmiralDonitz'sU-boatforcealmostwonthewarbystarvingGreatBritainintosubmission.
USSBarb(SS-220),aWorldWarIIU.S.fleetsubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
TheBritishfoughtbackthough,usingadvancedtacticsandequipmentsuchasradar,escortcorvettes,andfrigates,anddevelopingthesmallescortcarrier.
Inaddition,theBritishhadtheultimatesecretweapon,Ultra.UltrawastheBritishprogramtopenetrateGermancommandcommunications,protectedbytheEnigmaciphersystem.Earlyinthewar,withvaluablecontributionsfromthePolesandtheFrench,Englandbegantoreadanever-growingflowofGermanmessages.By1941,throughacombinationofincredibletechnicalanalysisandoutrighttheftofGermancipherkeybooksandcapturedEnigmaequipment,theBritishwereabletoreadvirtuallyeverymessagesentandreceivedbytheU-boats.UltraallowedtheBritishtoroutetheirconvoysaroundknownwolfpacksandtostartaggressivelyhuntingtheU-boatswithaircraftandso-calledhunter-killergroups.By1943thebalancehadturneddecisivelyinfavoroftheAllies.DespiteanumberofGermaninnovationssuchasthesnorkel,homingtorpedoes,andantisonarcoatings,thebattlewaseventuallywonbytheAllies.
InthePacific,submarinesactuallywonamajorcampaignagainstmerchantshipping.InDecember1941ImperialJapaninitiatedawarofconquestagainsttheAllies.Atthestart,thingswentverypoorlyfortheUnitedStates.WithmostoftheirbattleshipforcesunkoroutofactionafterthebombingofPearlHarbor,theonlywaytheAmericanscouldstrikebackwaswiththeirwell-developedforceoffleetsubmarines.Ittookawhiletogetrolling,especiallywheneighteenmonthswereneededtorepairaseriesoffaultswiththeAmericanMark14torpedoanditsmagneticfuse,butbylate1943theAmericansubswerebeginningtomakearealdifferenceintheamountofmaterialgettingtoJapan'swarindustries.UnderthecommandofAdmiralCharlesLockwood,theAmericanboatswerestartingtostarveJapanintosubmission.Inaddition,theyweretakinganincreasingtollofJapanesewarships.
Bytheendofthewarin1945,AmericanfleetsubshadsunkaboutathirdofalltheJapanesewarshipsdestroyed,andoverhalfofthemerchantships.Thesesuccessesdidnotcomewithoutcost.Overfifty
U.S.boatshadtheirepitaphwritteninthewords"overdueandpresumedlost."AlongwiththeboatswentsomeoftheverybestoftheU.S.skippers,menlike"Mush"MortonofUSSWahoo,"Sam"DealeyofUSSHarder,andHowardC.GilmoreofUSSGrowler.OveralltheU.S.submarineforceshadthehighestpercentageoflossesofanybranchoftheU.S.Navy.TheAmericansubforcesquietlypaidinbloodandboatsfortheirvictory,andearnedforthemselvesanicknamethatwouldstick:thesilentservice.
TheEarlyColdWarYears
AlmostassoonastheAllieswontheirvictoryovertheAxispowers,anotherconflict,moresinisterincharacter,startedupbetweentheSovietUnionanditsformeralliesinthewest.DuringthewartheRussianshadbuilttheworld'slargestforceofsubmarines.WiththecomingofwhatcametobeknownastheColdWar,theycontinuedtobuildevenfurther.Forthenextforty-fiveyearsthewesternallies,formedintoNATO,livedindeathlyfearthattheUSSRwouldflooditsforceofoverthreehundredsubmarinesintothesealanes.Thisthreat--thattheRussianscouldrepeatorevenbettertheperformanceoftheGermansduringtheworldwars--generatedthemainColdWarnavalmissionoftheNATOforces,antisubmarinewarfare.
Thefirstdecadeoftheeffortwasaccomplishedprimarilybyforceofnumbers.Despitethehopesthatadecisivesubmarinetechnologywouldbefound,nonewas.ImprovementsinsubmarineandASWtechnologywouldevolveslowly.Themajorbottleneckwasintheareaofpropulsion.Simplyput,noneofthedifferentpropulsiontechnologies--diesel,hydrogenperoxide,orgasoline--hadeverprovidedthesustainedhighunderwaterspeedsneeded.Theanswertothisproblem,though,wasabouttobefoundintheUnitedStates.
TheNuclearRevolution
TheAmericanpropulsionbreakthroughcamefromanunlikelysource,adiminutiveU.S.NavycaptainnamedHymanG.Rickover.AssignedafterthewartotheNavy'sengineeringbranch,hewasamongthefirsttorecognizethepossibilitiesofcreatingsmallnuclearpowerplantsthatmightbeinstalledinsubmarinesandsurfaceships.Withthesereactors,shipsmightsteamtensofthousandsofmileswithoutrefueling.Forsubmarinesinparticular,itwouldmeanfreedomfromhavingtocometothesurfacetoobtainairforthedieselengines.InRickover,andhisnewlycreatedofficeofDirector,NavalReactors(DNR),theNavyhadfoundtheperfectblendofengineer,politicalinsider,andbureaucrattobringthefirstnuclearshipstofruition.
SubmarineswereRickover'sfirstpriority,andacontractwasletintheearly1950sforconstructionoftheUSSNautilus(SSN-571)bytheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamics.Utilizingapressurizedwaterreactortoproducesteamforturbines,thedesignwassuccessfulbeyondthewildestdreamsofnow-AdmiralRickoverandtheNavy.Consideringthatshewasonlyaproof-of-conceptvesselorprototype(theU.S.Navyhasalwaysconsidereditssubmarineprototypesfleetunits,notresearchvessels),albeitarmedwithafullsuiteofweaponsandsensors,theachievementsofNautilusandhercrewwerestaggering.TheydominatedvirtuallyeveryNATOexercisetheyparticipatedin.Inaddition,in1957NautilusbecamethefirstshiptotransittheArcticfromthePacifictotheAtlantic,openingawholenewareaforsubmarineoperations.
USSNautilus(SSN-571).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
USSSeawolf(SSN-575).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
CrewmembersofUSSSkate(SSN578)ondeckduringArcticoperationsinMarch1959.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYLIEUTENANTMEADER
USSSkate(SSN-578).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
USSTriton(SSN-586).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
USSSkipjack(SSN-585).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
FollowingtheNautiluscameasecondprototype,theUSSSeawolf(SSN-575),poweredbyaliquidsodiumreactor.Designedtoachievehigherpoweroutputwithinasmallervolume,thereactorprovedtroublesomeandwaseventuallyreplacedwithoneofthepressurizedwatertype.Inaddition,theUnitedStatesundertookproductionofasmallclassofnuclearboats(six)basedonthedesignoftheNautilus.Namedforthefirstunitoftheclass,theUSSSkate(SSN-578),theyprovidedavastbaseofexperienceforoperatingnuclearsubmarines,
aswellasbeingextremelyusefulfleetunits.
SkateherselfmadehistorybybeingthefirstsubmarinetosurfaceatthegeographicNorthPole.OtherprototypessuchastheUSSHalibut(SSN-587)andtheUSSTriton(SSN-586)exploredthepossibilitiesofusingnuclearsubmarinestolaunchcruisemissiles,andoperatingasaradarpicket(toextendradarcoverageforaircraftcarriergroups).In1960Tritonmadehistorybybecomingthefirstsubmarinetocircumnavigatetheglobesubmerged.UnderthecommandofoneoftheU.S.Navy'sbest-knownsubmariners,CommanderEdwardBeach(bestknownforwritingthenavalclassicRunSilent,RunDeep),TritonduplicatedthecourseofnavigatorFerdinandMagellansomefourcenturiesearlier.
TheearlyU.S.nuclearboatswerelimitedtoatopspeedofabout20knots,submergedorsurfaced.1Theseearlyboatshadbeenbuiltaroundconventionalhullformsandwerethuslimitedbythehorse-poweroftheirreactorplantsandthedragfromtheirhulls.BythistimetheUnitedStateshadexperimentedwithateardrop-shapedprototypediesel-electricsubmarine,theUSSAlbacore,whichwasabletoreachsubmergedspeedsofover30knots.2CombiningthehulloftheAlbacorewithRickover'snuclearpowerplant,anewclassofunderseahunterwasborn.USSSkipjack(SSN-585),theleadofasix-boatclass,wenttoseaasthefastestsubmarineintheworld.By1960theU.S.NavyhadafleetofnuclearsubmarinesandahugeleadontheUSSRandGreatBritain,whichhadstartedtheirnuclearsubmarineprogramslater.
USSGeorgeWashington(SSBN-598).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
AlongwiththeSkipjacks,anotherprototypeboatwasdiscreetlyconstructedtoexplorethepossibilityofaquietSSNdesignedspecificallytohuntothersubmarines.NamedtheUSSTullibee(SSN-597),shewasthefirstSSNtohavealargesphericalsonararrayinthebow,torpedotubesamidships,andaquietturboelectricdrivesystem.Andthoughshewouldhaveahistoryofengineeringproblemsthroughouthercareer(shewasderisivelyknowninGrotonasBuilding597),sheintroducedfeaturesthatwouldbeoneveryotherclassofSSNtheUnitedStateshasbuilt.
APolarisA-1missileislaunchedfromthenuclear-poweredfleetballisticsubmarineUSSGeorgeWashington(SSBN-598).
OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
USSPermit(SSN-594).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
USSEthanAllen(SSN-608).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
PolarisGoestoSea
Eversincethedevelopmentofthefirstatomicweapons,theU.S.
NavyhadsoughttodevelopaweaponsystemthatwouldallowittohavearoleinAmerica'snucleardeterrencemission.InitiallytheNavyusedcarrieraircraftthatcoulddelivertheearlynuclearweaponsonone-waymissionstotheirtargets.WhattheNavyreallywantedwastomergethenewtechnologiesofballisticmissiles,smallerthermonuclearweapons,inertialguidancesystems,andnuclearsubmarinesintoasingleweaponsystem.TheprogramwascalledPolaris,anditbecamethetopU.S.navalweaponsdevelopmentprogramofthe1950s.PushedaggressivelybyAdmiralArleighBurke,theU.S.ChiefofNavalOperations,andmanagedbyanauthenticprogrammaticgeniusinRearAdmiral"Red"Rayborne,theprogrammovedforwardatanamazingpace.Bythelate1950sasmall,reliablemissileknownasthePolarisA1wasreadytohaveaplatformbuiltforit.Theproblemwasthatsubmarineconstructiontakestime,andtheUnitedStateswantedtodeploythePolarisby1960.
Toaccomplishthis,AdmiralRickoverhadElectricBoatsplitoneoftheSkipjacksunderconstruction(shewastheoriginalUSSScorpion)justaftofthesailandinsertaplugcontainingsixteenPolarislaunchtubesaswellasallthemissilelaunchcontrolsandmaintenanceequipment.ChristenedtheUSSGeorgeWashington(SSBN-598),shewouldbethefirstofafive-boatclassoffleetballisticmissile(FBM)submarinesthatwouldbecomethemostpowerfuldeterrenceforceinhistory.WhentheGeorgeWashingtonsuccessfullytest-firedtwoofthePolarisA1missilesonJuly20,1960,offCapeCanaveral,Florida,thesystembecameoperational.LaterthatyearsheleftonthefirstofwhathasbecomeoverthreethousandFBMdeterrencepatrols,eachlastingroughlysixtytoseventydays.Aftereachpatrol,theonboardcrewswitcheswithasecondcrew,alternatelyknownas"blue"and"gold,"sothatthehighoperationaltempoes(timeonpatrol)canbemaintained.SosuccessfulhasthefleetballisticmissileprogrambeenthatitisreportednoU.S.FBMboathaseverbeentrackedforany
duration.Thusthesilentserviceenteredaneweraandaddedtotheiralreadyformidablereputation.Withinayear,asecondbatchoffivemissileboats,ledbytheUSSEthanAllen(SSBN-608),wasonorder.
UnderwaterfiringofaPolarisA-3missile.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
USSLafayette(SSN-616).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
TheQuietRevolution
FollowingtheSkipjackandGeorgeWashington-classboats,theUnitedStatesembarkeduponanewdirectioninnuclearsubmarinedevelopment.Itwasdecided,afterananalysisofearlySovietnuclearboatcharacteristics,thathighspeed(over30knots)wasnotnecessarilydesirable.Submarinestravelingathighspeedmakeagreatdealofnoise,whichcanbeheardbyothersubmarinesandsurfacevessels.ThusdivingdepthandquietnessratherthanspeedwouldbecomethequalitiesthatcharacterizedtheAmericansubmarinedesignsofthe1960s.
Thefirstofthenewdeep-diving/quietboatswastobetheUSSThresher(SSN-593).Unfortunately,duringrectificationtrialsoffNantucketin1963,theThresherwaslostwithherentirecrewaswellasseveralcivilianandU.S.Navy"riders."Intheinvestigationthatfollowed,itwasdeterminedthatabrazedpipingjointinthe
engineeringspacesmayhaveweakenedduringtheshocktrialsandburst,causingmassivefloodingthatpreventedtheboatfromsurfacing.TheSubsafeprogramwaslaterinstitutedbytheU.S.Navy,whichdevelopedthedeep-submergencerescuevehicle(DSRV)torescuethecrewofasunkensubmarine.Theclasswascontinued,namedafterthenextboatinline,USSPermit(SSN-594).
APoseidonmissileislaunchedfromthenuclear-poweredfleetballisticmissilesubmarineUSSJamesMadison(SSBN-627).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
TheForceExpands
Asthe1960sdrewon,theU.S.Navybeganavastexpansionofitsnuclearsubmarineprogram.Theplanwastobuildanadditionalthirty-oneSSBNsaswellasanewclassofattacksubmarines.Theballisticmissileboatswouldbearmedwithanewgenerationofballisticmissile,thePolarisA3,witha2,500-milerange.InadditiontheSSNsweretobearmedwiththeSUBROC,asubmarine-launchedrocketwithafifty-milerangeandanucleardepthchargecapableofdestroyingenemysubmarines.AllthiswaspartofthemilitarybuilduporiginallyproposedbyPresidentJohnF.KennedyandcarriedoutbytheadministrationofPresidentLyndonB.Johnson.FirstonthelistwerethenewFBMboats,or"boomers,"astheywerebeingcalled.
Thenuclear-poweredfleetballisticmissilesubmarineUSSLafayette(SSBN-616).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYD.PAYSE
StartingwiththebasicplanoftheUSSGeorgeWashington,thedesignerssoughttoinstallallthequietingtechnologythathadbeenincorporatedintothePermit-classboats.InadditiontheymadethemissilesectionlargeenoughtoaccommodatenotonlythenewPolarisA3missilebutanewmissilethatwouldhavesuperiorrangeandmultiplewarheads,thePoseidonC3.Namedfortheleadboatintheclass,USSLafayette(SSBN-616),theseboatsweremostimpressivefortheirnumbersbuilt--thirty-oneinall--andtheirstealth.AndwiththeabilitytoupgradetheirmissilebatterytothePoseidonC3whenitcameonlineinthe1970sandtheTridentC4inthe1980s,theseboatsweregoingtohavealongservicelife.(Asthisbookgoestopress,
aboutathirdoftheLafayette-classboatsarestillinservice.)
AftertheLafayetteprogramwasunderway,theNavyturneditsattentionstotheproblemofanimprovedattackboat.Again,analysisofthesubmarinesbeingproducedbytheUSSRshowedthatdeep-divingquietboatswerebest.TheleadboatofthenewclasswasUSSSturgeon(SSN-637).MuchliketheLafayette-classnuclearballisticmissilesubmarines(SSBNs),thisclasswascharacterizedbyarelativelylargeproductionrun--thirty-sevenunits--andreducednoisesignature.Thisimprovementdidnotcomewithoutcostthough,asthetopspeedoftheSturgeon-classboatswasdowntoaround25knots.3Neverthelesstheyprovedtobesuperbboatswithexcellentcapabilitiesandwere,alongwiththePermit-classandSkipjack-classboats,thebackboneoftheU.S.attacksubmarineforce.
AerialviewoftheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicswiththenuclear-poweredfleetballisticmissilesubmarineUSSMichigan(SSBN-727)underconstructiononthepier.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYWILLIAMWICKHAM
Inthemidstofallthisgrowthandsuccessinthesubmarineforcecameatragedy.In1968oneoftheSkipjack-classboats,theUSSScorpion(SSN-589),wentmissingwhilereturningfromaregularpatrolintheMediterranean.ForthefirsttimeinmodernU.S.submarineoperationsthewords"overdueandpresumedlost"were
usedtoinformtheworldofapossibleSSNlossduringnormalpatroloperations.
USSSturgeon(SSN-608).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
USSLosAngeles(SSN-688).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Whiletheexactmethodoflocationisstillnotopenlyknown,itappearsthattheU.S.seabed-basedsoundlistening(SOSUS)networkheardanexplosionfromScorpion.Laterthatyearasurveyexpedition,utilizingthebathyscapheTrieste,locatedthewreckneartheAzores,relativelyintactontheseabed.Itwasconcludedherlossmayhavebeenduetoaninternalexplosion,thoughtheexactcausehasneverofficiallybeenannounced.4
Onamorepositivenote,theNavybuiltseveralnewprototypesubmarinestoexplorenewpropulsiontechnologies.TheUSSGlenardP.Lipscomb(SSN-685)wasdesignedtolookagainintothefeasibilityofusingaturbine-electricdrive,whiletheNarwhal(SSN-671)carriedaprototypereactorusingnaturalcirculationratherthanpumps,whichcanbeverynoisy,tomovecoolantthroughthereactorsystem.Whiletheydidprovideusefuldataforfuturesubmarinedesigns,neitherboatwasconsideredtobeparticularlysuccessful.Withthislackofapropulsionbreakthrough,thestagewassetforthefightoverthedesignofthenextgenerationofnuclearsubmarines.
Nuclear-propelledstrategicmissilesubmarineUSSOhio(SSBN-726),duringseatrials.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYWILLIAMGARLINGHOUSE
TheNewGenerationofBoats
Inthelate1960s,theU.S.intelligencecommunitybegantoreceivedisturbingindicationsthatthenuclearsubmarinesoftheSovietUnionhadmuchhigherperformancecapabilitiesthanpreviouslythought.AdebatebrokeoutbetweenAdmiralRickoverattheNavalReactorsBranchandtheNavalSeaSystemsCommand(Navsea)overthedirectionofthenextgenerationofattacksubmarines.Rickoverfeltthatwhatwasneededwasaquiet,high-speed(over35knots)attacksubmarineabletosupportthecarrierbattlegroupsdeployedbytheU.S.Navy.NavseawassupportiveofadesigncalledConform,utilizinganaturalcirculationreactor,whichwouldrecoverthespeedlossofthePermitsandSturgeons(downfrom30knotsto25knots)andimprovetheradiatednoiselevels.5EventuallyRickoverwonout,andatwelveshipclass,itsleadboattobenamedUSSLosAngeles(SSN-688),wasplanned,withElectricBoatastheprimecontractor.V
LEFT:FirstlaunchofaTridentC-4missilefromUSSJohnC.Calhoun(SSBN-630).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
BELOW:USSOhio(SSBN-724).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
TheLosAngeles-classboatsdeliveredtheirpromiseofhighspeedaswellasbeingthequietestattacksubmarinesevercreateduptothattime.Thepricetheypaidforthatspeedwasthattheirhullswerethinned;theycoulddiveonlytoaboutthree-fourthsthedepthoftheSturgeonandPermitclasses(approximately950feet/300meters).6Inadditionhabitabilitysuffered,withagreaterpercentageofthecrewhavingtorotatebunks(called"hotbunking").Finally,theNavyandElectricBoathadsignificantfinancialandprogrammanagementproblems,alongwithadesiretoexpandtheclassmorequickly,leadingtoasecond-sourcecontractforconstructiontoNewportNews-Tenneco.Inspiteofthis,thefirstLosAngeles-classboatscameonlineinthelate1970sandimmediatelysetnewstandardsforquietoperationsandspeed.Somesixty-twoLosAngeles-classboatswouldeventuallybecontracted,makingiteasilythelargestclassofnuclearsubmarineseverbuilt.
Inadditionawholenewseriesofsubmarineweaponscameonlineinthelate1970sand1980s,includingthenewMod4andADCAPversionsoftheMark(Mk)48torpedo;theUGM-84Harpoonantiship
missile;andthreeseparateversionsoftheR/B/UGM-109Tomahawkmissilefornuclearlandattack,antishipuse,andconventionallandattack.Allofthesenewweapons,combinedwiththeadditionofaverticallaunchsystemandstowagefortwelveTomahawkmissilesontheLosAngeles-classboats,suddenlymadeU.S.SSNscapableofawholerangeofmissionsthatAdmiralRickoverhadnotdreamedofwhenhefirstpushedthroughtheproposalforNautilusinthe1950s.
Thenewclassofboomerwassomewhatclearertodesign:theprimarycriterionwasstealth.Whenthefirstboatofthenewclass,theUSSOhio(SSBN-724),appeared,shewasreportedtoradiatelessnoisethanthesurroundingoceanandsurfacetraffic,makingtheOhiosthequietestsubmarinesevertotaketosea.Anothermajorimprovementwasthenumberofmissilescarried.AllpreviousSSBNsproducedbytheUnitedStateshadsixteenmissiletubes.TheOhioclasshastwenty-fourmissiletubes,withadiameterlargeenoughtoaccommodatenotonlytheTridentC4missile(thereplacementforthePoseidonC3),butalsotheTridentD5missile.TheTridentD5hadsignificantimprovementsinbothrangeandaccuracy,makingitthemostpowerfulcomponentintheU.S.nucleararsenal.UnderthetermsoftheSTART-IItreatysignedin1991,thebulkoftheU.S.strategicnuclearstrikepowerwillbecarriedontheOhios.
TheNextGeneration
Withthecomingofanewseriesofarmslimitationtreaties(theSTARTseries),theUnitedStatesdoesnothaveanyplanstobuildanewclassofSSBNs.Infact,theOhioswerebuiltwithenoughgrowthpotentialintheirdesignthatservicelivesofthirty-fivetofortyyearsareentirelypossible,andifreplacementsarerequired,theywon'tbeneededuntilaroundtheyear2015.
Attackboatsareanotherthingentirely.Afollow-ontotheLosAngelesclasshasbeenplannedforsometime,andtheleadboatofthenewclass,USSSeawolf(SSN-21),isduetocomeonlineinthelate1990s.TheSeawolfdesignmakesgoodvirtuallyalltheshortcomingsoftheLosAngeles-classboats,particularlyintheareasofdepth(backtoapproximately1,300feet/400meters),habitability(improvedcrewcomfort),andweaponsload(acombinationoffiftyweapons).7Suchthingscomeataseverecostthough,bothinmoneyandsize.Seawolfishuge,over9,100tonsdisplacement,makingitthelargestattacksubmarineintheworldotherthantheRussianOscar-classguidedmissileboats.Andwithacostatthiswritingofover$2billionpercopy,theSeawolfproductionruniscurrentlylimitedtoonlytwounits.
AsproductionoftheLosAngelesandOhioclasseswindsdown,andwiththeSeawolfprogrambeingterminatedearly,thefutureoftheU.S.nuclearsubmarineforceisindoubtforthefirsttimeinforty-fiveyears.WhathasbeenthepremierweaponssystemoftheColdWarnowseemstobeasysteminsearchofamissionandanaudience.Wewillexplorethefuturelateron,butfirstlet'slookatthepresent,andwhatthetaxpayershaveboughtforthemselvesandtheirsilentwarriors.
BuildingtheBoats
Itsoundssosimple:buildingtheboat.Yetthisisaprocessthatstartsyearsbeforethesubmarineentersthefleet.Remember,in1969theU.S.NavywasconsideringthedesignoftheLosAngeles-classsubmarines,whichbegantoenterthefleetsomesevenyearslater.Eventoday,ifyoucouldorderone(thelineisbeingshutdowntoproducetheSeawolf-classboats),ittakessixyearsfromcontractsigningbytheNavalSeaSystemsCommand(Navsea)inArlington,Virginia,untilthecompletedboatiscommissionedintotheforce.ThisprocessstartsinthesteelmillsoftheeasternUnitedStatesandthecomputersoftheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamics.ItalsostartsinthecitiesandtownsofAmerica,wheretherawmaterialsforthecrewsareborn,raised,andeducated.Letustakeaquicklookathowitisalldone.
TheSharpEdge--TheCrew
It'shardtoseparatethesteelandelectronicsoftheboatfromthefleshandbloodofthemenwhowillserveashercrew.Inamannerofspeaking,thecrewisapartofthatmachineheadedtosea.Isupposeifrobotscoulddothejobofmen,theywouldhavetakenoverthesubmarineforcebynow.Butthedaywhenarobotcansurvivetheshockofanexplosion,therushoffloodingwater,andhavethecunningofamanisstillyearsaway.Anduntilthatdaycomes,menwillgointotheseainthesteelcylinderscalledsubmarines.
Wherethecrewcomefromis,quitesimply,everywhere.From
everytownandvillage,fromthelargestinnercity,thesuburbs,andtheruralcountryside.Whatmotivateseachofthemisprobablyalittledifferent.ForAdmiralChesterNimitz,theWorldWarIICommanderinChiefofthePacificandhimselfanearlysubmariner,itwasthedesiretoseeabodyofwaterlargerthanthemudpuddlesofwestTexas.Forsomewhowantsubmarines,itisthedesiretoworkononeofthemostpowerfulandsophisticatedpiecesofmachineryeverbuilt.OthersseetheNavyandthesubmarineserviceasawayoutofthepovertyanddespairofwhateversituationtheymayhavebeenborninto.Whateverthereasons,theyhaveallcometotheNavytofindsomethingtobuildtheirlivesaround.
Let'ssaythatayoungmanwhohasgraduatedfromhighschoolwishestojointheNavyand"seetheworld"fromthevoyagesofasubmarine.Thatyoungman(sorry,ladies--menonlyonsubsatthetimethisbookisbeingwritten)wouldprobablyapplyathislocalrecruitingoffice.Fromhereheistransportedtothelocalpersonnelrecruitingdepotforbasictraining.Someweekslater,hemovesontohisspecialty--electronics,sonar,machinery,etc.--or"A"school,whichgiveshimtheskillsnecessaryforhisjobwhenhejoinstheboat.Ifhehasdecidedtoselectnuclearpowerashisspecialty,hegoestosixmonthsofnuclearpowerschool(NPS)inOrlando,Florida,followedbysixmonthsoftrainingononeofthenuclearreactorprototypes.Assumingthathehasselectedsubmarinesashisservice,theyoungrecruitisnextheadedtothehomeofthesubmarine,theU.S.NavySubmarineBaseinGroton,Connecticut,toattendSubmarineSchool.Subschoolteachestherecruitthebasicsofwhatheneedstoknowaboutlifeaboardsubmarines.Fromherehemovesontothecrewofaboatforhisfirsttour,whichwillprobablylastacoupleofyears.
OneoftheadvantagesthesubmarineservicehasinattractingthecreamoftheNavy'snewrecruitsismoney.Ordinarilyanewsailorwhoselectsnuclearpowerashisspecialtywouldbegiventherankofseamanapprentice,butthesubmarineserviceimmediatelymakesa
newrecruitapettyofficer.Thisisimportantbecauseofthepaydifferential.Whileitmightnotlooklikemuchofadifference,itcanbeenoughtoletayoungmangetmarriedsothathecanstartandsupportafamily.Thesubmarineserviceasksmuchoftheyoungmenwhodrivetheirboats,andtheneedforeverysailortohaveahomeandsomeoneinitisacornerstoneoftheirtradition.
U.S."Dolphin"submarinelogo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Onceaboardhisfirstboat,thenewcrewmember'sfirstmajorcareertaskwillbetoqualifyforhis"dolphins,"whichcertifieshimasasubmariner.Fromthere,heisexpectedtotakehisqualificationboardsandmoveupthepromotionladder.Afterthisfirsttour,ifhechoosestoreenlist(andmanydo)hewillprobablybegiventheopportunitytomovetooneofthevariousschoolsasaninstructor.ThismightbeatoneofthereactorprototypesorthefirefightingschoolinNewLondon.Whereveritis,hewillbeaskedtoputbackintothenewrecruitssomeoftheknowledgeandexperiencehehasgained.Andthisisthecyclethathewillfollowformostofhiscareer.
Qualifyandearnpromotion,thatisthekey.Eventuallythesubmarinermightbegiventhechancetobecomeawarrantofficer,orperhapsgotocollegetobecomeanofficer,or"mustang,"astheyareknownintheNavy.Forthosechoosingtoremainasenlistedmen,the
ultimatehonoristomaketherankofmasterchief,whoisusuallygiventhetitleChiefoftheBoat,orCOB,onasubmarine.Thispositionisconsideredtheequivalentoftheexecutiveofficer(XO),inchargeoftheenlistedmenonaboat.Thesearefrequentlywell-educatedmenwithgraduatedegrees.Andtosaythatthecommandingofficers(COs)ofsubmarinesrespecttheiropinionsissomethingofanunderstatement.IfanythingsetourserviceapartfromthatoftheformerSovietUnionduringtheColdWar,itwasthecohesionor"glue"thatournoncommissionedofficersprovidedtheNavy.TheyarethekeepersofwhatcorporateAmericamightcallcorporatememoryortribalknowledge,orwhatintheNavytheyjustcalltradition.
Therouteofanofficerissomewhatdifferentfromthatoftheenlistedmen.Forstarters,theNavyisratherparticularaboutwhogetstodrivetheirnuclearboats.SowhiletheNavymightbesatisfiedwithapsychologyorhistorymajordrivinganF-14TomcatorAegiscruiseraroundtheblock,fortheirnuclearofficerstheywantengineers.Or,morecorrectly,universitygraduateswithhardsciencedegrees.Thereareseveralwaysforayoungmantogetintothiscareerpath.CertainlythemostconventionalrouteistheU.S.NavalAcademyatAnnapolis,Maryland.TherealsoistheReserveOfficersTrainingProgram(ROTC)inplaceatmanyU.S.collegecampuses.Thisfour-yearprogramhelpsprovidetuition,books,andasmallmonthlystipendtohelpsupporttheyoungman,whoiscommissionedanensignwhenhegraduates.ThefinalwayforcollegegraduatesisjusttovolunteerthroughtheOfficersCandidateSchool(OCS)program.Inthiscasetheywillbeputthroughathree-monthtrainingprogram,hencetheirnicknameof"ninety-daywonders,"afterwhichtheyarealsocommissionedasensigns.
ThefirststepontheroadtobecomingaU.S.NavysubmarineofficerstartswithselectionbytheDirector,NavalReactors(DNR-NAVSEACode-082E).Thisinvolvesaseriesofpersonalinterviews
withtheDNR(afour-staradmiralnoless)toassessthecandidate'stechnicalknowledgeandabilitytohandlestress.WhenAdmiralRickoverusedtohandletheseinterviews,thequestionstookonasometimesbizarreandpersonalnature,butaspeopleinthesubmarinecommunitywilltellyou,itseemstohaveproducedaverycapablecorpsofsubmarineofficers.AtthispointthenewsubmarineofficerheadsofftoayearatNPSandthereactorprototypeschools.
Oncethisiscompleted,hewillbesenttotheSubmarineOfficersBasicCourse(SOBC)atGroton,Connecticut.SOBCtakesthreemonthsandisroughlyequivalenttotheenlistedmen'sSubmarineSchoolcourse.UponcompletionoftheSOBC,hefinallyisassignedtohisfirstboat,wherehewillprobablyspendthenexttwotothreeyears.Muchlikehisenlistedcounterparts,hewillspendmuchofhistimestandingwatchesandqualifyingforhis"dolphins."Hewillalsobeassessedinhisabilitytohandleandleadthemenassignedtohisdivisionandwatches.Evenatthisstageofayoungofficer'scareer,heisbeingtestedforhisabilitytocommandaboatinthefuture.Duringhisfirstsubtourhewilltaketheengineer'sexam,againsupervisedbypersonnelfromDNR.Thisisacriticalexambecauseitisthefirstmajorstay/leavecriterion,allowinghimtostayinsubmarinesorpointinghimtosomeotherpartoftheNavy.Successmeansthattheofficerisnowqualifiedtobeassignedaschiefengineerofaboat.Fromherehewillprobablydoashoretouronstaffatasubsquadronorasaninstructoratoneoftheschools.Healsowillprobablyhavebeenpromotedtolieutenantbynow.
Aftertheshoretourtheofficer,nownotsoyoung,returnstothesubmarineschoolatGrotonforanothersix-monthtrainingcourse.Thisone,knownastheSubmarineOfficersAdvancedCourse(SOAC),isdesignedtoprepareandqualifytheofficerasadepartmenthead--engineering,navigation/operations,weapons,etc.--onaboat.Itisalsooneoftherequiredstepsontheroadtocommandofaboat.Nowtheofficerheadsbacktoaboatforhisthree-yeardepartment
headtour.Bynowaseniorlieutenant,heisreadytoscreenforthebigstepontheroadtocommandofhisownboat,becominganExecutiveOfficer(XO).AfterhehasscreenedforXO,hisnexttrainingcourseisthethree-monthProspectiveExecutiveOfficers(PXOs)course,whichqualifiestheofficerforhistourasExecutiveOfficerofanSSNorSSBN.IfhesuccessfullycompleteshisXOtour,hewillprobablyheadforashoretour,possiblyinoneofthemanyjointbilletsthatareconsideredsoimportanttothecareerofAmericanmilitaryofficers.Fromhereheisselectedfortherankofcommander,screensforcommand,andheadstotheProspectiveCommandingOfficers(PCO)courseand,finally,tocommandofhisownboat.
Thislaststep,thePCOcourse,shouldnotbethoughtoflightly.MuchhasbeenmadeoftheU.S.Navy'sfixationwithnuclearreactorsafetywhenselectingskippers.Agoodrecordwithpowerplantsiscertainlyoneofthemajorselectioncriteriaforcommand.TheNavyfeels,probablywithgoodreason,thattheymusthaveaperfectoperatingrecordfortheAmericanpublictoallowthemtocontinueoperatingshipsandsubmarineswithnuclearpower.Withthissaid,though,itisthePCOcoursethatactuallyqualifiesamantocommandoneoftheU.S.Navy'sboatsandnotthescoresonhisengineeringexams.
ThePCOcoursewascreatedin1946byJamesForrestal,thenSecretaryoftheNavyandlaterSecretaryofDefense.Itallowsthesubmarineservicetohavetotalautonomyintheselectionandtrainingofitssubmarineskippers.Certainly,advancedtrainingprogramslikeTopGun--forU.S.NavyandMarinefighterpilots--RedFlag--forU.S.AirForceaircrews--andtheNationalTrainingCenter--forU.S.Armyunits--arebetterknowntothepublic,butthesubmarinePCOcourseiseasilytheequalofanyofthese.SuccessfulcompletionofthePCOcourseismandatoryifamanisevertocommandaU.S.nuclearsubmarine.AnotheraspectofthePCOcoursethatisnotgenerallyknownisexactlywhatthecurriculumconsistsof.Fortherecord,each
course,whichisapproximatelysixmonthslongandenrollsbetweentenandtwelveofficers,teachesthemthetacticalandoperationalintricaciesofcommandingaU.S.nuclearsubmarine.
Duringtheensuingsixmonths,theprospectiveCOwillpracticeapproachesandfiresomethinglikefivetoseven"live"(exercise)weapons(Mk48s,HarpoonandTomahawkmissiles)underavarietyofconditions.Thecoursecurriculumisbothwideandvaried,withimprovementsandchangesbeingmadeaftereachandeverycourse.ThechallengefortheinstructorsofthePCOcourseisthatinjustadozenyears,theyhavegonefromacoursewithonlyoneprimaryweapon(torpedoes)andmission(ASW),tohavingthebroadestrangeofmissions--ASW,antishipping,mining,strikewarfare,intelligencegathering,etc.--andweapons--torpedoes,missiles,andmines--intheentireU.S.Navy.Andasinthesubmarinequalificationcoursesofothercountries,especiallytheRoyalNavy'sPerishercourse,anymiscueormistakecanbereasonenoughforanofficertobedisqualified.
Attheendofthesixmonths,ifhehascompletedallaspectsofthecourse,andiftheinstructorfeelsheisbothqualifiedandready,thePCOstudentgraduates.Atthismomenthewillhaveachievedthegoalofeverysubmarineofficer,commandofhisownboat.
BoatConstruction
LetmetrytogiveyouthecondensedversionofhowanImprovedLosAngeles(688I)isbuilt.
ThefirststepintheprocessisfortheNavytodecidethattheywanttobuildaboat.ThisdecisionismadeintheUnderseaWarfareOfficeoftheOfficeoftheChiefofNavalOperations(OPNAV).Until
recentlythisofficewasknownasOP-02andwasheadedbyViceAdmiralRogerF.Bacon,USN.InNovember1992,throughanOPNAVreorganization,thisofficewasrenamedN-87andisnowheadedbyRearAdmiralThomasD.Ryan,USN(Director,UnderseaWarfareDivision).Itisherethattherequirementsforsuchboatsareestablishedandtherequestforproposalisdeveloped.Thisisusuallydoneinbatchesor"flights"ofboatstoaparticularshipyard.Forourpurposes,wewillassumethatthebuilderistheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorporation.TheiryardatGroton,Connecticut,wouldsubmitabidtoCode92(attacksubmarines)atNavsea,andafteraseriesofnegotiations,thecontracttobuildtheboatwouldbeawarded.Fromherethefundingfortheboatwouldhavetobesubmittedinthepresident'sdefensebudget,approvedbyCongress,andthemoneyallocatedinthefederalbudget.
Oncetheboathasbeenapproved,theactualprocessofconstructionbegins.Thefirststepintheprocessistoorderitemswithlongleadtimes,likethenuclearreactor,andheavymachinery,likereductiongearsandturbines.Thereactor,inthiscaseaGeneralElectricS6G,isorderedandsuppliedasapieceofgovernment-furnishedequipmentbyCode-082EatNavsea,theOfficeoftheDirectorofNavalReactors(DNR).
Ayearortwolater,whentheseitemsbegintoshowupatElectricBoat--knownsimplyintheNavyas"EB"--theactualconstructionoftheboatbegins.Thefirststepistheconstructionofthepressurehull.EBmanufacturesitsownpressurehullbarrelsectionsinaspecialfacilityatQuonsetPoint,RhodeIsland,whichtakesthree-inch-thickhardenedsteelplatesandworksthemintothecurvedsections.Thesectionsarecarefullyweldedtogethertomakeupthebarrelsections,whicharebargedtotheEByardatGroton.TheworknowproceedstothehugebuildingshedatEB.Herethehullsectionsareweldedtogetherintoasinglelongcylindertoformthepressurehull.Itismiserablework,withthemetalofthebarrelsectionshavingtobe
heatedto140degF/64degCjusttoprepareforwelding.Eachsectionisthenhand-weldedtothenextbymenoftenonthevergeofheatprostration,exhaustion,anddehydration.MenmustdothisworkbecausenomachinecandothejobtothestandardsofNavseaandDNR,andeventhisworkmustbecheckedbyNavyinspectorsarmedwithmirrorsandX-raymachines.Theindividualsectionsofthehullarepackedwithitemsthataretoobigtoinstalllater,suchasthereactor,torpedoandverticallaunchsystem(VLS)tubes,andtheturbines.
TheUSSTopeka(SSN-754)islaunchedattheElectricBoatyardatGroton,Connecticut.ELECTRICBOATDIV.,GENERALDYNAMICSCORP.
Oncethecylinderofthepressurehullisfinished,itismoveddowntheproductionwaytohavethemachinerymounts,trimtanks,andinternaldeckstructureinstalled.Nowmoreandmorecomponentsoftheboataredeliveredtotheyard.Alsoduringthistimethefirstelementsoftheprecommissioningunit(shipsandsubmarinesareknownas"PCUs"beforetheyarecommissionedas"USS")crewbegintoarriveatEB.ThesearetheNavypersonnelwhowillfirsttakethenewboattosea.Usuallytheinitialcadreiscomposedofafew
officers,includingthecommissioningCO,andanumberofchiefs.Theirjobwillbetooverseethefinalfittingoutoftheboat,aswellasbeingtheNavy'srepresentativestoEBforthecommissioning.Eventuallytheendsofthehullaresealedwithendcaps,andthesuperstructureisinstalled.
Whenthelastoftheheavystructuresliketheconningtower/fairwaterareinstalled,andthehullisdeclaredwatertight,itistimetorolltheboatoutofthebuildingshedandlaunchit.Bythistime,thePCUcrewhasbeencompletelyassigned,workingdaytodaywiththeEBpersonnel.Oncetheboatislaunched,itistowedtoadockwheretherestofthesub'sequipmentwillbeinstalledandtested.Thiscantakebetweensixandeightmonths,anditismademoredifficultbythepooraccesstotheinterioroftheboatatthistime.Sincethedesignofthe688Ismakesnoallowanceforhardpatches--pointsonthehulldesignedtobecutopen--everythinghastofitdownthehatchesleadingintotheinteriorofthesub.
Testing/Shakedown
FromtheNavy'spointofview,thenewboatreallycomestolifewhenthereactorispoweredup,ormade"critical,"forthefirsttime.Priortothis,thereactorfuelelementshavebeenloadedandaseriesofmechanicalandelectricaltestsmade.Beforethereactorisallowedtogocritical,everyelementofthepropulsionsystemwillhavebeentestedunderreal-worldconditionsforasubstantialperiodoftime.Duringafinaltest(knownasaReactorSafeguardExamination),whichissupervisedbypersonnelfromDNRandcertifiedpersonallybytheDNRhimself,thecrewistestedtoaffirmthattheymeetthestandardssetdownoverfortyyearsagobyAdmiralRickoverwhentheNautilusfirstmadereadytogotosea.Andfortherestofthe
boat'sservicelife,aDNRteamwillperiodicallybesentdowntotheboatforacontinuingseriesofOperationalReactorSafeguardExaminations(ORSEs).
Bythistimetheprecommissioningcrewhasgrowntothepointthattheycantaketheboatoutforherinitialsea,orAlfa,trials,inwhichamixedNavy/EBcrewwilltaketheboatoutintotheAtlanticforaseriesoftestruns.Thesetestsarealwayscarefullymonitoredandescorted,andthroughoutthehistoryofthenuclearpropulsionprogram,thethreeDNRs(AdmiralRickover,AdmiralMcKee,andAdmiralDeMars)haveeachembarkedoneverynewnuclearsubmarinetopersonallysupervisethefirstseaperiodoftheAlfatrialsthemselves.ThispersonalaccountabilityandresponsibilityonthepartofallthreeDNRs,aswellastheirperfectsafetyrecord,hasgonealongwayinbuildingconfidencewiththepublic,theCongress,andtheadministrationintheU.S.Navy'sabilitytosafelyandsuccessfullyutilizenuclearpoweratsea.
Commissioning:IntotheFleet
WhenEBhasfinishedbuildingtheboattothecontractspecifications,itistimetofinishtrainingthecrewandturningtheboatintoawarship.Thisprocesstakesseveralmoremonths.Itincludesweaponsandtacticaltraining,emergencyproceduresdrills,navigationtraining,andactualweaponsfiringsattheAtlanticunderseatestandevaluationcenter(AUTEC)rangedownintheBahamas.LocatedinthewatersoffAndrosIsland,thisisaninstrumentedrangewheresubmarinesandtheircrewscanpracticetheprocessofoperatingtheirboatandlearningto"fight"it.Somewhereduringthisprocess,theboatandhercrewpassthepointwheretheybecomeonegreatwarmachine.
Almostsixyearsafterthecontractwasfirstsigned,thefinalstepintheprocesstakesplace.OncetheNavyhasdeterminedthattheboatisinallwaysreadytoenterthefleet,acommissioningdateisscheduled,withtheceremonytobeheldeitherinGrotonorNorfolk.
Onthisdaytheboat'snamebecomesofficial,thecrewof"plankowners"(theoriginalcrewatthetimeofcommissioning)isset,andthePCUsubmarinebecomesaU.S.Navysubmarine.Usually,high-rankingNavyandpoliticalfiguresgivespeeches,thecommissioningcaptaingetstospeakafewwordsaboutwhatthisdaymeanstohimandthecrew,andthen,ataspecialmomentintheceremony,thecommissioningpennantisbrokenoutandthecrew,adornedintheirbestNavywhites,rushesaboardandmanstheboatforthefirsttimeinherofficialNavycareer.
Atthispointtheboatactuallyentersservicewiththefleet.Butifthecrewthinktheyhaveseenthelastofthebuilder'syard,theyaremistaken.Aftertheboatgoesonitsinitialshakedowncruise,itissentbacktotheyardforwhatisknownasthePostShakedownAvailability(PSA)period.Thisinvolvestakingtheboatbacktotheyardandfittingallofthenewequipmentmodificationsthathaveevolvedsincetheinitialcontractwassigned.Inaddition,anywarrantyrepairsthathavebecomenecessarywillbedoneatthistime.FollowingthePSAperiod,itwillbetimetoheadouttohernewhomeportandthefirstrealmissionsforthefleet.ThereprobablywillbeonlyoneortwoofthesebeforetheCOgetswordhisreliefisbeingsent.Andwhenthecommissioningcaptainleavestheboat,shereallydoesbelongtothefleetandthestringofmenwhowillcommandandsailher.
HomeBases8
Onceaboathasbeencommissionedintothefleet,itwillbeassignedtodutyatoneofthesubmarinebasesscatteredthroughouttheUnitedStates.Thesebaseshavethejobofprovidingadministrativeandmaintenancesupporttoaboat,aswellasprovidinghousingandsustenancetohercrew.TheirfacilitiesrangefromtheultramodernTridentfacilitiesatBangor,Washington,andKingsBay,Georgia,totheturn-of-the-centuryNewEnglandcharmsofGroton,Connecticut.Forthecrewsoftheboats,theseplacesmeanhomeandfamily.Let'slookatthem.
PacificFleet
OutinthePacificareanumberofbasessupportingnuclearsubmarineoperations.TheseincludePearlHarbor,Hawaii;BallastPointinSanDiego,California;andBangor,Washington.ThemostmodernoftheseisthehugebaseatBangor,designedtosupportoperationsoftheOhio-classSSBNsandtheirTridentmissiles.ItislocatedonWashington'sPugetSound,nestledintothetreesofKitsapPeninsula.Builtinthe1970sspecificallytosupportTridentoperations,thisisahugefacilitywithroomtosupportasquadronofeightOhio-classsubmarines.CurrentlythisisSubmarineSquadron(SUBRON)17.ThosewhohavehadthepleasuretoserveatBangorhaveoftencalleditoneofthemostcomfortableandmoderndutystationsintheentireU.S.Navy.AlsolocatedatBangorisSubmarineGroup(SUBGRU)9.ItsupervisesallofthesubmarineactivitiesinthePacificNorthwest,includingthepermanentfacilitiesforbasing,overhaul,andreworkatBremerton,Washington.Technically,SUBRON17atBangorisalsosubordinatetoSUBGRU9.
DowninSanDiegoisthesubbaseatBallastPoint.Whilethepermanentfacilitiesatthislocationarenotasdevelopedasotherbases(itisliterallycarvedintothesideofPointLoma),itislocated
adjacenttotheimmensenavalfacilitiesinSanDiego,andconsideredbythesubcrewsandtheirfamiliesagreatplacetobebased.
ThoughthepermanentfacilitiesatBallastPointarenotaswelldevelopedasBangorandsomeoftheotherbases,ithasanamazingarrayofsubmarinetenders,floatingdrydocks,andothersupportshipstoprovideinfrastructureforthemanyboatsandsubmersiblesbasedthere.ThemajorsubmarineorganizationlocatedatBallastPointisSUBGRU5,whichhasanumberofsubordinateunitsinadditiontoseveralattachedSSNsandatender.ThefirstisSubmarineDevelopmentGroup(SUBDEVGRU)1,whichisequippedwithseveraltendersandarescueship,aswellastworesearchsubmersiblesandthetwoDSRVrescuesubmarines.AlsosubordinatetoSUBGRU5areSUBRON3,withnineSSNsandatender,aswellasSUBRON11,withsevenSSNsandatender.
FartheroutinthePacificisthesubmarinebaseatPearlHarbor.MostofthefacilitiesatPearlHarbordatebacktoWorldWarII,whenthePacificsubmarineforceunderwentahugeexpansiontosupporttheoffensiveoperationsagainstJapan.TodaythebaseisstillvitaltosubmarineoperationsinthePacific.TheheadquartersorganizationforthePacificfleet,Commander,SubmarineForce,U.S.PacificFleet(COMSUBPAC)isbasedherewithatenderforwarddeployedatGuam.SubordinatetoCOMSUBPACatPearlHarborareSUBRON1witheightSSNsandSUBRON7withtenSSNs.ThislargeconcentrationofsubsisdesignedtosupportU.S.NavyoperationsinthewesternPacific,andboatsfromPearlHarborwillfrequentlybeassignedtosupportcarriergroupsastheyrotatethroughthePacificandtheIndianOcean.
AtlanticFleet
ThedeepestrootsoftheU.S.submarineforcesarebackintheAtlantic.Hereiswheretheboatsarebuiltandtested,andwheremostoftheinstitutionalinfrastructureexists.Thisisalsowherethedeepestcutshaveoccurred,andwillprobablycontinuetobemadeinthemonthsandyearstocome.ThewinningoftheColdWarhasnotbeenkindtothesubmarineforceintheAtlanticfleet,andalreadyonemajorbaseatHolyLoch,Scotland,withitsassignedSUBRON14(nineSSBNsandatender)hasbeencompletelycloseddown.Asthesubmarineforcecontinuestodrawdown,itissometimesironictothinkthattheAtlanticSSN/SSBNforce,whichdidsomuchtokeepthepeaceandwintheColdWar,willbedecimatedbythevictorytheyweresohelpfulinforging.
TheheadquartersforCommander,SubmarineForce,U.S.AtlanticFleet(COMSUBLANT)islocatedatthesprawlingU.S.navalfacilityinNorfolk,Virginia.FromhereCOMSUBLANTcontrolsthelargestforceofSSNsandSSBNsintheU.S.Navy,atanumberofdifferentfacilities.FarthestfromhomeareSUBGRU8andSUBRON22(onesubmarinetender)basedatLaMaddalena,Sardinia.Thoughtheydonothaveanysubmarinesdirectlyattached,thesetwounitsdirectlysupporttheveryactiveU.S.submarineoperationsintheMediterraneanSea.
Closertohome,theAtlanticSSBNforceiscontrolledbySUBGRU10atKingsBay,Georgia.ThisincludesSUBRON16withthelastoftheTridentI/C4-equippedLafayette-classboats.AlsounderSUBGRU10atKingsBayisSUBRON20,withaforceoffiveorsixOhio-classSSBNsandtheirTridentmissiles.EssentiallyduplicatingthefacilitiesatBangor,Washington,KingsBayisanotherofthenewgenerationofsubbasesdevelopedinthelate1970sandearly1980s.Whilethepermanentfacilitiesarequitenice,sayingthatKingsBayisaporkbarrelbaseissomethingofanunderstatement.Calledthe"JimmyCartermemorialsubmarinebase"bymanypeopleinthesubmarineforce,itissomethingofaconcessiontothepowerofthe
StateofGeorgia,especiallytoSenatorSamNunnandformerpresidentJimmyCarter.
TheothermajorfacilityontheAtlanticcoastisthesubbaseatGroton,Connecticut.Let'sgotherenowandgettoknowmoreabout"thehomeofthedolphins."
Groton--HomeoftheDolphins
IfyoudriveortakeatrainnortheastfromNewYorkCity,youwillcomeeventuallytothequietseacoasttownofGroton,Connecticut.HereinthislittleNewEnglandseaportyouwillfindtheinstitutionalwomboftheU.S.submarineforce,theU.S.SubmarineBase.WithinafewmilesofthisbaseistheEBbuildingyard,aswellastheschoolsandfacilitieswherevirtuallyeveryU.S.submarinerwill,atsometimeoranother,spendtime.ThemostimportantorganizationbasedhereisSUBGRU2.Basedinahandsometurn-of-the-centurybuildingonthewaterfront,itisthecommandorganizationforallattacksubmarinesontheAtlanticcoast.CurrentlyitiscommandedbyRearAdmiralDavidM.Gobel,USN.ThisincludesSUBRON2withtenSSNs,twosupportships,andthenuclear-poweredresearchsubmarineNR-1;SUBRON10withfiveSSNsandasupportvessel;andSUBDEVRON12withsixSSNs.InadditiontotheGroton-basedunits,SUBRON2alsocontrolsSUBRON4inCharleston,SouthCarolina(tenSSNsandatender),aswellasSUBRON6(sevenSSNsandatender)andSUBRON8(tenSSNsandatender)inNorfolk,Virginia.
AsyoustrollalongtheGrotonwaterfront--andIrecommendthatyouhaveanescort--youwillseealmostthefullrangeofSSNsintheU.S.Navy,fromtheoldPermit-classboatscurrentlyundergoingdecommissioning,tothenewest688I-classboatsliketheUSSMiami
(SSN-755).Attimesitisaplaceofbizarrecontrasts,asthebeautyoftheNewEnglandcoastlinemergeswiththelow,dark,ominousshapesoftheboats.OfparticularinterestisthedockleadingtotheboatsofSUBDEVRON12.Thisistheunittaskedwithevaluatingnewequipmentandtacticsthatwillbeutilizedbytherestofthesubmarineforce.Forexample,USSMemphis(SSN-691)iscurrentlyevaluatingthefirstofthenonpenetratingmastperiscopesystemsthatwillprobablybecomestandardonallnewsubmarinesbuiltbytheUnitedStates.
IfyouwalkupthehillyoucometothepartofthebasethathousesthevariousfacilitiesoftheSubmarineSchool.AstheprimarytrainingpipelineforvirtuallyeveryU.S.submariner,itisheldinspecialreverencebythemenoftheU.S.submarineforce.Inthesprawlofdormitory-stylehousing,classrooms,andotherbuildingsaresomeofthemostsophisticatedtrainingdeviceseverdesigned.NotonlydothesefacilitiessupporttheSubmarineSchoolwithitsnewofficerandenlistedrecruits,theyalsoprovideperiodicrefreshertrainingforsubmarinecrewswhentheyareinport.Manyoftheskillstaughtinthesetrainersarecalledbrittleorperishable,sincetheymaybeforgottenifnotpracticedregularly.
Onewholebuildingisdevotedtoshipcontroltrainers,whereofficersandmencanlearnhowtocontroleverytypeofsubmarineintheU.S.inventory.Thetrainerscanteachyoueverythingfromhowtodo"anglesanddangles"--maneuveringthehelmsmanandplanesmancontrolconsoles--totheever-popular"emergencyblow."Thetrainersresemblethoseusedtoteachfighterpilots,andareexactreplicasofthecontrolroomsofthesubstheyrepresent.
Anothertrainerthatwillstuntheuntrainedobserveristhe"buttercup,"orfloodingtrainer.Thisisessentiallyahugeswimmingpoolwithareplicaofasubmarinemachineryroominside.Fromacontrolroominthesideofthetrainer,instructorscanteachagroupofmeninreal-worldconditionshowtocontrolfloodingcasualties
rangingfrompinpointleaksinpipestoahugeleak,over1,000gallons/3,375litersperminute,inamainseawaterflangeconnection.Theideaistocontrolaseriesofleaksaroundthetrainerthatcanfillitinjustamatterofminutes.Thetrainingscenariosassumethefeelingofafranticfightforsurvival,andthecrewsthattakethecourseloveitfortheconfidenceitbuildsandhateitforthediscomfortitgenerates.Iftheydoitright,thewaterwillberoughlyuptotheirwaistsif,andwhen,theyfinallycontroltheflooding.Ishouldsaythatthewaterforthistrainercomesfroma20,000-gallonstoragetankandisverycold.
OfallthetrainersatGroton,noneismoreimpressivethanthefirefightingtrainerinthenewfacilityatStreetHall.ThisnewfacilityisapositiveresponsetothefirefightingcasualtiesincurredontheUSSBonefish(SS-582)andtheUSSStark(FFG-31)duringthe1980s.Wherepreviouslyfirefightingtrainingwasconductedinsidealargesewerconduitfilledwithblazingdieselfuel,itisnowconductedinastate-of-the-arttrainerthatcansimulatevirtuallyeveryfiresituationandconditionthatasubmarinesailormightencounter.Thetrainerreplicates,muchlikethefloodingtrainer,anengineroomonanSSN.Placedstrategicallyaroundthetrainerareaseriesofpropaneburnersdesignedtosimulatehydraulicoil,fueloil,electrical,andinsulation(calledlagging)fires.
AfirefightingteamfromtheUSSGato(SSN-615)practicestheirskillsinthefirefightingtrainerinStreetHall,SubBase,Groton,Connecticut.JOHND.GRESHAM
AfterthecrewsdonNomexjumpsuitsandselectbreathinggear--eitherahose-fedcompressedairmaskfromtheEmergencyAirBreathing(EAB)systemorawalkaroundbreathingsystemcalledanOxygenBreathingApparatus(OBA),whichusesachemicalcartridgetogenerateoxygenfortheuser--thedrillsbegin.Withalltheburners
lit,thetemperatureclimbsrapidlytowardthetrainingmaximumof145degF/67degC,andthereisadecidedhowlfromthefire.
Firefightingteampractice.Notetheteamleader,whoisusinganavalinfraredthermalimager(NIFTI)todirecttheteam'sefforts.JOHND.
GRESHAM
Traininginstructorsareconstantlysupervisingthetraineestomakesuretheirequipmentisfunctioningproperlyandtheyarebreathingregularly,forabove130degF/58degC,thepartofthebrainthatmakesahumanbreatheautomaticallyshutsdown,forcingthetraineestobreatheconsciouslyontheirown.Inaddition,theinstructorsaddchemicallygeneratedsmoke,whichcanreducevisibilitydowntoabout6inches.ItislikesomethingoutofDante'sInferno,andwhileitisexcitingtowatch,eventheknowledgethatitisadrillcannotpreventfeelingsofterror.
Tofightthesimulatedfires,thetraineesareequippedwithavarietyoffireextinguishers,firehoses,andanewthermalimagingdevicecalledNIFTI(NavyInfraredThermalImager--pronounced"nifty").ThisBritish-builtdeviceallowsasailorto"see"afirethroughthesmokebytheheatsignatureofthefire.SosensitiveistheNIFTIthatahumanbodycanbelocatedbylookingfortheheatofhumanmetabolism.Thefireextinguishersaredesignedtofightavarietyofdifferentfires.ThenewAFFFextinguishers,whichthrowasoapyslurry,arethemostpopular.Finally,thereareanumberoffirehosesthatcanbeusedtofightthesimulatedfires.
Allinall,theStreetHallfacilityisamodelofhigh-fidelitytraining,andsimilarfacilitiesarebeingbuiltatothernavalbasesaroundtheUnitedStates.
Allofthesetrainersareveryexpensivetobuild,operate,andmaintain;inatimeofdecliningfunding,theyarenaturallythetargetsofthosewhowouldcutthedefensebudget.Nevertheless,IwouldcontendthatitisbettertodecommissionanSSNortworatherthangiveupthevaluabletrainingthatthesefacilitiesprovidetotheforce.ForwhileitistoughtogetthemoneytooperateandmaintainanassetlikeaLosAngeles-classnuclearsubmarine,thesubisjustamassofmetalwithoutthemenqualifiedtooperateandfighther.Thefacilities
atGrotonandotherbasesareatributetotheoldsayingthatgoes,"Ifyouthinktrainingisexpensive,tryignorance!"
TheBoat:ATourofUSSMiami(SSN-755)
TheImprovedSSN-688Design
OfallthenuclearsubmarinesdesignedbytheUnitedStates,nonehasbeenthesubjectofmorepoliticalinfightingandcontroversythantheLosAngeles(SSN-688)class.Thedesignhasitsrootsinaseriesofincidentsthatoccurredinthelate1960s,rightatthetimetheUnitedStateswastryingtodecidejustwhatkindofnuclearattacksubmarine(SSN)tobuildtoreplacethehighlysuccessfulSturgeon-classboats.Theinfightingbeganwiththedesireofthen-DirectorofNavalReactors(DNR)ViceAdmiralHymanG.Rickovertobuildahigh-speed(over35knots)9submarinecapableofdirectlysupportingthefleetofaircraftcarriersthatrepresentedthebackboneofAmericanseapower.
TheU.S.NavyorganizationchargedwithactuallydevelopingthespecificationsanddesignforthenextgenerationofSSN,theNavalSeaSystemsCommand(Navsea),favoredadesigncalledConformthatwouldnotbeasfastasRickover'sdesign,butwouldhavetheadvantageinareassuchashabitabilityandquieting.
Intheend,thedecisiveeventthatswungthesituationinRickover'sfavorwassomethingknowntodayastheEnterpriseincident,whichwasashocktotheU.S.Navyandintelligencecommunities.Inearly1969thecarrierUSSEnterprise(CVN-65)andherescortslefttheirbaseinCaliforniaforawarcruisetoVietnam.Assheleftharbor,U.S.nationalintelligencepickedupmessagetrafficindicatingthattheSovietUnionwasgoingtodispatchaNovember-classSSNtointerceptthecarrierandhergroup.Inanattempttoestablishonceand
foralljusthowcapablethefirst-generationSovietSSNswere,thetopbattlegroupwasprovidedwithaircoverfromASWaircraftandthentoldtooutruntheNovember.Itdidnotquiteworkoutthough,asthepresumablyslowerRussianboatwasabletomatchspeedwiththeEnterprise.At30knotsthegamewascalledoff.WhenwordreachedWashington,D.C.,itcausedrapidreassessmentofjusthowcapabletheRussianSSNsreallywere.
Upuntilthatpoint,itwasassumedthattheNovemberswereonlycapableofspeedslikethoseoftheNautilusandtheSkates,around20knots.Yetherewasonedoing50percentbetterthanthatandnoteventrying!Andwhatdidthismeanaboutthenewergenerationboats,suchastheVictorIandIIclasses?Inaddition,thereweremountingindicationsthattheSovietswereworkingonanewclassofdeep-diving(over2,000feet/700meters),extremelyhighspeed(over40knots)SSNs.
Infact,theperformanceoftheNovemberswasduetotheextremelackofradiationshielding.Muchlikeahotrodthathasbeenstrippedofeverythingthatweighsitdown,theRussianboatsimplydidnothavetohaularoundthereactorshieldingthateveryothercivilizednationconsideredessentialtothegoodhealthandsafetyoftheirsailors.TheNovember'ssuperioritywasbasedonamisinterpretationoftheinformation,buttherewasnowaytoknowthatatthetime.AndRickoverwasnotamantoletslipanopportunitythatwouldhelpjustifyhispointofview.ThroughhisnetworkofNavyandcongressionalsupporters,hepressuredtheNavytokillConformandbuildaclassofhishigh-speedfleetboats.Intheendhewonauthorizationforatwelve-boatclassofhisfleetsubmarines,thoughtohelpgaincriticalbudgetauthorizationvotesinCongress,hebrokewiththelongstandingNavytraditionofnamingsubmarinesafterseacreaturesandinsteadnamedthemforthehomecitiesofthetwelvecongressmenwhoswungtheirvotesinhisfavor.(Rickoverisallegedtohavesaid,"Fishdon'tvote!")
Thefirstboatoftheclass,theLosAngeles(SSN-688),wastobetheembodimentofhisideasofspeedandpower,butfromtheverystart,itwasaseriesofcompromises.Itissaidthatacamelisahorsedesignedbyacommittee,andtheLosAngeleswasnoexceptiontothatrule.ThefirstproblemhadtodowithfittingthemassiveS6Gpowerplantintoahullwiththedimensionsneededtoachievethe35-knotspeedsspecifiedbyRickover.Quitesimply,thereactorwasgoingtocomein600to800tonsoverweight.Thismeantthatoneormoreofthekeyspecificationsoftheboat--torpedotubes/weaponsload,habitability,radiatednoiselevel,speed,sensors,ordivingdepth--wasgoingtohavetobereduced.Thecompromisewastothinthehullandlimitthedivingdepthofthenewboatstoaboutthree-fourthsthatoftheSturgeonsandPermits(950feet/300meters).Inadditiontherewouldbesomeseverecompromisesinhabitability,forcingevenmoreofthecrewtohotbunk.Asitwas,therewasverylittlereservebuoyancy(around11percent)andlessgrowthpotentialthaninanyotherSSNeverdesignedbytheUnitedStates.
OncethedesignoftheLosAngeleswasfinalized,therewasthematterofselectingaprimecontractor.TheNavychosetheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorp.,despitetheirhavingsubmittedabidthat,inretrospect,wasnotcapableofrecoupingeventhecostsofbuildingthefirstgroupoftwelveboats.Clearly,ElectricBoatwas"bettingonthecome"--thattheycouldrecovertheirlostprofitsfromconstructionofboatsbeyondthefirsttwelveunits.Unfortunately,theydidthisatatimeofrelativelyhighinflationandrecessionintheeconomy,andthetermsofthecontractbegantomakeitimpossibleforElectricBoattobreakevenonthefirstboats.ThenaNavyinspectionofweldsfoundthatanumberoftheboatshadeitherfaultyormissingweldsoncriticalpartsofthepressurehulls.Thismeantanumberoftheboatshadtobecompletelyrebuilt,furtherincreasingcoststoElectricBoat.IntheendtheU.S.NavyhadtobailoutElectricBoatandpaythecostsoftheoverrunsontheFlightI
boats.ThisbailoutcausedamassivescandalthatwoundupcostingGeneralDynamicsthesole-sourcecontractforthesubsaswellascausingtheindictmentoftheElectricBoatyardmanageronbriberycharges.TheNavygottheboats,butatamassivecosttothetaxpayers.
Onthepositiveside,whattheNavyandtaxpayersdidgetwerethefastest,quietest,mostcapableSSNseverbuilt.Ontrials,thenewboatsprovedtobeallthathadbeenhopedforthem.Andin1976,whentheLosAngeleswascommissionedandsentonpatrol,sheclearlymarkedthebeginningofaneweraofattackboats.Partofthiscamefromtheimprovedsensorsuite.Forthefirsttime,anintegratedsonarsuitewasincludedinthedesignoftheboatfromtheverystart.Inaddition,shewasamongthefirstboatstobeabletotakeadvantageofthenewfamilyofsubmarineweapons,theMk48torpedoandtheUGM-84Harpoonantishipmissile,thatwerecomingonlineatthattime.ThuswhattheUnitedStatesgotwiththeFlightILosAngeles-classboatswasanextremelycapablecamel.V
USSMiami(SSN-755)JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
USSMiami,externallayout.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
LogoofUSSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ThismighthavebeentheendoftheLosAngelesstoryexceptforthesuddenchillintheColdWarthatoccurredinthelate1970s.AfterthedownturninEast-Westrelations,theNavygotanauthorizationforadditionalunitsoftheLosAngelesclass.AndwhenRonaldReaganwonthepresidencyin1980,theconstructionofadditionalsubmarinesaspartofthe"600-shipNavy"clearlymeantmoreLosAngeles-classboats.Intheseboatsweretogosomeoftheimprovementsthathadbeenplannedfortheclassearlyon.StartingwiththeUSSProvidence(SSN-719),thetypedesignationchangedtoFlightII.TheFlightIIboatshadanumberofimprovements,particularlyintheareaofweaponsstowage.OneoftheproblemswithU.S.SSNshadbeenthelimitednumberofweapons(aroundtwenty-four)thatcouldbecarriedintheirtorpedorooms.AndwiththeadditionofHarpoonandthenewfamilyofUGM-109Tomahawkcruisemissiles(antishipandlandattackversions),itwasgettingtoughertoplananappropriateweaponsload.Togetaroundthis,atwelve-tubeverticallaunchsystem(VLS)forTomahawkcruisemissileswasaddedtotheforwardpartoftheboat,whereroomhadbeenleftforthemintheoriginaldesign.
AlmosttwodozenoftheFlightIIboatswerebuilt,andtheircruisemissilefirepowerprovedquiteusefulduringOperationDesertStorm
in1991.TheFlightIIswerealsothefirstmajorgroupequippedwiththenewanechoic/decouplingcoatingdesignedtoreducetheeffectivenessofactivesonars,aswellastoreducethenoiseradiatedbytheboat.EventuallyalloftheLosAngeles-classboatswouldberetrofittedwiththiscoating.AnothermajorimprovementwasthatbeginningwiththeFlightIIboats,theS6Greactorswerefittedwithanewhigh-outputreactorcore.ThisallowedtheFlightIIboatstomaintaintheirhighspeed(over35knots)despitetheadditionaldragimpostedbythenewcoating.
ThefinalevolutionoftheLosAngeles-classboatswastheversionknownastheImprovedLosAngeles(688I).Thisversionofthebasicdesignwouldbefitted(inadditiontotheVLSsystemfromtheFlightIIboats)withthenewBSY-1combatsystem.Thissystem,whichtiesalloftheboat'sweaponsandsensorstogether,wasdesignedtoovercometheproblemsassociatedwithtrackandtarget"hand-off"betweenthesensorandfirecontroloperators.Inaddition,the688Iwasmodifiedtosupportunder-iceoperations.ThisincludedstrengtheningthefairwatersothatitcouldbeusedasapenetrationaidthroughArcticice,aswellasmovingtheforwarddiveplanesfromthefairwatertothehull,nearthebow.Finally,thebasicboatdesignwasenhancedwithanumberofquietingimprovements.Ithasbeenopenlystatedthatthe688IsarealmosttentimesquieterthanthebasicFlightIboats.
Allinall,the688IisthefinestSSNroamingtheoceanstoday.Whileitdoeshaveshortcomings,divingdepthandhabitabilitybeingmostnotable,itstillhasthebestsinglemixofmobility,weapons,andsensorseverfittedtoasubmarine.AndwhilethenextgenerationofSSNswillmakeupfortheshortcomingsoftheLosAngelesclass,itwillbeatanenormousprice.Inanycase,theU.S.Navyhadbettergetusedtothem--theyhaveorderedatotalofsixty-twoboatsintheclass.AndwiththeretirementoftheentirePermitclass,aswellasplannedearlydecommissioningofmostoftheSturgeons,itisentirelylikely
thattheyear2000willseetheU.S.NavyoperatingfiftytosixtyLosAngeles-classboatsandprobablyjusttwoorthreeSeawolfs.
RIGHT:TheexecutiveofficerofUSSMiami,LieutenantCommanderMarkWooten,USN.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
LEFT:ThecommandingofficerofUSSMiami(SSN-755),CommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
USSMiami:OurGuidedTourBegins
Forourguidedtourofa688I,wewillprofiletheUSSMiami(SSN-755),thethirdU.S.Navyvesseltobearthename.ThepreviousMiamisincludedadouble-endedgunboatthatfoughtduringtheCivil
War,andaCleveland-classlightcruiserduringWorldWarII.ThecruiserMiami(CL-89)earnedsixbattlestarsduringherserviceinthePacificduringWorldWarII,andfoughtinsuchactionsastheMarianas,LeyteGulf,IwoJima,andOkinawa.ThecurrentMiamiwasbuiltattheElectricBoatDivisionyardofGeneralDynamicsatGroton.ShewaslaunchedNovember12,1988,andwascommissionedJune30,1990.SheisassignedtoSUBDEVRON12basedatNewLondon.Sheissome362feetlongand33feetindiameterandhasacrewof13officersand120enlistedmen.
USSMiami,externallayouttopview.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ThetwelvehydraulicallyoperateddoorsoftheMiami'sverticallaunchsystemforTomahawkcruisemissiles.Notethepressurecapstoprotectthemissiles.JOHND.GRESHAM
HercaptainatthetimeofthiswritingisCommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN.HeisagraduateoftheU.S.NavalAcademy(classof1974),andthisishisfirstafloatcommand.HeisgenerallyconsideredtobeoneofthetopU.S.skippersinthesubforcetoday,notonlybyhisfellowofficersbutbythecaptainsoftheboatsoftheRoyalNavyandotherNATOnationsthathehasmixeditupwithduringvariousexercises.HisexecutiveofficerisLieutenantCommanderMark
Wootten,USN.HeisagraduateoftheUniversityofPennsylvania(classof1978),andisonthetracktoobtainasubmarinecommandhimself.
Miamiisfortunateinthatsheisthefirstofthe688IstobefittedwithacompleteBSY-1combatsystemandalltheothergoodiesplannedfortheclass.Theotherboatsofthegroup,startingwiththeUSSSanJuan(SSN-751),havelesscapablepreproductionversionsofthesystemandthuswillhavetoawaitrefitstomoveuptothefull688Istandard.Inaddition,Miamiisreportedtohavedone37knotsoutontrialswithherhigh-outputreactorcore.Sheisafast,smart-lookingboatwithanexcellentrecordthusfaronexercisesandpatrols.Let'sgoaboardandtakealookforourselves.
Hull/Fittings
Asyouwalkacrossthegangplankontotheboatthefirstthingthatstrikesyouisthestraightandlevelnatureofthehull.Severalthingsaccountforthis.Firstandforemostisthefactthatformostofitslength,theLosAngeles-classboatisaperfect33-foot-diametertubeofsteel.Thisisafunctionofherhighspeedrequirement.Long,narrowhullshavelessdragthantheteardrop-shapedhullsthatcanbeseenonearlierU.S.orBritishboats.Andwhilethisdoesmakeforafasterboat,ithassomeadverseeffectsonhandlingduringoperations.Inaddition,itiseasytotellthatMiamiisequippedwiththeMk32VLSsystem,sinceitissittinglevelinthewater.TheearlierFlightIboats,becausetheyarenotequippedwiththeVLS,alwayshaveapronounced"noseup"attitudewhentheyrideonthesurface.
ThecoatingofdecouplingtilesonthehulloftheUSSGroton(SSN-694).Theindividualtilesaregluedtothehulltoformacarpetof
rubberaroundit.NotethesafetytrackontheTB-16shroud,whichcrewmembersondeckhookonto.JOHND.GRESHAM
Anotherthingthatyouimmediatelynoticeisthelongshroudrunningdownthestarboardsideofthehull.ThisisthehousingforthevariouspartsoftheTB-16passivetowedarraysonar.Alongtheshroudrunsatrackthatallowspersonnelondecktosecurethemselvestothehull,ifsurfaceoperationsarerequired.Asyoustepontothehull,youimmediatelynoticethatitseemstobemadeupofaseriesoftilesorbricks.Andwhenyousteponthem,theyseemto"give,"muchlikethepaddingunderacarpet.Thisistheanechoic/decouplingcoatingdesignedtodefeatactivesonarsaswellasreducethenoiseemittedbytheboat'sinternalmachinery.Itcoverstheentirehullexceptforthehatches,controlsurfaces,andsonardome/windows.
ForwardtowardthebowarethetwelvehatchesfortheVLSmissilelaunchtubes.Theouterdoorsorcapsforthefourtorpedotubesarelocated,twotoaside,belowthewaterline.Alongthetopofthecasing,alignedalongthecenteraxisoftheboat,arethreehatches.Theonejustforwardofthefairwateristheweaponsloadinghatch.Here,usingaspecialsetofloadinggear,thevariousweaponsfiredfromthetorpedoroomareloaded.Twomorehatchesaftofthefairwateraresetasideforthemoremundanejobofpersonnelaccess.Bothareequippedtoactasairlocksintheeventthatarescuesubmarineneedstolockon,orasawayforswimmerstoleavetheboat.Theafthatchleadsintothemachineryspacesaftofthereactorcompartment.Entryintothisareaisstrictlycontrolled.Theotherhatch,justaftofthefairwater,isthemainentrypointintheforwardpartoftheboat.
Thehulliscomposedofaseriesofringsorbarrelsections,weldedtogetheratthebuildingyard.The33-foot-diameterhullisitselfapproximately3inchesthickandcomposedofHY-80high-tensilesteel.Ateachendofthe360-foot-longhullisahemisphericendcap,whichisweldedontothecylinderformedbythebarrelsections.Themainballasttanksareattheforwardandaftendsofthehull,withthe
sonardomemountedforwardandthepropulsionsectionanditscontrolsurfacesmountedaft.Inaddition,smallervariableballasttanks,whichareusedtomaintainthetrimoftheboat,arelocatedinsidethehull.
LosAngeles-classsubmarineonthesurface.ELECTRICBOATDIV.,GENERALDYNAMICSCORP.
Onefinalthingthatcomestotheviewer'seyeisthedetailworkdonebythedesignerstominimizeanytypeofflownoisefromthehull.Allofthefittings,calledcapstans,usedtosecuretheboattothepierforwardofthefairwateraremountedalongthecenterline,sothat
theyarealreadyindisturbedwaterandwillnotcauseanyothernoiseontheirown.Noexpenseissparedtomakethehullcleanofanythingthatmightdisturbthewaterflowandcreatenoise.Eventhehugeseven-bladedpropeller,madeofaspecialbronzealloy,isspecificallydesignedtopreventanddelaytheonsetofcavitation.
Sail/Fairwater
Ifweweretomovetothetopofthefairwater,wecouldjustsqueezeintothetinybridgearea.Itisextremelycrampedandhasonlythemostbasicofnavigationalaidstosupportgettinginandoutofharbor.Inthepast,submarinecaptainsactuallyusedtofighttheirsubmarinesfromthisposition.Butwiththeadventofnuclear-poweredsubs,whichspendmostoftheirtimeunderwater--Miamiis,infact,morestableandfastersubmergedthansurfaced--thispositionhasbecomelessimportant.
Justbehindthebridgepositionarethemastscontainingthevarioussensorsfortheboat.TheseincludetheattackandsearchperiscopesaswellastheESM,radar,andcommunicationsmasts.Someofthesemastsactuallypenetratethehullandprovidetheboatwithitseyesandelectronicearstotheworldtopside.Inaddition,afloatingantennaisreeledoutfromapointontheafterpartofthefairwatertoprovideMiamiwithaccesstotheVeryLowFrequency(VLF)andExtremelyLowFrequency(ELF)communicationschannels.Ittrailsoutseveralthousandfeetbehindtheboatonceshehasdivedandstabilized.Inthefloorofthebridgepositionisasmallhatchleadingdownsomethreestoriesintothecontrolroom.Asyoufinallydropintothehull,youareintheportsidepassageway,justforwardofthecontrolroom.
TheMk18searchperiscopeinthecontrolroomoftheUSSMiami.
JOHND.GRESHAM
Controlroom,USSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
TheMiami'smissionstatusboard,locatedinthecontrolroom.Thisboardistobefilledinandmaintainedbytheofficerofthewatch.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Theautomaticplotreadoutinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
ControlRoom
Walkingthefewfeetaftintothecontrolroomyouareimmediatelystruckbythefactthattheairiscleanandfreshandtheroomisbrightlylit.Andwhiletheroomisfullofbusypeopleandpackedwithgear,itisnotreallyconfining.Onepopularmisconceptionisthatifyouareclaustrophobic,youwillnotbeabletoliveandworkonasubmarine--onthecontrary,theveryfactthatoverahundredmenareworking,eating,andlivinginthisconfinedmetaltubecanbereassuring.
Inthemiddleofthecontrolroomisaraisedplatformwiththeperiscopesinthemiddleofit.Theforwardpartisthewatchstationfortheofficerofthedeck(OOD).HerehehasfullviewofallofMiami'svariousstatusboardsaheadofhim,accesstotheperiscopesbehind,aswellasfirecontroltohisrightandshipcontroltohisleft.ThesearetheweaponscontrolconsolesfortheBSY-1combatsystem,whichistheheartoftheMiami'sfightingpower.Theshipcontrolareaisintheforwardcornerontheportside.
PlottingtableusedaboardaLosAngeles-classsubmarine.Eachboathastwoofthesetablesinthecontrolroom.JOHND.GRESHAM
Thenavigationandplottingareasareattherearofthecompartment.Downtheportsideofthecontrolroomarethevariousnavigationalsystems,includingthenewNavstarglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)receiver.Itismostnoticeablebythegapthatitsitsin.Wherebeforetherewasarackofnavigationalequipmentthattookup4to6cubicfeetofvolume,theGPSsystem,whichgivesathree-
dimensionalnavigationalfixaccuratetowithin9feet/3meters,isawondertakinguponlyabout60cubicinches.Itderivesitsaccuracyfromaseriesoftwenty-foursatellitesoperatinginlowearthorbit.Thereadoutsshowtheexactlatitudeandlongitude,aswellasanumberofdifferentusefulfunctions.SoaccurateistheGPSsystemthatsomeU.S.NavyshipcaptainshavebeenabletomakeblindapproachestopiersinheavyfogusingonlyGPSasareference.TheonlylimitationtoGPSisthattheMiamimustraiseamast,suchasthesearchperiscope,toobtaina.fix.Tomakeupforthis,Miamialsohasaship'sinertialnavigationalsystem(SINS)thatkeepsconstanttrackofthesub'spositionthroughanadvancedthree-dimensionalgyroscopesystemthatsensesrelativemotionfromaknownstartingpoint.ProperuseofSINSwithperiodicGPSupdateshelpskeeptheMiamiwithinafewhundredfeetofitsplannedtrackatalltimes.
Periscopesinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
Theplottingarea,aftoftheperiscopes,hasapairofautomatedplottingtables,thoughmostofthemovementsareplottedbyhand.Despitewhatonemightthink,mostoftheplottingofMiami'smovementsisdonemanuallybyajuniorofficerorenlistedman,ontracingpaperoverastandardnavigationalchart.Scatteredthroughoutthepassagewaysareaseriesofuprightsteelboxessecuredtothebulkheads.Theycontainseveralcompletesetsofchartswhichcovertheentireworld,aswellasdetailedchartsforspecificareastowhichtheMiamimightbetasked.Inadditiontothenavigationalinstrumentsandplots,thereareanumberofinstrumentsassociatedwiththeMiami'sabilitytoworkundertheArcticicepack.Theseincludedevicestoobtainverticaltracesofthebottomandicefloes,aswellas
variousinstrumentstomeasuretemperatureandwaterdepth.
Theperiscopesaremountedsidebyside,withtheType2attackscopetoportandtheMk18searchscopetothestarboard.TheType2isabasicopticalperiscopewithnoadvancedopticsandonlyasimpledaylightopticalcapability.ThemajorityoftheperiscopeworkisdonethroughtheType18.ItisthemostadvancedperiscopecurrentlyfittedtoaU.S.sub.Inadditiontoitsstraightopticalcapabilityithasalow-lightoperatingmode,whichcanbeprojectedontoanumberoftelevisionmonitorsaroundtheboat.Itisalsoequippedwitha70mmcamerafortakingperiscopephotos,aswellasthereadoutsfortheElectronicSupportMeasures(ESM)receivermountedontopoftheType18mast.ItalsohasanantennafortheGPSreceivermountedonit.Thisisatrulygreatscope,capableofalmostanyactivitythatmightbeaskedofaperiscope.Themastsforthetwoscopesgoupthroughthefairwater;theymaybecoatedwitharadar-absorbingmaterial(knownasRAM)tokeeptheirradarsignaturedown.
Theshipcontrolarea,locatedintheforwardportsidecorner,hasthreebucketseats--withseatbelts--aswellasroomforanotherpersontostand.Normallyitismannedbytwoenlistedpersonnelwhooperatethedivingplanesandrudder(calledtheplanesmanandhelmsman),andthedivingofficerandthechiefofthewatchcontrollingtheballastandtrim.Theplanesmanandhelmsmanarefacedwithaircraft-stylecontrolwheels,andsitfacingabankofcontrolreadoutsandinstruments.Thereisnoviewofthesurroundingseaandeveniftherewere,itwoulddolittlegood.Atdepthsoverafewhundredfeetverylittlelightpenetrates,andtheseabecomes,asJacques-YvesCousteaucallsit,"adarkandsilentworld."
LEFT:Asailoroperatingthediveplanes.Tohisrightisthesteeringcontrolstation.JOHND.GRESHAM
RIGHT:ShipcontrolstationofaLosAngeles-classsubmarine.Thecontrolwheelsgovernsteeringanddiving.Thecenterconsoletelegraphordersthespeedoftheboat.JOHND.GRESHAM
Thehelmsman,planesman,anddivingofficermantheshipcontrolstationoftheUSSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
Justbehindtheshipcontrolareastandsthedivingofficer,whoisactuallyorderingtheplanesmanandhelmsmanwhattodoandwhen.TohisleftisthepositionwheretheCOBmaysit,thoughotherswillfrequentlydrawdutythere.Thisiswherethecontrolsforthemultitudeofvalves,tanks,andotherequipmentrequiredtodiveandsurfacetheboatarelocated.Eachmancontrolseithertherudderandbowplanes,orthehorizontalstabilizer.Two-mancontrolhasbeenahallmarkofU.S.designphilosophyforgenerations,andMiamiisnodifferent.Foreveryprimarysystemthereisabackup,usuallywithamanualoperatingmode.Mostnoticeableoftheseareapairofmushroom-shapedhandleslocatedatthetopoftheballastcontrolpanel.Thesearethemanualvalvestoconductwhatisknownasan
emergencyblow.Intheeventtheboatneededtoget"ontheroof"inahurry,thepersonattheballastcontrolpanelwouldactivatethesetwohandles.Thesevalves,whichrequirenopowerofanykind,sendhigh-pressureairdirectlyfromtheairbanksintotheballasttanks--whenthathappens,you'reheadedupfast.EarlyAmericanSSNsdidnothavethisfeature,andthislackwasfelttobeacontributingcauseofthelossoftheThresherin1963.
Divingtheboatisnotthecrashdiveof1950ssubmarinemovies.Infact,itisacarefullycontrolledandbalancedprocedurethatresemblesaballetdancedbyanelephant.First,thecaptainordersanypersonneldownfromthebridge,andtheclosingofallhatches.Oncethatisdone,thedivingofficerlooksoverthestatusboardtotheleftoftheshiphandlingstationstoverifythatallhatchesandventsaresealed,andthattheairbankshaveanappropriatereserveofairpressure.Thisdone,thedivingofficeropenstheventsatopeachballasttanktoallowameasuredamountofwaterintothetanks.Thisisjustenoughtomaketheboatslightlyheavierthanthesurroundingwater(callednegativelybuoyant).Asthisishappening,thedivingofficerorderstheplanesmentoput10to15degreesofdownangleontheboat,usingthebowandsterndivingplanes.Atthisstagetheboatbeginstosettle.Alltold,thisprocessnormallycantakefromfivetoeightminutes.
ALosAngeles-classnuclearsubmarinebreaksthesurfaceduringanemergencyblowdrill.ELECTRICBOATDIV.,GENERALDYNAMICSCORP.
Theballastcontrolpanelgovernstheballastandtrimtanks,whichallowtheboattosurface,dive,andremainneutrallybuoyant.JOHND.GRESHAM
Initiallythedivewillbeheldupwhenadepthof60feet(periscopedepth)hasbeenreached.Atthispointthedepthwillbemaintainedwiththediveplanesandtheforwardmotionoftheboat.Duringthistimethedivingofficerwillhavethechiefofthewatchpumpwaterinandoutofthetrimtankstomaketheboatneutrallybuoyantandbalanced.Inaddition,thecaptainwillprobablyorderaseriesofchecksonallofthecompartmentsoftheboatforwatertightintegrity,anddoachecktoseeifanymachineryismakingabnormalnoises,orifanyobjectsarelooseorimproperlystowed.Nextthecaptainwillprobablyorderaseriesofextremedivingexercisescalledanglesanddangles,whicharedesignedtodiscoverifanythingisstillimproperlystowed.Theoldhandstakeaperverseprideinbeingabletowalkandkeepacupofcoffeefromspillingduringhigh-angledives.NowtheMiamicangetdowntocruising.
Anoperator'sviewoftheballastcontrolpanelonboardtheUSSMiami.Intheupperleftaretheemergencyblowhandlesdesignedtosurfacetheboatinanemergency.JOHND.GRESHAM
Someoftheinstrumentsthatwouldbeseenbythehelmsmanandplanesmanwhile"driving"theUSSMiami:(lefttoright)dive/bankangle,heading,anddepthtokeel.JOHND.GRESHAM
Maneuveringa6,900-tonsubmarineissomethingthatisdonewithsubtletyandaminimumofrapidaction.Aslowanddelicatetouchontheplanesandruddersisrequiredtopreventunwantednoise.Ifyou
desiretochangespeed,yourotateaknobcalledanEngineOrderTelegraph,whichsendsaninstructionbacktotheengineroomtoeitherincreaseordecreasethepowertothepropellershaft.Thelackofprecisionmightsurprisesomepeople,asthereareonlyForwardandReverse,withchoicesforAllStop,OneThird,TwoThirds,Full,andFlank.Inspiteofthis,theprecisionthatyoucanmaneuvertheboatwithisamazing.Infact,theOODcanordertheprecisenumberofpropellerrevolutionsor"turns"requiredtomaintainanyspeedrequired.
Shipcontrolconsole,USSMiami.Theplane/ruddercontrolwheelisseentotheleft,withtheautomaticdepthcontrolandengineroomtelegraph(speedcontrol)tothelowerright.JOHND.GRESHAM
Theoneproblemwithdrivinga688Iisthatittendstobeslightlyunstableatsomedepthsandspeedsettings.Thisispartlyaproductofthe688I'shullshape,whichisoptimizedforspeed,andpartlyfromtheforwardplacementofthefairwater.Normallyonlylight
correctionswillbenecessarytokeeptrackingbutonemustbereadyforanysituation,includingcombatmaneuvers,whichcanbecomedownrightviolent.
Runningunderwateris,ifnothingelse,probablythesmoothestridethatyouwilleverknow.Oncetheboatistrimmedandlevel,thereislittleornosensationofmotion,andyoufeelasifyou'rewalkingthroughthebasementofabuilding.Thereis,infact,afeelingofbeingonverysolidground.Veryreassuring,andveryquiet.Infact,quietisthenameofthegameinthisbusiness.Whenthesubisrunningunderwater,nobodyraisestheirvoice,slamsahatch,orevendropsthetoiletseathard.Afteratime,youbecomehushedandsilent.Somuchthebetter.
Surfacingtheboatisanexerciseinitself,asthereisnomorevulnerabletimeforasubmarine.Partofthisisbecauseasurfacingboatmakeslotsofnoise:therushofcompressedairfromtheairflasksintotheballasttanks;thenoiseofthehullexpandingfromthedecreasedwaterpressure,calledhullpopping.Allthisnoisemakestheboatpartiallydeafandblind,sospecialprecautionsaretaken.Thefirstthingthedivingofficerdoesistohavetheplanesmenattheshipcontrolstationsbringhertoperiscopedepth.Atthispointthesearchperiscopewillberaisedtodoavisualcheckforanysurfacevessels,aswellassonarlisteningforanysurfaceorsubsurfacecontacts.Oncethecaptainisconfidentthatalliscleartopside,hewillorderthedivingofficertoblowcompressedairfromtheairflasksintotheballasttankstogivetheboataslightlyupward,orpositive,buoyancy.Withinseveralminutestheboatwillsurface,andthecaptainwillestablishabridgewatchuponthefairwater.
Onceonthesurface,youimmediatelynoticetherollingoftheboatinthesurfaceswells.Itisanironictruththatthesamehulldesignthatprovidessuchasmoothrideinthedepthsoftheoceanrollsratherdrunkenlyinamildsurfaceswell.Whileitisnotparticularlyuncomfortable,whencomparedtotheamazingstabilityoftheboatat
depth,thedifferenceseemsenormous.Whilerunningonthesurface,itisessentialthatthebridgewatchmaintainaconstantlookoutforanysurfacevessels.Sinceasubmarineisashardtoseeasitis,submarinersarealwaysconcernedaboutbeingrunoverbyaroguesupertankerorliner,andarecautioustoavoidfishingvessels,especiallythoseusingdriftnets.
Communications/ElectronicWarfareSpaces
Thecommunicationsshackislocatedforwardofthecontrolroomalongtheportsidepassageway,andisnotableforthesecuritywarningspostedonthedoor.ItisincrediblyvitaltotheoperationsofMiami.Packedintothattinyspaceisalloftheradiotransmissionandcryptographicgearthatisrequiredtosendandreceivemessages,rangingfromoperationalcombatorderstopersonal"familygrams."
LEFT:Oneofthebathythermographprobesthatcanbelaunchedbythe3-inchsignal/decoyejectoroftheUSSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
RIGHT:NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsoleanalyzingthevelocityofsoundinthewateratvariousdepths.Thedataisgeneratedthroughlaunchingofabathythermographfromthe3-inchejectortube.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Theradioequipmentcoversabroadspectrumoffrequencyrangesfromultra-highfrequency(UHF),highfrequency(HF),verylowfrequency(VLF),andextremelylowfrequency(ELF).Inaddition,thereisequipmentdesignedtoallowtheMiamitocontactcommunicationssatellites,aswellasunderwatertelephoneequipmentcommonlyknownasGertrude.Mostoftheradioequipmentistiedtosophisticatedencryptiongear(calledcrypto)designedtomakeitimpossibleforanyonebutanAmericantoreadthemessagetraffic.
Thisparticularpointhasnotalwaysbeensosecure,asthediscoveryoftheWalkerfamilyspyringshowedin1985.Foroverfifteenyears,
aNavypettyofficer,alongwithhisfamilymembersandafriend,helpedtheSovietUnionacquirethekeystothevariouscryptosystemsusedbytheUnitedStates.ThismeantthattheSovietshadaccesstovirtuallyallourmajorcryptosystemsfrom1969to1985,whentheringwasfinallyapprehended.SincethattimetheNationalSecurityAgency,whichischargedwiththedesignandsecurityofcryptosystems,hasapparentlyrebuilttheU.S.familyofencryptionsystemsandallegedlychangedtheproceduresthatallowedJohnWalkerandhisfamilytoputsomuchofournationalsecurityatrisk.
ThemostinterestingofthesesystemsaretheELFandVLFsystems,whicharemainlyusedascommandandcontrolsystemsforsubmarines.TheirspecialpropertyisthatthesignalsfromELFandVLFsystemscanpenetratethewatertobepickedupbytheantennatrailedfromtheportsideofthefairwater.Moreoftenthannot,becauseoftheirrelativelylowrateoftransmission(ELFworksataboutonelettercharactereveryfifteentothirtyseconds;VLFisfastenoughforteletypecommunications),theyareusedtocuesubmergedsubmarinestocometoperiscopedepth,andpokeoneoftheircommunicationsmastsuptogetasignalfromasatelliteorUHFchannel.
Itisstandardonsubmarinestominimizeanyactualtransmissionfromtheirradiosystems.AlwaysloomingoverthesubmarineforcearethememoriesofwhattheAlliedASWforceswereabletodototheU-boatsinWorldWarII,becauseoftheirknowledgeoftheGermanEnigmaciphersystem.ThepenetrationsofU.S.systemsbytheWalkerspyringhaveonlyreinforcedthebeliefthattransmittingwitharadioisaninvitationtoafuneral.Thusitisonlyoccasionallywhentheyareclosetoapotentialenemythattheywillsendmessages.Toasubmariner,onlysilenceisafriend.Anynoise,acousticorelectronic,isanenemy.
AnothermethodofcommunicatingwiththeoutsideworldisfortheboattoejectaSLOT(Submarine-LaunchedOne-WayTransmitter)
buoyfromitsforward3-inchsignalejectorlauncher.Locatedinasmallcompartmentforwardthatdoublesastheship'spharmacy,itresemblesatinytorpedotube.Thefirststepistorecordamessage,suchasacontactreport,onthebuoy'srecorder.Thebuoyisthenfiredintothewater,whereitwaitsaperiodoftime,saythirtyminutestoacoupleofhours,thensendsoutahigh-speedbursttransmissionthatcanbepickeduponaspecialsatellitecommunicationschannel.
InadditiontolaunchingSLOTbuoys,the3-inchejectorcanbeusedtolaunchbathythermographstomonitorthermallayersinthewater,aswellasseveraltypesofdecoyssuchasnoisemakersandbubblegenerators.Asecond3-inchejectorisaftintheengineeringspaces,andbothunitscanbecontrolledandfiredfromapanelinthecontrolroom.
KeepingtrackoftheelectronicnoisesanSSNencountersisthejobofMiami'sElectronicSupportMeasures(ESM)suite.TechnicallythesuiteismadeupofaradarandelectronicsignalreceiverknownasWLR-8(V).Thisisusedtomonitortheradarandradioemissionsinoperationalareas.Inaddition,theMiamiisequippedwithaBPS-15surfacesearchradartoassistinshiphandlingandnavigation.Allthesesystemshavetheirantennasmountedonretractablemasts,whichcanberaisedwhiletheboatisatperiscopedepth.
TheplacementoftheMiami'sforwardsonararrays.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
AN/BSY-1CombatSystem
AttheveryheartoftheMiami'scombatpoweristhenewBSY-1(pronounced"busyone")submarinecombatsystem.Allthesensor,firecontrol,andweaponssystemsoftheFlightIandIILosAngeles-classboats,aswellasafewnewitems,aretiedtogetherintoasinglesystemcontrolledbyabatteryofUYK-seriescomputersrunningalmost1.1millionlinesofAda(thedefensedepartment'ssystemsprogramminglanguage)computercode.DevelopedbyIBM,withHughes,Raytheon,andRockwellassubcontractors,BSY-1representsthefirstuseofwhatisknownasdistributedprocessorarchitecture.Allofitistiedtogetherbyadatahighwayknownasadatabus,whichisbecomingsomethingofastandardonweaponssystemssuchastheF-18Hornetfighter/bomberandthePatriotsurface-to-missilesystem.
Thismeansthatinsteadofhavingonelargecomputerrunningallthesensorandcombatfunctions,acentralcomputerhandsoutprocessingassignmentstoothercomputersrunningcodedesignedtohandleaspecificjoblikeacousticprocessingorcruisemissilemissionplanning.Inthiswaythedistributedsystemactuallyrunsfasterthanalargersinglecomputerwould.ItalsomakestheBSY-1systemeasiertoupgradeandbetterabletooperateinadegradedordamagedcondition.
MountingoftheMiami'stowedsonararrays.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
OtherthantheracksofUYK-7,UYK-43,andUYK-44computersburiedinthecomputercompartments,themostvisiblesignsoftheBSY-1systemaretheconsolesinthesonarroom,forwardofthecontrolroom,alongthestarboardpassageway.HerefourmannedsonarconsolesprovidetheMiamiwithherearstotheunderwaterworld.IntotheseconsolestheBSY-1systemfeedsinformationfromthevarioussonarsystems.TheMiami'smainsonarsystem,almostidenticaltotheBQQ-5DsystemonearlierLosAngeles-classboats,isactuallyacollectionofmanydifferentsonarsystems,including:
*Thesphericalsonararray,locatedinthebow.Thelargesphere(15-footdiameter)hasbothactive(echoranging)andpassive(listening)modes,andiscurrentlyoneofthemostpowerfulactivesonars(over75,000wattsofradiatedpower)afloatanywhereintheworld.*Theconformalarrayisalow-frequencypassivesonar
arraymountedaroundthebow.*Thehigh-frequencyarrayisanupgradetothesphericalarray,allowingittogeneratetheadvancedwaveformsthatmaketheactivemodesoftheBSY-1soeffective.Italsoincorporatesanunder-iceandminedetectioncapabilityfromanarrayinthefairwater.*TheTB-16Disthebasictowedarray,whichisfedfromthetubularshroudonthestarboardsideofthehull.Itisapassivesystem,designedtoprovidemedium-rangedetectionoflow-frequencynoise.Itisfedfromalargereelintheforwardpartoftheboatandplayedoutfromatubeinthestarboardhorizontalstabilizer.Ithasa2,600-footcablethatis3.5inches/89mmthick,withthereceivinghydrophonesina240-foot-longarrayattheendofthecable.*TheTB-23isthenewpassive"thinline"towedarrayassociatedwiththeBSY-1system.Itssmallerdiameter(1.1inches/28mm)meansthatthehydrophonearraycanbelonger(approximately960feet),anditcanbefartherawayfromthenoiseofthetowingsubmarine.TheTB-23isspecificallydesignedtodetectverylowfrequencynoiseatverylongranges.Itisstowedonareelintheaftandfedfromareceiverintheporthorizontalstabilizer.*TheWLR-9istheacousticinterceptreceiverdesignedtoalertthecrewthatanactivesonarisbeingused,suchaslargeactivesonararraysorsonaronincomingweapons.
Associatedwithallthesesystemsisaseriesofsignalprocessorsandotherequipment,whichtranslatethesoundsemittedandcollectedbythevarioussonarsystemsintothedatadisplayedonthesonarconsoles.ThefourBSY-1sonarconsolesareusuallyconfiguredto
havethreeofthemlookingatparticularelementsoftheBQQ-5Dsonarsensorswhilethefourthisusedbythesonarwatchsupervisor.Therealsoisasonarspectrumanalyzeravailableataworkstationintheforwardendofthecompartment.Eachconsolehasapairofmultifunctiondisplays,whichcanbeconfiguredquicklybytheoperatorfortheparticularsensorandmodeofinterest.Forexample,onesonartechnicianmightbelookingatthebroadbandnoisebeingcollectedfromoneofthetowedarrays.Anothermightbewatchingforbroadbandcontactsonthesphericalarray.
Sonarroom,USSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Whatthesonartechnicianactuallyseesisaratherodd-lookingdisplaycalledawaterfall.Itlookslikeagreentelevisionscreenfullofsnowor"noise."Thetopofthedisplayshowsthebearingofaparticularnoisesourceorfrequencybeingdetected.Theverticalscaleshowsthatnoiseorfrequencyovertime.Thesonartechnicianislookingforsomethingthatstandsoutfromtherandompatternof
backgroundnoisebeingdisplayed.Usuallythesoundcontactappearsasasolidlineonthedisplayscreen.Andthisiswherethehuntbegins.
Thetechnicianreportsthecontacttothesonarwatchsupervisorandbeginstheprocessofclassificationandidentification.Thesupervisoralertstheofficerofthedeckthatanewsonarcontact,called"SierraTen,"forexample(contactsarenumberedprogressively),hasbeendetectedandthatthesonarteamisworkingit.Theconventionsfornamingcontactsare:
*Sierra--asonarcontact*Victor--avisualcontact*Romeo--aradarcontact*Mike--acontactcombiningoneormoresignalsfromdifferentsensors
NotionalviewofaBSY-1sonardisplay.Thewhitelineattheleftindicatesacontact.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Whatisimportantnowispatienceandconcentration.AndmuchlikemycharacterJonesy,thesetechnicianspursuejustasmuchanartasascience.Assoonasthefirstsoundlinehasestablishedthatacontactexists,theothertechniciansassistintheclassification.Despiteallthathasbeenwrittenbefore,thereisnoautomaticclassificationmodeintheboat'scomputers--oneoftheMiamisonartechnicianshasproudlysaid,"Westilldoitourselves."
Sometimesafrequencylineisknowntobeuniquetoaparticularpowerplantofaparticularshiporsubmarineclass.Othertimes,theefforttoclassifythetargetmayrequirethetechniciantolistenthroughheadphonestotryandmakeoutwhatthesignalonaparticularbearingis.Theycanlistentotonalsignalstodeterminewhetherthesourceisasurfaceshiporsubmarine.EachofthedifferentsonarsintheBSY-1suitehasitsoptimumfrequencyband,andifanothersensormightbebetteratgettingdataonaparticularsignal,thetechnicianisfullyempoweredtoasktheofficerofthedecktoaltercoursetobringthatsensortobear.Duringthistimethesonarwatchteamaretheeyesandearsoftheboat,andeveryothermanaboardknowsthathissafetymaydependonjusthowgoodtheoperatorsinthesonarroomreallyare.Therearesetprocedurestohelpguidethesonartechnicians,butintheenditcomesdowntotheindividualskillsofthetechniciansdoingwhatmustbeamind-bendingjob.
Thesonarsupervisorreportsthebestestimateofwhatandwherethesourceis,andwhetheritcouldbeathreatornot,totheofficerofthedeck(OOD).TheOODstationsthefirecontrolteamtobeginthelocalization/trackingprocess.Thisisadualprocessutilizingboththemanualplottingtableaswellasoneofthefirecontrolconsoles.OnMiamithisprocessisdifferentfromtheolderLosAngeles-classboatsinthatalltheinformationispassedautomaticallybetweenthesonarroomandthefirecontrolconsoleviatheBSY-1systemnetwork.AtthispointthetrackingteambeginstheprocessknownasTargetMotionAnalysis(TMA).Besidesidentifyingthecontact,theTMA
providesthefirecontrolteamwithausablefirecontrolsolution,targetcourseandspeed,andareliablerange.
Thistakestime--sometimes,alot.Whileyouaretryingtogetalltheinformationnecessarytopossiblyshootatatarget,youmustyourselfremainundetected.MuchofthedatafortheTMAprocesscomesfromthebearingrate,whichishowfastthebearingofatargetischanging,andmonitoringtheDoppler,whichrevealswhetheratargetiscomingnearerormovingaway;thisiscalledtherangerate.WhiletheBSY-1ishelpingthefirecontrolteamdoitsjob,themanualplotteam,assistedbyaspeciallyprogrammedHewlettPackard9020desktopcomputer,isalsoworkingonitsownTMA/rangeanalysis.Thislittledesktopcomputerhasaprogramlibrarythathelpsthemanualplotteamwiththemoreintensivecalculationsandgenerateswhatcanonlybecalledinstantrangestothetarget.Allthewhilethemanualandautomatictrackingsolutionsarechecked,anddataiscrossfedbetweenthem.DuringtheTMAprocesstheboatwouldprobablymaneuverinazigzagpatterntohelpthesonarcrewestablishbetterrangeandbearingratesfortheTMAplots.
Sonarroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
SomenationshavechosentoeliminatethedualTMAprocessanddependonlyonanautomaticsystem.Butthiscanleadtorangingerrorsincriticalsituations,sotheU.S.Navycontinuestousemanualplotsandautomaticsystemsjusttobesure.RecentlyMiamirananexerciseagainstadieselboatbelongingtooneofourNATOallies.Apparently,becauseMiamihadasmallacousticfault(calledasoundshort),theopposingsubthoughttheboatwasmuchcloserthanitactuallywas:theautomaticfirecontrolsystemcalculatedtherangetoMiamiataround6,000yardswhen,infact,itwasover40,000yards.AndwhenthedieselboatfiredatwhatitthoughtwasanearbyU.S.boat,allitdidwasexposeitselftoattackbytheMiami.Needlesstosay,CommanderJonesmadehis"opponent"paydearlyforhiserror.
LEFT:NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsoleanalyzingsoundconditionsinthesurroundingwater.Thesinewaveindicatesthat
conditionsfora"convergencezone"exist.Datafromabathythermographisshownattheleft.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
RIGHT:AnotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsoleshowingrelativeposition,bearing,andspeedofatarget.Thisisanemulationofananalogsystemdatingbacktothe1930s.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
TheTMAprocessiscontinueduntilthecommandingofficerbelievesthetrackingpartyhasagoodenoughpictureofthesituationathand.EverycontacthastohaveareliableTMAsolutionandmustbecurrentlytracked.HereliestherealvalueoftheBSY-1system.ForwhiletheearlierLosAngeles-classboatscouldkeeptrackofonlyafewtargetsatonetime,theBSY-1canhandlemanymore.Andoncethesystemhasagoodtrackrunning,ithasagreatabilitytoholdandmaintainthequalityofthetracks.
Eventuallythetargettrack(s)willbegoodenoughtofireon,ifthatisthedesiredintention,andthetimehascometosetupaweaponforfiring.Thefirecontroltechnicianbeginstheprocessbyinputtingthenecessarypresetsintothechosenweapon.IfitisaMark48,Harpoon,orTomahawkantishipmissile(TASM),thiscanbeaccomplishedentirelyattheBSY-1console.ShouldaTomahawklandattackmissile
(TLAM)needtobeprogrammed,thisisaccomplishedattheadjoiningCommandandControlSystem(CCS-2)console.Fornow,though,wewillconcentrateontheweaponsprogrammedontheBSY-1console.
Firecontrolalleyinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
Asailorworksatoneoftheplottingtablesinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
If,forexample,thedesireistolaunchanantishipmissile,the
technicianmusthaveadecentestimateoftargetcourse,speed,andrange.Itisalsocriticaltoknowwhetherthereisanyneutralshippingtrafficinthearea.Thetechnicianprogramsintheroutetothetarget,aswellasanywaypointsnecessarytoroutethemissilearoundneutralshippingtrafficthatmightbeintheway.Inaddition,thetechnicianprogramsasearchpatternfortheseekerheadofthemissiletolockin.Thismissionplancanbeloadedintoanynumberofmissiles,whicharethenfiredfromtheweaponscontrolconsolelocatedtotherightofthefirecontrolconsoles.
NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsolesettingupanantishipmissileattack.Theexpandingpatternonthescreenrepresentstheareabeingsearchedbytheseekerheadofthemissile.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Theprocessforfiringtorpedoesissomewhatmoredynamicthanthatformissiles.Firstthefirecontroltechniciandevelopsafire
controlsolutionthroughaprocesscalled"stackingthedots."Thescreenwherethisisaccomplisheddisplaysthetargetbearingversustime,similartothatbackinthesonarroom.Onthisdisplaythetargetbearingisshownoveraperiodoftimeasaseriesofdots.Thetechnicianfine-tunesthesolutionbyadjustingtheestimatesofthetarget'srange,course,andspeeduntilthedisplayshowsastraightcolumnofdotsstackedonthedisplay.Afterseveralminutesofworkandpossiblyacoupleofmaneuverstoverifytheaccuracyofthesolution,itisnowtimetoshoot.
Despitewhatsomecomputergameswouldhaveyoubelieve,therearenojoysticksforthefirecontroltechniciansto"fly"thetorpedoontothetarget.Instead,thetechnicianchangestheweaponpresetsonascreenthatlookslikeashoppinglistofparameterssuchastheseekeractivationpoint(called"enablerun"),searchdepth,andwhichseekerheadmodetheweaponistobefiredin.Also,theBSY-1hasseveraldifferentoperatingmodes,includinga"snapshot"modeforfast-movingtacticalsituationsthatrequiretheMiamitoreactquickly.Let'sassumethatthefirecontroltechnicianhasbeenorderedtosetupapairofMk48ADCAPtorpedoesforashotatasubmarine.HeselectsthedesiredtargettrackandallowstheBSY-1toinputtheweaponpresetstothelist.
Atanytime,hecanoverrideoralterthepresetstosuitthetacticalsituation.Forexample,theADCAPhasmodestoavoidmakingcircularrunsandattackingthefiringsubaccidentally,aswellastheabilitytopresetathree-dimensionalsearchzonefortheweaponstosearchin,butnotgooutside.Oncetheweaponshavebeenloadedwiththerequireddata,theycanbefiredbytheweaponsofficerattheorderofthecaptain.Withtheweaponsnowinthewater,ajuniorofficercallsuptheweaponsdisplayonhisconsoleandmonitorsthetorpedoes'status.
OneofthenicefeaturesoftheBSY-1/ADCAPcombinationisthatthetechniciancan"swim"thetorpedoesoutontothetargetanduse
theseekerheadsasoffboardsensorstofine-tunethefiringsolution.Thisismadepossiblebythedatalinkwirethattheweaponstrailoutbehindthem,whichisconnectedtothetorpedotubesoftheMiami.Thismeansthatifthetechnicianseesthetargetmoveoutoftheselectedarea,ordosomethingtacticallydifferentfromwhathethoughtitwoulddo,hecanquicklychangethenecessarypresetsrightfromhisweaponcontrolmenu.
WhentheADCAPsfinallyacquirethetarget,theprocessbecomescompletelyautomatic,withtheoperator'shelprequiredonlyifatorpedomalfunctions.ThelogicintheguidancesystemsoftheADCAPsisverygood,thoughifanythinggoeswrongthefirecontroltechniciansarealwaysreadytostepinontheirown.Assumingthattheweaponsdotheirjob,thefinalruntothetargetwillbelikewatchingatrainwreck.Whentheyhit,thesonartechnicianmustassessthedamagethathasbeeninflicted.Theremaybebreaking-upnoisesorthedistinctivecrunchofanimplodingpressurehull.Inanycase,thetrackingteamsarenowreadytostartagain,anever-endingtaskwhileonpatrol.
Onethingwehaven'tmentionedyetisjustwhytheMiamihasanactivesonarmodewhensomanygreatthingscanbeaccomplishedjustbylisteningpassively.Foralmostthirtyyears,goingactivewithasonarhasmeantgivingupthetacticaladvantage.Thesimpletruthisthatwhileusinganactivesonardoesalertapotentialenemytoyourpresence,itdoeshavesomesignificantadvantages.ThelatestnuclearboatsproducedbytheformerSovietUnion/CommonwealthofIndependentStatesarealmostasgoodacousticallyasaFlight1LosAngeles.Thismeansthatfindingthempassivelyisgoingtobeextremelydifficult.Andthecurrentgenerationofdieselboats,whenrunningontheirbatteries,arejustalittleworse,beingveryquiettargetstoanypassivesonarsysteminexistence.Usinganactivesonarcanovercomesomeoftheseproblemsatrelativelyshortranges,andhastacticalbenefitsinsomesituations,especiallyinverifyingranges
beforeshooting.Unfortunately,anactivesonarcanbeheardatleastfivetimesfartherthanthesonarcandetectatarget.
Theactivesonarmodeofthespheresonarisincrediblypowerfulandcancausesteambubblestoformontheoutersurfacesofthesonardome.Thesphericalarraydoesgiveaccuraterangesandbearings,providingexcellentfirecontrolsolutionsintheprocess.Inaddition,ithastheabilitytoformitssoundsignalsintobeamsthatarefocusedinsteadofjustradiatinginalldirections.Thismeansthatonlythetargetboatwillknowitisbeing"pinged,"andotherboatsintheareawillnot.Inthesortofclose-range"knifefights"thatmaydevelopbetweenthequieterboatsinhabitingtheoceanstoday,goingactivemayjustbeagoodthingtodo.
NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsolepreparingafirecontrolsolution.Notethelinesofdotsadjustedbytheknobsatthebottomofthediagram.Whenthedotsstackinastraightline,thesolutionisready.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Weaponscontrolconsoleinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsolepreparingtofireaMk48ADCAP.Thetableofdatashowsthevariousweaponpresets.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Torpedoroom,USSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ThisisaroughpictureofhowtheBSY-1systemandheroperatorsworktogether.Manyotherelementsgointotheprocess,butIhopethishasgivenyouafeelforhowtheoperatorswoulduseBSY-1tofighttheboat.Ifyouthinkitseemslikeahugegameofblindman'sbuff,youarerightontarget,foritissaidthatinthelandoftheblind,theone-eyedmanisking.Inthedarkrealmoftheworld'soceans,theMiamiwithitsBSY-1combatsystemisthekingwiththebiggesteye.
TorpedoRoom
Whenyouwanderdownacoupleofflightsofstairsandmoveforward,youeventuallywindupinthetorpedoroom.HereyouarestruckbythefeelingofbeingintheverybowelsoftheMiami.Threesetsoftwo-highracksallowforthestowageoftwenty-twoweapons,andfourmorearekeptinthetubes.Usually,however,oneortwooftherackspacesortubesareleftempty,tofacilitatemovementoftheweaponsandallowmaintenance.Betweenthecenterandsideracksaresetsofloadingandramminggear.Goforwarddowntheaislesbetweentheracksandyouwillfindthetorpedotubes.Thesehaveaninternaldiameterof21inches/533mmandareangledapproximately7to8degreesofftheboat'scenterline,sothatwhenweaponsarelaunched,theyclearthebowwithitsbigactivesonardome.Oneuniquedesignaspectistheabilitytomoveanyweaponfromanypositionintherackstoatorpedotubeoranyotherpositionontheracks.Whilethegeometryofsuchamoveissomewhatcomplicated,theactualmovementoftheweaponsresemblesachild'spuzzleinwhicheightpiecesaremovedthroughninespacestoformapicture.
BOTTOM:No.1torpedotube,USSMiami.Theinnerdoorisopen,showingthetubeguidesandtheattachmentpointsfortheweapon"A"cableandtorpedoguidancewire(whenrequired).JOHND.GRESHAM
TOP:ThetorpedoroomofUSSMiami.Theweaponsontheirracksaretotheright,withtheNo.2andNo.3torpedotubesonthestarboardside.ThepanelattheleftofthephotoisthecontrolpanelforthetorpedotubesandVLSsystem.JOHND.GRESHAM
No.2torpedotube,USSMiami.Theinnerdoorisshutandthetubestatussignshowsittobeempty.JOHND.GRESHAM
Loadingtheweaponsintotheboatitselfisaratherinvolvedprocess,thoughonethattheMiami'sdesignersactuallythoughtoutprettywell.Justforwardofthefairwateristheweaponsloadinghatch;throughheretheweaponsarebroughtonboard.Thefirststepintheprocessistoopenthishatchandunstowtheloadinggear,whichiscleverlycomposedofsectionsoftheflooringstructurefromthe
secondandthirddecksoftheboat.Thesecond-deckflooringbecomesaloadingrackthatishoistedupondecktoreceivetheweaponsfromtheloadingcranealongside.Asectionofthethirddeckservesasthetransitrack,whichspansthegapleftbytakingupthefloorstructure.Thuswhileloadingistakingplace,agaplikeacanyonrunsdownthemiddleoftheboattothetorpedoroom.
AMark48ADCAPtorpedoisraisedontheloadingtrayforstowageaboardtheUSSGroton(SSN-694).JOHND.GRESHAM
Theactualweapons-loadingprocessisquiterapidoncethegearisassembled.Theweaponisswungoveronacranefromthedockortenderandgentlyloweredintotheloadingrack.Onceitisaligned,theloadingrackisrotatedupabout45degrees,andtheweaponiswincheddownonachain-poweredhoist.Whentheweaponhascompleteditsnearly50-footjourney,thetransitrackisswungbacktothehorizontal,andtheweaponislaidintothewaitingskidsonthetorpedoroomracks.Atthispointitissecuredtotheskidsandmovedoversothatanotherweaponcanbeloaded.Inall,theboatcanbecompletelyloaded,includingsettingupandstrikingtheloadinggear,withintwelvehours,allwithminimumsupportfromatenderordockcrew.Afterwards,whenthedeckstructureshavebeenputbackinplace,youwouldneverknowthisisthepaththeweaponstaketothetorpedoroom.
Loadingatorpedo,whilestraightforward,isanythingbutsimple.Thefirststepistomoveaweaponfromthestoragerackontooneoftheloadingtrays.Thisrequiresabitofbruteforce(Mk48sweighabout3,400lb/1,545kg)aswellassomeprecision;eveninthisdayandage,humanbrawnisstilluseful.Oncetheweaponisloadedontothetray,theinnerdoor(calledthebreechdoor)tothechosentorpedotubeisopenedandaquickinspectionisconducted.Ifanotherweaponhasjustbeenfired,thecrewmayneedtoremoveawiredispenserand/orsomeguidancewire(ifitisaMark48torpedo),ortocheckforwearonthetube.Thislittleprocess,knownasdivingthetube,isajobbesthandledbythosewithnarrowshouldersandlongarms.
Oncethisisdone,theloadingramcarefullymovestheweaponintothetube.Atthispointoneofthetorpedomanmates(TMs)connectsthedatatransmissionlink,calledan"A"cable,fromthebackoftheweapon(allU.S.submarine-launchedweaponsareequippedwithsuchconnections),attachestheguidancewire(ifitisaMk48),andsealsthebreechdoor.Oncethehatchisclosed,thetechnicianschecktomakesurealltheconnectionsandsealsareproperlyset,thenhang
onthetubeasmallsign:WARSHOTLOADED.Oneofthenicefeaturesonthe688I/BSY-1boatsisthatonceatubeisloaded,itautomaticallycantellwhatkindofweaponisloaded.Onseveralcontrolpanelsandstatusboardsaroundtheboat,thechangeinthetube'sstatustoLoadedandwhatitisloadedwitharenotedandmarked.
LEFT:AnMk48ADCAPisloadedintoatorpedotubeonUSSMiami.Thetorpedoisloadedwiththeramminggearshownbelow.JOHND.GRESHAM
LEFT:AnMk48ADCAPtorpedoonaloadingtrayispushedforwardintothetube.Theprecisionoftheoperationisobvious,withcarefulattentionbeinggiventoaccuratealignment.JOHND.GRESHAM
RIGHT:InsidetheNo.1torpedotube,USSMiami.Theguiderailsandslidevalvesarevisible,aswellastheouterdooror"cap"attheendofthetube.JOHND.GRESHAM
ATomahawksurface-to-surfacemissile(SSM)istest-firedfromthe
submergedsubmarineUSSGuitarro.U.S.NAVYPHOTOBYLARRYSAMMONS
Onceadecisiontolaunchaweaponhasbeenmade(thisalwaysrequiresalookatthemissionordersandthestandingrulesofengagement),thenthetechniciansattheBSY-1firingcontrolpanelsupinthecontrolroompowerontheweapontowarmitup.Thenthefirecontroltechnicianassignedtocontroltheweaponloadstargetingandotherdataintotheweapon'smemorysystem.InthecaseofanMk48,thisincludesspeedsettingsandseekerheadmode.ForaguidedmissilelikeaTomahawk,itinvolvesloadingacompletemissionflightprofile.Oncethisisdone,theweaponisreadytobefired.
Theprocessoffiringaweaponfromatorpedotubeisprobablyoneofthemostwelltestedproceduresontheentireboat;itdatesbackmanydecades.Withtheweaponwarmandreadytofire,theorderisgiven,"Makethetubereadyinallrespects!"Thisisnotdonelightly,forthisisthefirstofanumberofactionsthatradiatesagreatdealofnoiseintothesurroundingwater.Oncethetubeisflooded,theouterdoororcapisopened,andthetubeisreadytolaunchtheweapon.Thecommandingofficergivesthecommand,"Firingpointprocedures,"whentheothernecessarysteps(suchassealingthebreechdoor)havealreadybeencompleted.
Atthispointthecaptainissuesthefiringcommand,"Matchbearingsandshoot!"Whentheordertofireisgiven,theweaponsofficerattheBSY-1launchcontrolpanelpressesthefiringbutton,andthefiringsequencebegins.Thefiringcommanddirectshigh-pressureairfromtheairbanksontoapiston.Theairforcesthepistontomovealongthepistonshaft,forcingwateroutofanothertubeandthroughaslidevalveintherearofthetorpedotube,therebyformingawaterramthatejectstheweaponoutintotheseaatsomethinglikefourtosixtimestheforceofgravity.
Whathappensnextdependsonwhichweaponhasbeenfired.Ifitis
aguidedmissile,thentheouterdoorcanbeclosed,andthetubeisdrainedandmadereadyforreloading.IftheweaponisaMark48,thenthedecisionwillprobablybemadetoleavetheouterdooropen.ThisisbecausetheMark48trailsaguidancewirebehindit,whichallowstheboattoguidethetorpedoasitrunsuptotenmilesfromthelaunchingpoint.Atanytime,though,thewirecanbecut.Ifthesubistravelingtoofast,ormakestoosharpaturn,thenthewaterflowmaybreakthewire.Inanycase,untiltheneedfortheguidancewireisgone,thetubemuststayinuse.
VerticalLaunchSystem(VLS)
OneoftheweaknessesofallU.S.attacksubmarinessincethePermit-classboatshitthewaterhasbeentheshortageofspacefortorpedotubesandweaponsstowage.Foroverthirtyyears,U.S.attackboatshavealwayshadfour21-inch/533mmtorpedotubestodelivertheirweapons,andabouttwenty-twostowagepositionstoholdtheminsidetheboat.ThiswasnotmuchofaproblemsolongasallthattheboatshadtofirewereheavytorpedoesandtheoccasionalSUBROC.Butbeginninginthelate1970swiththeintroductionoftheUGM-84Harpoonantishippingmissile,andtheearly1980swiththeUGM-109Tomahawkmissileseries,thisbegantoposearealproblemforsubmarineplannersandskippers.
Forexample,sayaU.S.subskipperwantstoshootHarpoonmissilesatasurfacewarship.Submarinerstraditionallyprefertokeepatleastonetorpedoinatubeasajust-in-caseweapon,muchasapoliceofficerkeepsahideoutweaponinanankleholster.ThismeansthemaximumsalvosizethatcanbefiredatthetargetshipisthreeHarpoons.Thismightbefine,butagainstatargetlikeaKirov-classbattlecruiserwithallitsantimissilesystems,thosethreemissileswill
besoakeduplikewaterintoasponge;theweaponswillbewasted,andthetargetwillbealertedtothepresenceofthesub.Whatclearlyisneededisawaytostowmoreweaponsontheboatandfiremoreofthematonetime.
ThetwelvehydraulicallyoperateddoorsoftheMiami'sverticallaunchsystemforTomahawkcruisemissiles.JOHND.GRESHAM
SomeofthemazeofhydraulicplumbingnecessarytooperateMiami'sverticallaunchsystem(VLS).Notethehandlesforthevariousmanualbackups.JOHND.GRESHAM
ThedesignersoftheLosAngeles-classboatsanticipatedthis,becauseboththedesignsforHarpoonandTomahawkwereknownatthattime.SpacewasleftintheforwardballasttankfortwelveVerticalLaunchSystem(VLS)tubes,eachcapableofstoringandlaunchingaTomahawkcruisemissile.Inaddition,spacefortheassociatedcontrolandhydraulicsystemsnecessarytooperatetheVLSsystemwasleftinacompartmentforwardofthetorpedoroom.ThusitwaspossibleforaLosAngeles-classboattocarryandlaunchtwelveadditional
cruisemissileswithoutaffectingtheweaponsstowedandfiredoutoftheboat'storpedoroom.Thismeantanincreaseof50percentinweaponsstowageanda400percentincreaseinreadyfirepower(whenfiringcruisemissiles)overanon-VLSsub.
Thischangewasnotmadeimmediately,however.EventhoughalltheLosAngeles-classboatswerecapableofbeingfittedwiththeVLSsystem,thefirstboattobesoequippedwastheUSSProvidence(SSN-719).And,becauseofbudgetconstraints,itisquiteunlikelythatanyoftheearlierFlightIboatswilleverberetrofittedwithVLSmissiletubes.Nevertheless,bythetimetheclassisfinishedbuilding,somethirty-oneFlightIIand688Iboatswillhavethesystem,providingroomforsome372Tomahawkmissilesinthefleet.Andthatisalotoffirepower.Bytheway,itiseasytomakeoutwhichboatshavetheVLSandwhichdon'tbywhethertheyarelevelinthewater(VLSequipped)ornoseup(non-VLSFlightI).
Enlistedmessarea,USSMiami.Herethecrewcooks,eats,doeslaundry,takesclasses,andwatchesmovies.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ThewaytheVLSsystemworksisquitesimple.Themissilecanistersareloadedverticallyfromacrane.Eachcanistercontainsacompleteall-upTomahawkround,readytofire.Atthetopofeachcanisterisathinmembraneofclearplastic,whichkeepsthemissiledryandsafe.Thisishowitstaysuntilthetimetofire.Theboatcomestolaunchdepth,usuallyabout60feet,andreducesspeed,say3to5knots,perhapsraisingacommunicationsmasttogetadditionaltargetingoranavigationalfixfromtheGPSsatelliteconstellation.
Oncetheflightinstructionshavebeenprogrammedintothedesiredmissile(s),thelaunchsystemautomaticallybeginsthefiringsequence.
Thesystemopensthemissilelaunchtubehatchhydraulicallyandanexplosivechargepropelsthemissileupthroughtheplasticmembraneandintothewater.Afterthemissiletravelsupabout25feettheboosterrocketfires,thrustingtheTomahawkoutofthewater.Atthispointthemissiletiltsover,dropstheburned-outboostermotor,lightstheturbojetengine,andheadsforitspreprogrammedtarget.Meanwhilethelaunchtubefillswithwater(helpingtocompensateforthelostweightofthemissile),andthehydraulichatchisclosed.
TheVLSsystemiscausingarevolutionindesignofnewweaponsforsubmarines.IthasradicallyincreasedboththefirepowerandstowedweaponsloadfortheU.S.submarineforce--allatnoincreaseinthesizeordisplacementofthebasicLosAngelesdesign.
LivingSpaces
OntheMiami'ssecondlevelisthebulkofthelivingspaceaboardtheboat.Ifyoustandaftneartheforwardescapetrunk,thenyouwalkforward,youwillfindthelargestopenareaontheboat,theenlistedmessarea.Thisplaceisacombinationofcafeteria,schoolroom,movietheater,gameroom,andalmostanythingelsethatinvolvesgatheringtheboat'senlistedpopulationtogether.Herearesixtableswithbenchseatsonbothsidessothatsomethinglikeforty-eightsailorsatatime,abouthalftheMiami'spopulation,cansitdownatonce.Alongthestarboardbulkheadaresuchcherishedpiecesofequipmentasthesodamachines(nolongerdotheyservethehated"Yogi"cola),milkdispenser,softicecreammachine,andthatmostcherishedofNavywardroomicons,thebugjuicedispenser.Bythe
way,well-informedpalatessuggestthattheredflavorisbest,butstayawayfromtheorange!Strangely,italsomakesanexcellentscouringpowderforcleaningfloorsandheads(allthatacidinit,theytellme).Backneartheescapetrunkistheship'slaundry.Aboutthesizeofaphonebooth,ithandlesthelaundryfortheentireboat,withawasheranddryerthatwouldseemsmallinmostapartments.
Adjacenttotheenlistedmessareaisthegalley.Insidearoomaboutthesizeofanapartmentkitchen,themeals(fourperday)arepreparedforover130officersandmen.It'samazingthatsomuchcanbedoneinsuchasmallspace.Therearealltheusualinstitutionalkitchenfixtures(electricmixer,oven,grill,andstewingpots),aswellasapairofrefrigeratedspacesforfoodstorage.Usuallyoneoftheseissetupasadeepfreeze,theotherasafreshfoodrefrigerator,thoughforlongerpatrolsfreshfoodisavoided,andonlyfrozenanddrystoresarecarried.ItisamatterofrecordthatthesinglemostlimitingfactortoSSNoperationsisthequantityoffoodandotherconsumables.Beforealongdeployment,virtuallyeverysparenookandcrannyispackedwithstores--food,soap,paperforthecopymachines,drystores,and,ofcourse,mostvitalofcommoditiesonboardasub,coffee.
Amesstechniciancookinglunchinthegalley,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
Movingforwardontheportsidepassageway,youencountertheberthingspacesfortheenlistedpersonnel.Ishouldsayherethatifyouhaveatouchofclaustrophobia,thisiswhereitwillmanifestitself.Thethree-tallbunksareroughly6feetlong,3feetwide,and2feettall:aboutthesizeofacoffin.Eachbunkhasacomfortablefoamrubbermattresswithbedding,alightforreading,ablowerforfreshair,andacurtainforprivacy.Allyourpersonalgeargoesintolockersonthewalls,orthe6-inch-deeptraysunderthebunks.Fortheenlistedpersonnel,thisisthetotalextentoftheirprivacy.Thisisevenfurtherlimited,asabout40percentoftheenlistedpopulationhastoshare,or
"hotbunk,"theirsleepingaccommodations.Thisisbecausethe688Idesignjustdidnothaveenoughroomtoprovideabunkforeachenlistedman.Thismeansthatgroupsofthreeenlistedmenhavetosharetwobunks,withthesleepperiods(theysleepinsix-hourshifts)rigidlyscheduledinadvance.
Miami'schiefoftheboat(COB)showsoffthethree-highbunksinthe"goatlocker."Eachbunkisaboutthesizeofacoffin!JOHND.GRESHAM
Onthestarboardsideoftheboataretheberthingandmessspacesfortheseniorenlistedpersonnel,generouslyknownasthe"goatlocker."Herethereisasmallseatingareaaboutthesizeofacornerboothatarestaurant,whichservesaseatingarea,office,andconferenceroomforthechiefpettyofficers.Headingaftfromhereisanotheraisleofthree-highbunks,thoughthesearereservedforeachman.
Fortheofficersthereisaseparatewardroomforeating,studying,anddoingpaperwork.Itisanicelyappointedareawithitsownpantryforcoffeeandsnacksaroundtheclock.Inthemiddleofthespaceisasingletablethatservesasdiningtable,desk,andconferencetable.UnlikethecommanderofalmostanyothershipintheNavy,thecommandingofficerdoesnothaveaseparatepantrytotakehismeals.Hesitswithhisofficersateverymeal,givingitthefeelingofafamilygathering.Thesubmarineservicehasalwaysbeenmoreinformalthanthesurfaceforces,andthisispartoftheespritthatmakesthe"bubbleheads"differentfromtherest.CommanderJonesrunsa"loose"wardroomwherekiddingandfriendlyribbingisalwayswelcome.Hemakesnosecretofhisloveofgoodseafood,andisabigfanoficecream.Infact,heisfondofsayingthatotherthanhavingtheonlyprivatestateroomontheboat,hisonlycommandprivilegeontheMiamiischoosingtheflavoroficecreamforthemachineinthegalley.HechoosesaratherdiplomaticFrenchvanillaflavor.
Officers'wardroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
ThecommandingofficerofUSSMiami,CommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN,conductingbusinessinhisstateroom.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Asforthecommander'scabin,itishardlythestuffyoumightfindontheQueenElizabethII.Locatedjustforwardoftheenlistedmess,onthesecondlevel,itisroughly10feetlongby8feetwide.Itisdominatedbyacombinationdesk/closetunitintheafterportionofthecabin.Againsttheoutsidebulkheadisapairofseatswithasmalltablebetweenthem;thisunitfoldsdownintothebunk.CommanderJonesisproudofsayingthatit'sthebestbunkontheboat,andcertainlyitistheonlyonethatdoesnothaveanotherbunkaboveand/orbelowit!Onthedoortohiscabinarethreenotices.OnereadsKNOCKANDENTERandanotheris,THINKQUIET!IT'SOURBUSINESS...ITCOULDBEOURLIVES.ThefinaloneisacopyofRudyardKipling'sfamouspoem,"If,"notabadphilosophytoadvertiseifyouareinchargeof132livesand$800millionofthetaxpayers'money.
Thecommander'sdeskcontainsavarietyofdifferentmanuals,asafeforclassifieddocuments,andvariouscommunicationsdevicestokeephimintouchwiththerestoftheboat.Oneofthenewestpiecesofequipmenttobeaddedisknownasamultifunctiondisplay,mountedadjacenttohisbunk.Thismarvelousdevice,whichistiedintotheBSY-1combatsystem,isaredgas-plasmadisplayshowingdataonposition,course,speed,heading,anddepth,aswellasmodestoshowthecurrenttacticalsituationaroundtheboat.TheadvantagetoCommanderJonesisthathecanwakeforamomentinthemiddleofthenight,reachoverandchecktheboat'sstatus,thenrolloverandgobacktosleep--allwithouthavingtoruinhisnightvisionbyturningonalightorhavingtopickupaphoneandtalktotheOOD.Hefiguresthatnothavingtowakeupfullyseveraltimesisworthseveralhours'moresleep.Andthatcanbelifeanddeathfortheboatinacombatsituation.Atotalofeightofthesedevicesarelocatedaround
theboatinsuchplacesasthecontrolroomandsonarroom.
Thecommunicationsandrecreationalequipmentinthecaptain'scabin.JOHND.GRESHAM
TheEngine--TheReactor/ManeuveringSpaces
Ifyouwanderaftfromtheenlistedmess,pasttheforwardescapetrunkanddownhalfadeck,youfindthegreatdivideontheMiami.ThisistheentrancetothetunnelafttothepropulsionspacescontainingtheS6Gnuclearreactor(builtbyGeneralElectric)andthemainengineeringspaces.ItismarkedbyanumberofdifferentwarningsignsfromtheDNR,rangingfrominformationonpossibleradiationhazards,tosecuritynoticesaboutjustwhoontheboatisallowedaftofthispoint.Itshouldbenotedthatnomemberofthemedia,includingmyself,haseveractuallyseenanactualnuclearsubmarinereactorcompartmentorherengineeringspaces.Neverthelessthereareanumberofthingsthatwedoknowabouttheseareas,andIwilltrytosharethemwithyou.
Thefirstthingtounderstandaboutthenuclearreactoronasubmarineisthatithasonlyonerealpurpose,togenerateheattoboilwaterintosaturatedsteam.Otherthanthat,alloftheotherpartsofanuclearsubmarinepropulsionsystemaresimilartoanyothertypeofsteam-poweredturbineplant.Itsadvantageoveranoil-firedsteamplantistheamountofenergyconcentratedinthenuclearfuelinthereactorcore,aswellasthecompletelackofanyneedforair.Onaweightandvolumebasis,nuclearfuel,suchasenricheduranium,hasseveralmilliontimestheamountofstoredheatofacomparableamountoffueloil.Thisconcentrationofenergyiswhatmakesallthedangersofhandlingnuclearfuelworththetrouble.Inaddition,becauseoftheefficiencyofthenuclear"fire,"itispossibletobuildboilerplantsthatareconsiderablysmallerthancomparableoil-firedplants.
Theprocessofnuclearfissionisessentiallyquitesimple.Imagineafloorcoveredwithmousetraps.Eachmousetraphas,mountedonthestrikerarm,twoPing-Pongballs.Ifweimagineauraniumatomasa
mousetrap,itisholdingontoapairofattachedparticlescalledneutronsmuchlikethePing-Pongballs.NowifyoudropanotherPing-Pongballontooneofthetrapsandtripit,twoballswillflyintotheair.Thisrepresentswhathappenswhenaneutronenterstheuraniumatomandstrikesthenucleus:theatomsplitsandreleasesthetwoneutrons,releasingenergyasheat.Andwhenthosetwofallontotwomoretraps,thesewilltripandeachthrowtwomorePing-Pongballsskyward.Thiswillcontinuetodoubleanddoubleagainuntilallthetrapsfireofftheirballsinonefinalfusillade.Thissameprinciple,wherebyneutronsstrikemoreandmoreatomsuntilallofthemfinallysplit,iscalledanuncontrolledorsupercriticalfissionreaction.Andthisiswhathappenswhenanatomicbombdetonates.
Entrytothetunnelleadingtothepropulsionspaces,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM
Butwedon'tdesireanexplosion,wewantaslowerreactionlikeafireinaboiler.ImaginethatinourroomofmousetrapsandPing-Pongballs,wehangsomemonkeysfromtheceiling.Andwetrainthemto
graboneoutofeverytwoPing-Pongballswhenatrapgoesoff.Thiswouldallowtheseriesoftrippingtrapstogoonforamuchlongertime.Andthisisexactlywhathappensinanuclearreactor.Insteadofmonkeys,areactoruseswhatarecalledcontrolrods(madeofaneutron-absorbingmateriallikecadmiumorhafnium)settoabsorbexactlytherightamountofneutronstobringthereactionintocontrolledorcriticalfission.Thisreactionstillgeneratesagreatdealofheat,whichisusedtoboilwaterintosaturatedsteamtopowerthesub'sturbines.Inthiswaythesamenuclearfuelthatcancauseanuclearexplosioninaninstantcanbeusedtopowerashipforaperiodofyears.Andbecauseofdesignproceduresthathavebeentestedoveraperiodofdecades,thefuelinthereactorcannotexplodeorevencomeclosetodoingso.TheDNRtakesgreatprideinthesafetyrecordoftheboatswithU.S.-designedreactorplants,whichisperfect.
Mostoftheheatinthereactoriscollectedintowhatisknownastheprimarycoolantloop.Thisisaseriesofpipespassinganextremelypurewater-basedcoolantthroughthecoreofthereactor.Thisheatispassedthroughaheatexchangertowhatiscalledthesecondaryloop.Thisiswherethewaterforthesteamturbineisactuallyboiled.Now,thesteamcreatedhereisnotthestuffyougetfromtheteakettleonyourstove.Thissteam,whichisunderhighpressure,isheatedtoliterallyhundredsofdegreesandcontainsagreatdealofmotiveenergy.Andthisisthestuffthatturnstheturbinebladesofthemainengines,whichfeedintothereductiongears,whichturnthepropellershaftandthepropeller.Quitesimple,really!
Thereareafewsmallproblemswiththissystem,though,andweneedtodiscussthem.Theobviousoneisthequestionofhowtoprotectthemenaboardfromtheharmfuleffectsofthereactor'sradiation.Aswementionedbefore,theearlySovietnuclearboatsscrimpedonshieldingandbecamecancerincubatorsforthenavalhospitalsofthatnow-defunctnation.Theanswer,inaword,is
shielding.Theentirestructuresurroundingthereactorcompartmentislayeredwithavarietyofdifferentshieldingmaterials.
Betweenthereactorcompartmentandtheforwardpartoftheboatisahugetankofdieselfuel,whichpowersthebigFairbanks-Morseauxiliaryengineinthemachinerycompartment.Asitturnsout,thatfuelisextremelyefficientatmodulatingorabsorbingthevarioussubatomicparticlesthatcoulddamagehumantissues.Inaddition,theentirereactoriscontainedinsideareactorvesselthatlookslikeanoversizedcoldcapsuleonend.Surroundingthisvessel,aswellasinsideofit,isasystemoflayeredshielding.Whilethematerialsactuallyusedareclassified,itiseasytodeducethatlead(anexcellentgammarayabsorber)andchemicallytreatedplastics(basedonfossilfuels)areprobablyusedextensively.
Inadditiontoitsextensiveshielding,theentirereactorplanthasbeenoverengineered.Sinceitsearliestbeginnings,theDNRhasinsistedthatnavalreactorsbebuiltwithextremelyhighsafetymargins.WhileDNRwillnotcomment,forexample,uponjusthowmuchpressureallofthereactorplumbingcantake,itisgenerallyacknowledgedthattheentirereactorplanthasbeenbuiltseveralhundredpercentmorerobustlythanisrequired(400percentto600percenthasbeenmentioned).Inaddition,everysystemhasatleastonebackupandusuallyanextramanualbackupontopofthat.ThelegacyoftheThresherlossisthisfanaticalobsessionwithsafety.
Anotherareaofextremesecrecyistheexactconfigurationanddesignofthereactorcoreitself.Infact,otherthanthetechnologyusedtoreduceradiatednoise,nothingontheMiamiisassensitiveasthepowerplantcore.Thisprobablyconsistsofaseriesofuraniumfuelelementsformedintoplatestoallowmaximumheattransfertotheprimarycoolantloop.Thefuelelementsareprobablymountedparalleltoeachotherinafuelassemblymountedatopasupportstructureinthebaseofthereactorvessel.ThefuelusedishighlyenrichedUranium-235,probably90percentpureU-235orbetter.For
thosewhomightwonder,thefuelusedincommercialnuclearpowergenerationplantsrunsabout2percentto5percentpure,andthematerialusedinnuclearweaponsisabout98percentpure.Inbetweeneachfuelelementisroomforacontrolrod(alsointheformofaplateandmadeofaneutronmodulator),tocontroltherateofnuclearfission.Eachrodisdesignedtodropautomaticallyintoplacebetweentwofuelelementsintheeventofareactorproblem,thusquenchingthenuclearreaction.Inaddition,aprocedurecalledscramallowsthecrewortheautomatedmonitoringsystemstoshutdownthereactorimmediately,andrestartitlaterifconditionsallow.
Notionaldrawingofthelayoutofanuclearsubmarinepropulsionplant.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Aroundthecorecirculatesthecoolantoftheprimaryloop,whichfeedstheheatedcoolantintoasteamgenerator.Thesteamgenerator
directsitssteamintoasecondarycoolingloop,whichfeedsapairofhigh-pressureturbinesinthemachineryspaces,wherethesteamiscondensedbackintowaterandfedbackintothesteamgenerator.Theturbinesfeedintoamassivesetofgearsknownasreductiongears,whichturnthemainpropellershaft.Inaddition,someofthesteamisusedtoturnseveralsmallerturbinesthatprovideelectricalpowertotheboatanditsvariouspiecesofmachinery.
Itmaycomeasasurprisethatotherthanthetransittunnelafttothemainmachineryspace,thereactorisnotmanned.TheDNRlimitsthetimeamancanstayinproximitytothereactor,evenhowlonghemightstayinthetransittunnel.Theactualcontrolareaforthereactorplantandtheturbines,calledManeuvering,islocatedaftintheengineroom.Whileithasneverbeenshowntothepress,itprobablyfollowstheconventionofcommercialpowerplants,withthecontrolslaidoutoverablockdiagramofthereactor/turbinesystem.Thispanelismannedatalltimes,evenwhentheboatisinportandthereactorisshutdown(noncritical).
Thedominatingfeatureofthemachineryspaceisthedeck,ormorecorrectly,themountingforallofthemachinery.Whileitmayseemsolidenough,itisinfactalargeplatformor"raft,"whichissuspendedonmountsontheinsideofthehull.Themountsuseatleastone,probablytwo,setsofnoiseisolationmounts.Thesearelikeoversizedshockabsorbersdesignedtoreducethevibrationsofthelargerpiecesofengineroommachinery.Thepurposeofaraftistotakethenoisiestthingsontheboatandisolatethemfromthehull,whichradiatesnoiselikeaspeakerintothewater.
Mountedontheraftarethetwomainengines,theboat'selectricalturbinegenerators,andthesupportingpumpsandequipmentassociatedwithmovingtheboat.Proceedingaft,youseethemainpropellershaftleadingbacktothemainpackingsealsinthestern.Inadditionthereareanumberofworkbenches,aswellasalimitedmachineshopcapableofsupportingmanysmall-scalerepairs.The
sizeofthemaingear,calledabullgear,wouldprecluderepair,butvirtuallyeveryothercontingencyinthespacecouldbehandledbytheengineeringteam.Thesecrewmembers,bytheway,arerecognizablebythedifferenttypesofradiationmonitoringdevicestheywear.Unlikethefilmbadgeswornbythosewholiveandworkforwardofthereactor,thesepersonnelwearasmalldosimeter(whichlookslikeatinyflashlight),sothatanydosageofradiationtheyreceivecanbeassessedimmediately.
Togetthepowerplantstarted,theengineeringofficerofthewatchordersthepersonnelatthereactorcontrolpaneltoretractthecontrolrodstoaknownposition.Thisallowsthecoretoheatup,causingthecoolanttogeneratesteaminthesteamgenerator.Fromheretheturbinesaresetturning,andsotoothereductiongeartrain.Thereisapopularnotionthatthespeedoftheboatisincreasedbyjustretractingthecontrolrodsfartherfromthereactorcore.This,infact,isexactlytheconverseofwhatactuallyhappens;therodsaresimplyretractedtoafixedpointandheldthere.Theengineers'maingoalistobringthereactorintoequilibriumsothatthebasicamountofheatgoingintotheprimarycoolantloopisconstant.Onecanthencontrolthespeedoftheboatbysimplytappingmoresteamfromthesteamgenerator,therebyincreasingthesteamsupplytotheturbines.Thisresultsincoolingtheprimarycoolantloopmore,thusincreasingtheefficiencyofthenuclearreaction,feedingmoreheattothesteamgenerator,andincreasingthespeedoftheboat.
Conversely,stemmingtheflowofsteamtotheturbinesnotonlyslowsdownthespinningoftheturbines,italsotakeslessheatfromtheprimarycoolantloop,andrapidlydropstheefficiencyofthenuclearreaction,"cooling"itdown.
LifeSupportandBackupSystems
TheauxiliarymachineryspacedownonthethirdlevelaftofthetorpedoroomisarguablythemostimportantcompartmentonMiami.Hereislocatedallofthelifesupportequipment,aswellastheauxiliarypowersource.Asyouenterthespaceandheaddownthestarboardaisle,youaregivenaquickintroductionto"Clyde,"thebigauxiliarydieselengine.Thisisanoldfavoriteofthechiefsonboard,becauseitisadirectlinkwiththeoldWorldWarIIfleetboats.BuiltbyFairbanks-Morse,thedesigndatesbacktothe1930sandisascaled-downversionofthemodelusedtopowerallofoursubmarinesduringthewar.Itisreliableandthecrewlovesit,thereforethenameClyde,asin,"...rightturn,Clyde!"
Whilesomefolksmightwonderwhysuchadinosaurwouldbeononeofthemostadvancedsubmarines,rememberthatnoteverythingalwaysworksproperly,includingnuclearreactors.Forexample,whatwouldhappenifMiamiwasatseaandneededtoscramthereactorplant?Restartingareactortakesalotofpower,andwhilethereisalargebankofbatteriesunderneaththetorpedoroom,itmightnotproveadequatetocompletelyrestartacoldS6Gplant.ThustheFairbanks-Morseenginecanprovide,throughageneratorturnedbythediesel,enoughcontinuouspowertogettheteakettlerunningagain.Ithasotheruses,too.Intheeventofareactorcasualty,thedieselprovidesthemeansforgettinghome.Inthatevent,thecaptainorderstheengineersafttolowerasmallelectricoutboardmotor,whichisrecessedinthelowerhullaft,intothewatertoprovidemotivepowertogethomeortogethelp.
Thedieselenginealsohasaroleinfirefightingonboardthatmightsurprisesomefolks.Intheeventofafire,oneofthefirstthingsthecaptainmightdo(assumingthisisnotinacombatsituation)istosurfaceandstartupthediesel.Thisisbecausethedieseldrawsitsairfromwithintheboat,andthusitwouldsuckupanyairbeingpollutedbythefire.Openingjustthefairwaterhatchesfromthecontrolroomwillcompletelychangetheairintheboatinamatterofminutes.
Thisspaceisalsowheretheairismadeor,moreproperly,maintained.Severaldifferentpiecesofequipmentintheauxiliarymachineryspacehelptoprovidetheclean,freshairthatcanbefoundonboard.Firstarethecarbondioxide(CO)scrubbers.COisthegasgivenoffbyhumanswhentheybreatheandisdangerouswhentheconcentrationgetstoohigh.TheMiamiutilizesachemicalscrubbertoremoveitfromtheair.ThechemicalabsorbsCOwhenitiscoolandreleasesitwhenitiswarmed.Inaddition,COandH"burners"removethecarbonmonoxideandhydrogengasgeneratedbyequipmentaswellasbycigarettesmoking,whichisallowedonboard.Finally,filtersanddehumidifierscleantheairandhelpkeepit"friendly"notonlyforthecrewbutalsoforthemanypiecesofequipment--especiallyelectronic--ontheMiami.Incaseafireorsomeotheremergencycontaminatestheonboardair,aforce-fedairsupplycalledtheEmergencyAirBreathing(EAB)systemhasattachmentpointsthroughouttheboat,allowingcrewmenwithbreathingmaskstoplugintoitandcontinuetheirduties.
Otherlifesupportequipmentincludesadevicethattakeswaterandelectrically"cracks"itintoitsbaseelementsofhydrogenandoxygen.Theoxygenisretainedintanksandreleasedintotheboat'satmosphereautomaticallybytheenvironmentalcontrolsystem,andthehydrogenisventedofftheshipfromasmallportintheaftedgeofthefairwater.Thereisafresh-waterdistillationplantthatproducessomethingover10,000gallons/38,000litersoffreshwateraday.Mostofthewaterisusedfordrinking,cleaning,cooking,andpersonalhygiene.Verylittlewaterisusuallyrequiredforthepowerplant(forchargingthecoolingloopsandsteamgenerators),butthereservetanksareusuallymaintainednearfull"justincase."Itshouldbesaidthattheobsessionwithwaterconservationismostlyforcontingencypurposes.MostCOsliketohavefulltanksofwaterbeforetheyenteratacticalsituation,justincasetheyneedtoshutdownthedistillationplanttokeepnoisedown.AndfromwhatIhear,
someboatsjustchoosetorunthedistillationplantfull-timeandletthecrewhaveasmuchshowertimeastheywant,particularlyduringrunshome.OnanormaldayaboardMiami,themajorityofthewaterproducedwouldgotocrewhabitability.
Weapons--Torpedoes,Missiles,andMines
Whilesubmarinesareusefulforcovertactionslikeintelligencegatheringandlandingspecialoperationsforces,itisthethreatofwhattheycandowiththeirweaponsthatcancausesomuchfearandrespectinanadversary.EversinceSergeantEzraLeetriedtosinkHMSEagleinBostonharborbackin1776,justthepotentialthreatofharmfromasubmarinehasbeenenoughtomakeanenemystopandconsiderwhetherheshouldmovehisshipsagainstyou.Todaytheweaponscanhitawidervarietyoftargets,andtheyhavebecomeevenmoredeadly.
Torpedoes
Thetorpedoisthetraditionalweaponofthesubmarine,andthetorpedoesthatequiptheU.S.SSNstodayaretrulyawesome.Forsomeyearsnow,theU.S.standardtorpedohasbeentheMark(Mk)48.Thisweapon,whichfirstappearedin1971,hasgonethroughaseriesofdifferentupgrades,culminatingintheModification(Mod)4version,whichappearedin1985.Thisversion,designedasanintermediateupgradetothenextmajorversion,allowsforthegreaterspeedsanddeeperdivingdepthsofthenewerSovietsubsthatwereappearingatthetime.Asthisbookiswritten,abouthalfthetorpedoes
beingloadedaboardU.S.subsareMk48Mod4s.
CutawayviewofaMark48advancedcapability(ADCAP)torpedo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ThebusinessendofaMark48ADCAPtorpedo.Theblackcoveristheacoustic"window"ofthetorpedo'sseekerhead.JOHND.GRESHAM
ArecentadditionisknownastheMk48AdvancedCapability(ADCAP)torpedo.ManufacturedbyHughes,theADCAPtakesthebasicMk48packageandaddsthefollowingnewfeatures:
*Abiggerfueltankthatprovidesfora50percentincreaseinrange(about50,000yards),andaspeedof60+knots.
*Anewdatasend/receivemodule,whichpacks10milesofguidancewireintotheaftendofthetorpedoand10moremilesintothedispenserinthetube.Thisallowsthesubmarinetoclearthelaunchpointandstillguidetheweapon.*Anewcombinationseekerhead/computerthatuseselectronicallysteeredsonarbeamstoguidetheweapontothetarget.EarlierversionsoftheMk48(liketheMod4)usedtohaveto"snake"abouttheircoursetosearcheffectivelyforatarget.Theheadallowsthetorpedotoseealmostallthe180-degreehemisphereaheadoftheweapon.ThecomputercontrollingthewholesystemisdesignedtomaketheADCAPtheworld's"smartest"torpedo.
TailsectionofanMk48ADCAPtorpedo.Insidethecover(labeledNoStep)isthepumpjetpropulsor,andadispenserfortenmilesofguidancewire.Thesilverunitbehindit,whichstaysinthetube,containsanothertenmilesofwire.JOHND.GRESHAM
ThebackendofanR/UGM-84DHarpoonantishipmissile.Thelockedcover,whichprotectstheguidancefins,isremovedpriortoloading.JOHND.GRESHAM
WithADCAP,thesubmarineforcearguablyhasthefinesttorpedointheworld.Notonlyisitfast,deepdiving,andmaneuverable,butithasabigwarhead(650lb/295kgofPBXN-103explosive)withan
activeelectromagneticfusethatallowstheweapontobedetonatedpreciselywhereitwilldothemostdamage.Andithasmore"brains"thananyothertorpedo,withanamazingabilitytooutsmartcountermeasuresandjamming,aswellasthecapabilitytofeedseeker-headdatabacktotheBSY-1systemonMiami.ThisallowsthefirecontroltechnicianstousetheADCAPasanoffboardsensor.Withsuchcapabilitiesasthese,it'snowonderthatthecrewofMiamicallstheADCAPsinherracks"wishmedead"torpedoes.
Missiles
Strangeasitmaysound,thenuclearsubmarinesoftheU.S.Navyoperatedforovertwentyyearswithoutadedicatedweaponforattackingsurfaceships.PartofthereasonwastheASWfocusoftheSSNforceduringthe1960sand1970s.Also,formuchofthattimetheirprimarytargets,thesurfaceshipsoftheUSSR,hadnolong-rangeweaponsthatcouldattackasubwhileitwassubmerged.ButwithSovietdeploymentoftheirfirstsea-basedASWhelicoptersandtheship-launchedSS-N-14SilexASWmissile,therewasaclearneedforaweaponthatwouldallowaboattostandofffartherthanthetentofifteenmilesatorpedoshotwouldallow.Ithadtobelaunchedfromatorpedotubeandcarriedasanall-upor"wooden"round,requiringnomaintenanceandaminimumofsupport.
CutawayviewofanR/UGM-84DHarpoonantishipmissile.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
EncapsulatedUGM-84surface-to-surfaceHarpoonantishipmissileleavingthecapsuleasitclearsthesurfaceofthewater.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
TheweaponthatwasproducedwastheMcDonnellDouglasA/R/UGM-84Harpoon.Thismissile,whichcanbelaunchedbyships,subs,andaircraft,wasoriginallydevelopedtoallowpatrolaircrafttoshootatRussiancruisemissilesubsonthesurface.Firstdeployedin1977,itisapproximately17feet/5.2meterslong,weighsabout1,650lb/750kg,andcarriesa488-lb/222-kghigh-explosivewarhead.Itutilizesaradarseekerthatlooksforsurfacetargetsandtheninitiatesanattack"endgame"onthetarget.Packagedinsideabuoyant,
torpedo-shapedlaunchcapsule,itisfiredfromoneofthenormaltorpedotubesandrisestothesurface.Whenitreachesthesurface,thenoseofthecapsuleisejected,andthemissileislaunchedintotheairbyasmallrocketbooster.Onceairborne,theboosterisdropped,anengineinletcoverisejected,andthesmallturbojetengineisignited.Themissilethendescendstoabout100feetabovethesurface,andtransitstotheareaofthetargetshipataspeedofabout550knots.
TheHarpooncanbelaunchedinavarietyofmodes.TheseincludewhatisknownasBearingOnlyLaunch(BOL),inwhichonlythebearingtothetargetisknown.ThereisalsoaseriesknownasRangeandBearingLaunch(RBL)modes,whichrequirebothrangeandbearing.Dependingontherangetothetargetandtheamountofneutralshippinginthearea,theseekercanbesettoRBL-L(Large)foropenoceansituations,orRBL-S(Small)fortight,short-rangesituations.Ifnecessary,severaldoglegsorwaypointscanbeprogrammedintotheHarpoon'sMidcourseGuidanceUnit(MGU),whichutilizesasmallstrapdowninertialguidancesystemtokeepthemissileoncourse.Forsubmarines,thereisevenaself-defenseoptionthatallowsthedefendingSSNtoshoottheHarpoon"overtheshoulder"intoachargingsurfaceship.
Oncethemissilegetstothetargetarea,theseekerisswitchedonandbeginstosearchanareashapedmuchlikeapieceofpie.Iftheseekerradarlocatesasuitabletarget,theonboardcomputerdoesaquicktesttomakesureitisavalidtarget(notawaveorawhale),andbeginstheendgame.Themissiledescendstoanaltitudebetween5and20feet(dependingontheheightofthewaves)andheadsforthetarget.AtthediscretionoftheMiami'sfirecontroltechnicians,themissilecanbeprogrammedtorunstraightintothesideofthetargetship(justafewfeetabovethewaterline),oranoptional"pop-up"maneuvercanbeselectedtomakethemissileplungedeepintothemiddleoftheship.
Inanycase,theexplodingwarheadwilltearmuchofthegutsoutof
anyshipuptocruisersize.Inaddition,anyofthejetfuelnotusedbythemissile'sturbojetwilladdtothedestructionaboardthetargetvessel.Itisalittle-knownfactthatthewarheadoftheExocetmissilethatsankHMSSheffieldin1982failedtodetonate,buttheresidualrocketfuelinthemissile'smotorcausedenoughofafiretoeventuallysinktheship.
ThelatestversionofHarpoonaboardtheMiamiistheUGM-84D,whichusesadenserfuelmixturetogiveitmorerange(reportedlyaround150NM/250km).Allinall,withsomeeighteendifferentcountriesusingit,HarpoonisoneofthemostsuccessfulmissileprogramseverrunbytheU.S.Navy.
AftertheADCAP,noweaponhasdonemoretomaketheMiamideadlyandeffectivethantheUGM-109Tomahawkcruisemissile.TomahawkisanoutgrowthofaloopholethatwasdiscoveredafterthesigningoftheSALTIarmslimitationtreatyin1972.Whiletheexactoriginofthecruisemissileprogramisdebated,itisgenerallyassumedthatHenryKissinger,thentheNationalSecurityAdvisor,askedtheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)tolookforclassesofnuclearweaponsthathadnotbeenconsideredduringtheSALTInegotiations.Aftersomestudy,theDoDsystemsanalystscametothestartlingconclusionthatair-breathingcruisemissiles,basicallycheappilotlessaircraftwithnuclearwarheads,wouldmakeanexcellentweapontocircumventthetermsoftheSALTIagreement.Theycouldbelaunchedfromgroundvehicles,aircraft,ships,andsubmarines,wouldbeextremelyaccurate,andwouldbequitedifficulttodetectandintercept.
TargetdamagedbyaHarpoonmissileimpact.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Asaresultofthesestudies,ajointprojectofficetodevelopcruise
missilecomponentswasstartedbytheU.S.NavyandU.S.AirForce.Whilebothserviceswoundupchoosingdifferentmodelsofmissile(theAirForceselectedamodelbuiltbyBoeing),mostofthecomponentssuchasengines,warheads,andguidancesystemswereofacommondesign.ThewinneroftheNavycompetitionwastheB/UGM-109modeldevelopedbyGeneralDynamics.McDonnellDouglasisthesecond-sourcecontractorforthemissile,calledTomahawk.
CutawayviewofaTomahawklandattackconventional(TLAM-C)cruisemissile.
Notethe1,000-lbhigh-explosivewarhead.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ATomahawkcruisemissileislaunchedfromtheUSSLaJolla(SSN-701)onthePacificMissileTestCenter(PMTC)range.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYGERRYWINEY
ThebasicnuclearlandattackversionofTomahawk,knownasB/UGM-109A(alsocalledTLAM-N),islaunchedintotheairbyasmallrocketbooster.Onceairborne,aminiaturejetengineaboutthesizeofabasketballignitestopowerthemissileatabout500knots.Itflieslowtothesurface(whetherovertheopenoceanorland),heldtherebyaguidanceunit(MGU)beingfedbyaradaraltimeter.ThemissileiskeptoncoursebytheMGUutilizinganinexpensivestrapdowninertialguidancesystem.Onceoverdryland,theMGUisupdatedwithpositiondatafromasystemknownasTerrainContourMatching(Tercom),whichmatchestheterrainunderthemissilewithathree-dimensionaldatabaseinthememoryoftheMGU.ByusingperiodicTercomupdates,aTLAM-Nisnormallyabletoplaceits200-kilotonW-80nuclearwarheadbetweentheuprightsofafootballgoal-postaftera1,300-mileflight.
Whilethenuclear-armedversionofTomahawkwasbeingdeveloped,itoccurredtoanumberofpeoplethatperhapstheTomahawkcouldbeusedtocarryotherthings,andthuswasbornthewholefamilyofconventionallyarmedTomahawksinservicenow.ThefirstofthesewastheB/UGM-109BTomahawkAntiShipMissile(TASM),whichreplacedtheTLAM-NMGUwithamodifiedradarseekerandMGUfromtheA/R/UGM-84Harpoonantishipmissile.Inaddition,theW-80nuclearwarheadwasreplacedwitha1,000-lb/455-kghigh-explosivewarhead.
TheideawastoprovideunitsoftheU.S.Navywithareallylong-range(250NM/410km)antishipmissile.OneproblemthathadtobeovercomewasthefactthataTASMflyingouttohitatargetshipatmaximumrangewouldhavetoflyalmostthirtyminutestogettothetargetarea.Duringthistime,afastwarshipmighttravelasfarasfifteentotwentymiles,soaspecialseriesofsearchpatternswasaddedtotheTASMlaunchandcontrolsoftware.Thesesearchpatternscompriseaseriesof"expandingboxes"designedtoallowtheTASMtofullysearchtheuncertaintyzoneorthepossibletargetarea.
Inaddition,TASMhasapassiveESMsystemcalledPI/DF(PassiveIdentification/PassiveDirectionFinding),whichisdesignedtodirectTASMontolargerenemywarships,probablythroughdetectionoftheirlargeair-searchradars.
FollowingtheTASMintoservicewasthelargestsubfamilyoftheR/BGM-109program,theTomahawkLandAttackMissile-Conventional(TLAM-C)series.ThisparticularseriestakesthebasicguidancesystemoftheTLAM-N,addsthehigh-explosivewarheadoftheTASM,andanewterminalguidancesystemcalledDigitalSceneMatching(DSMAC).Ithasarangeofroughly700NM/1,150km,andusesthesamebasicTercomsystemtogetintothevicinityofthetarget.DSMACisanelectro-opticalsystemthatmatchestheimagefromasmalltelevisioncamerainthenoseoftheTLAM-Ctoonestoredinsystemmemory.Thissystemcanevenbeusedatnight,withastrobelightonthetargetduringthefinalapproach.CalledtheB/UGM-109C,itbecamethefirstoftheTomahawkseriestobeusedincombat,duringOperationDesertStorm.
SeveralderivativesofthebasicTLAM-CincludetheB/UGM-109D,whichreplacedthebasichigh-explosivewarheadwithadispenserfor166BLU-97/Bcombinedeffects(fragmentationandblast)submunitions.CalledTLAM-D,theseTomahawksareparticularlyeffectiveagainstvehicles,personnel,softtargets,andexposedaircraft.AfurthervariantoftheTLAM-D,whichisarmedwithantirunwaycrateringsubmunitions,isknownastheB/UGM-109F.ThenewestversionofTomahawk,calledBlockIII,incorporatesanumberofnewfeaturessuchasitsownNavstarGPSreceiver,anewpenetrationwarhead,animprovedengine,andmorefueltobringitsrangetoover1,000NM/1,640km.Itshouldbeoperationalin1994.
AllthevarioustypesofTomahawkscanbeloadedandfiredfromany21-inch/533mmtorpedotubeorVLStubeontheMiami.BesidestwelvemissilesintheVLStubes,additionalTomahawkrounds,asrequiredbyaparticularmission,canbestoredinthetorpedoroom.
ThismakesTomahawkthemostflexiblestrikesystemeverdeployedbytheU.S.Navy.ItalsoopensanewdimensionfortheU.S.SSNforce,sincenowtheycanjointhesurfaceandairforcesinstriking"overthebeach"atsignificanttargets.
ThefollowingmightbeatypicalmissionloadoutfortheMiami.WhenpreparingtoleaveforacruisetotheMediterranean,shemightcarryafullloadofTomahawks,whichwouldincludetwelveVLStubesfullofTLAM-C/Dvariants,withseveralmoreinthetorpedoroomracks.Inaddition,shewouldcarryamixedloadofMk48Mod4sandADCAPs,aswellasseveralHarpoonBlockIDantishipmissiles.TherewouldbenoTLAM-Ns,asallofthesehavebeenwithdrawnfromU.S.ships,aircraft,andsubmarinesfollowingPresidentBush'sorderinthefallof1991.Nevertheless,thoughitisthepolicyoftheU.S.Navynottodeploynuclearweapons,andtheynormallyrefusetodiscussit,thecapabilitydoesstillexist.Also,therewouldbenoTASMsaboard,asthesubmarinecommunityseemstofeelthattheHarpoonBlockIDismorethanadequatetotheantishippingtask,andtheTASMsarehardtogetlong-rangetargetingfor,onasubmarine.
ThebiggestsinglebottlenecktoeffectivelyutilizingthegrowingforceofTLAM-C/Dcruisemissilesintheinventoryisthepreparationofsuitablemissionplans.EachmissionplanhastobedevelopedfromaTercomdatabasethattheDefenseMappingAgency(DMA)hasassembledoveraperiodoffifteenyears.ThedataismadeintomissionplansatoneoftheTheaterMissionPlanningCenters(TMPC)locatedatvariousplacesaroundtheworld.HeretheTercomdatabasesaremergedwithterminaltargetphotos(fortheDSMACcameras),toproducemissionplansthatcanbestoredondiskpacksonthesub,ordownloadedtothesubviaasatellitelink.
OncetheMiamihasaparticularmissionplanaboard,thebasicplancanbemodifiedontheBSY-1CommandandControlSystem(CCSTacMk2)consoleinthecontrolroom.LocatedadjacenttotheBSY-1
firecontrolconsoles,thisconsolecanbeusedtoplanandcontrolmissionsforallthevariantsofHarpoonandTomahawk.ShouldMiaminothaveaplanavailableinheronboardlibrary,shecanusetheCCS-2todevelopherownplans.AndwiththecomingdeploymentoftheBlockIIIversionofTLAM-C,therequirementforaccesstoacompleteTercomlibraryformissionplanningwillbereduced.
TolaunchaTomahawkorHarpoon,theboathastoslowtoabout3to5knotsandcometoperiscopedepth.TheCCS-2(orBSY-1inthecaseofHarpoonorTASM)consoleoperatorpowersupandloadsamissionplanintoamissileloadedineitheratorpedoorVLSlaunchtube.Thiscanbedoneforasmanyorasfewmissilesasthesituationrequires.Oncethisisdone,theweaponsofficerinsertsalaunchkey(aholdoverfromtheoldTLAM-Ndays)andpressesthefiringbutton.IftheweaponisaTomahawk,itisejectedfromthetube(theversionfiredfromtorpedotubesiscarriedinatubeliner),firesitsboosterrocket,andawayitgoes.IfitisaHarpoon,theweaponinitsbuoyantcapsuleisejectedfromthetubeandheadsforthesurface.Whenitgetsthere,theboosterrocketfires,anditheadsforthedesignatedtarget.
Theoneproblemwithallthesemissilesisthattheymakethefiringsubmarineextremelyvulnerabletodetectionbyaircraftorsurfaceships,andtheamountofnoisemadebyamissilebeingfiredunderwaterissimplyamazing.SoitisessentialthatiftheMiamiisevertaskedwithfiringaweapon,astheUSSPittsburgh(SSN-720)andUSSLouisville(SSN-724)didduringDesertStorm(theyfiredatotaloffourteenTLAM-CsandTLAM-Ds),shewillhavetobesuresheisclearofanythreatduringthelaunchcycle.
Mines
Probablytheleastappreciatedweaponsthatcanbecarriedbya688Iaremines.These"weaponsthatwait"areperhapsthemostcosteffectiveweaponseverderivedfornavalwarfare.ThoughmostoftheminingdonebytheUnitedStatessincetheendofWorldWarIIhasbeendonebyaircraft,theremaybesituationswherethestealthandprecisionofasubmarinemaybepreferredfordeliveryofthesedangerous"eggs."
ThefirstoftheseistheMark(Mk)57mooredmine.Itisaderivativeoftheair-droppedMk56andcanbemooredinseveralhundredfeetofwater.Ithasavarietyofdifferentsensorandtriggeringsystems,includingacousticandmagneticinfluencefuses.Theycanbeprogrammedforactivationdelayorprogrammedtoactivateonlyforcertaintypesandnumbersofships.
AnothertypeistheMk67mobilemine.TheseareobsoleteMk37torpedoesthathavebeenrebuiltintominesthatlieonthebottomandwaitforatargettodriveoverthem.Asubmarinemightfirethemupintoashallowchannel,toadistanceof5to7miles.LiketheMk57,thisminehasavarietyofdifferentfusingoptions.
Mark57mooredmine.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Mark67submarine-launchedmobilemine(SLMM).ThisisaconvertedMk37torpedodesignedtobefiredfromadistance,thentosinktotheoceanfloortoactasabottommine.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Mark60Captormine.ThelongcapsulecontainssensorsandaMark46ASWtorpedo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
ButthecrownjeweloftheU.S.minearsenalhastobetheMk60Captormine.ThisisanencapsulatedMark46torpedo,programmed
towaitforenemysubmarines;whenoneisdetectedthetorpedoswimsclearandattacksthesub.Asanaddedbenefittheycanbeprogrammedtolistenforacertaintypeofsubmarine,likeaKiloorAkula.DuringtheColdWar,itwasplannedtoseedCaptorsalongallthetransitroutesusedbythesubmarinesoftheSovietUnion.Nowtheycanbeusedagainstanyofthegrowingnumberofcountriesthathavechosentobuyandusedieselsubmarinesintheirnavies.
Oneofthenicethingsaboutminesisthattheytakeuponlyabouthalfasmuchspaceastheothertypesofweaponsasubmightcarry.Thusa688IcouldcarryasmanyasfortyminesandstillhaveacoupleofADCAPsforself-protection.Thedeploymentoftheminesisnodifferentfromloadingandfiringatorpedo(theBSY-1hasaminelaunchmode),thoughthepositionoftheminehastobeplottedabsolutelyaccurately,sothatitcanbesweptlater.FortunatelytheadventofGPShasmadethistaskabiteasier,thoughefficientuseoftheSINSsystemisalsorequired.
ForwardescapetrunkofUSSMiami.Notetheairbubblewherethecrew/swimmerswouldstandbeforeegressingfromthetrunk.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Allinall,theseweaponsmakeforaverydangerousquiverofarrowsforthesubmarineforce.
EscapeTrunks/SwimmerDelivery
Wanderingaftabout25feetfromtheenlistedmessputsyouunderneaththeforwardescapetrunk.Thisisatwo-manairlockusedforavarietyofpurposes,thoughprimarilyasthemainentrypointtotheforwardpartoftheboat.Itiscomposedofapressurevesselabout8feettalland5feetindiameter.Atboththetopandbottomisahatchcapableofstandingasmuchpressureastheactualhulloftheboat.Mostoftenpersonnelandsuppliesareloadedthroughthistrunk.Thereisalsoanothertrunkfartherbackovertheaftmachineryspaces.
Intheeventofanemergencytheescapetrunkcomesintoitsown.Iftheboatisonthebottomandstable,thenormalprocedureistowaitforoneofthedeep-submergencerescuevehicles(DSRV)tobetransportedtotherescuesite.TheDSRVthencomesdownanddockstothecollaroveroneoftheescapetrunks.Itblowsoutthewaterfromitsowndockingcollar,nowheldinplacebythepressureofthesurroundingwater.ThecrewoftheDSRVopentheirownbottomhatchandenterthedownedboatthroughthetrunk.Nowthecrewofthedownedsubcancomeaboard,albeitonlyabouttwodozenatatime.ThismeansthatifaLosAngelesboatweretogodownintactwithallhercrewalive,itwouldtakesomethinglikesixtripstogetthemalloff.
Iftheboatisfloodingandthecrewmustgetoffimmediately,theescapetrunktakesonamorevitalrole,allowingthecrewtoescapefromtheboatundertheirownpower.ThisisdoneusingaSteinkehood,acombinationlifejacketandbreathingapparatusthatfitsovertheheadofasailor.TwoatatimethemenentertheescapetrunkwearingtheirSteinkehoods.Theyclosethebottomhatchandhuddleunderanairbubbleflangeinstalledinthetrunkforsuchoperations.ThesailorsthenchargetheirSteinkehoodairreservoirsfromanairportinthesideofthetrunk,andopenafloodvalvetofillthetrunk
withwater.Whiletheysitundertheairbubbleflange,theupperhatchopens.Iftheyarethefirstonestoescapefromthesub,theywillhavetheadditionaljobofpushingaliferaftoutofthehatch;thisfloatstothesurfaceandprovidessomeshelterforthemenwhentheygetthere.Then,oneatatime,theyduckundertheflangeandfloatupthroughthehatch.
AstudentdonsaSteinkeHoodtopracticeescapefromasunkensubmarine.JOHND.GRESHAM
At400feet(themaximumdepththatthehoodcanbeused),themenwillhavesomethinglikeaminutetofloodthetrunkandgetout.Anylonger,andtheyriskgetting"thebends"(smallbubblesofnitrogengasthatformintheblood)astheyrisetothesurface.Aftertheyhaveexited,thecontrollerintheareabelowthetrunkclosesthehatchviahiscontrolpanelandbeginstodrainthetrunkforthenextpairofescapees.Meanwhilethetwosailorsliterallyrocketuptothesurface.Thiswouldbeextremelydangerous(thedecreasingwaterpressuremakesthemvulnerabletoavarietyofairembolismsiftheyholdtheirbreath),butwiththeirheadsintheairbubblesoftheirSteinkehoods,themenareabletobreathenormallythroughouttheascenttothesurface.Onceonthesurface,theytrytoinflatetheraftandstaytogether.
AdiverpreparesforegressinoneofMiami'stwoescapetrunks.JOHND.GRESHAM
Oneoftheotherprimaryusesfortheescapetrunk,thisonefarlessominous,isasanairlockfordiversandspecialoperationsteams.Oneofthelittle-knownfactsaboutU.S.submarinesisthattheyhave,atalltimes,asmallteamofdivers(usuallythreetofiverateddivers)aboardtosupporttheoperationsofthesub.Thedivingequipmentandothergearisstoredinthecompartmentforwardofthetorpedoroom,
neartheVLSsupportequipmentroom.Thedivers'jobsincludeeverythingfromclearingfouledpropellersandrunninggear,torunningsecuritychecksontheboatbeforesheleavesharbor.Infact,whentheMiamiisinaforeignportsheisnotallowedtoleavetheharborunlessshehasatleastthreediversaboardtoassistinexaminingthehullbeforeshegetsunderway.
Theothertypeofdiver-relatedoperationthatisconductedthroughtheescapetrunkissubmerged"lockout"ofspecialoperationsteams,suchastheU.S.Navy'seliteSEALteams.Thesekindsofoperationsarereallynottheforteofthe688Iandwill,untiltheyareretired,bepredominatelythejobofmodifiedSturgeon-classboatsliketheParche(SSN-683).PartoftheproblemisthattheLosAngeles-classboatsareoptimizedforspeedandarenotproperlyequippedtoconductthiskindofmissioneffectively.Also,thealreadycrampedaccommodationsofthe688Imakeitnecessarytosetuptemporarysleepingquartersfortheteam,perhapsonbunksdowninthetorpedoroom.
Intheunusualcaseofaspecialoperationsmission,theboatnearsthetargetoftheteamandhoversovertheseabed.Theteamthenenterthetrunktwoatatimeundertheairbubbleflange,andfollowthesameprocedureasescapingsailorsexceptwiththeirdivinggear.Retrievalisexactlythereverse,withtheteamreenteringthetrunktwoatatime,closingthehatch,drainingthetrunk,andexitingthroughthebottomhatchbackintotheboat.
TheSoundsofSilence--AcousticIsolation
Silence.ThatiswhathasmadeAmericanboatsbetterthantheiropponentsforoverthirtyyears.Itistheirarmorandtheircloakall
wrappedupintoonevitalquality.Neverthelessitcomesatahighpriceandiscalledafragiletechnology--fragilebecauseitisbaseduponwell-understoodprinciplesofphysics,andbecauseitcanbecompromisedsoeasily.Intermsofmilitarytechnology,itisoneofthecrownjewels,inthesamecategoryastheabilitytobuildstealthaircraftandnuclearweapons.SoeffectivehasthissilencingeffortbeenthatthelatestU.S.SSNsandSSBNsaresoquiet,theycaneffectivelydisappearintheocean'sbackgroundnoise.
Tomakeaquietsubmarine,thenavalarchitectsmusttakeaholisticattitudetothedesignoftheboatandeverypieceofequipmentthatgoesintoit.Thekeyismountingeachpieceofequipmentthatmovesormakesnoiseonsomethingthatdampsoutthevibrations.Thetransmissionofthesevibrations--thingslikethespinningofapumporthehumofagenerator--sendsnoiseoutintothehull,whereitisradiatedintothewater.Inaddition,therubberdecouplingtilescoatingthehullhelpkeepnoiseinsidethehullfrombeingtransmittedoutintothewater.
Themountsonthemainmachineryrafttakecareofthebiggestsourceofradiatednoise.Therestofitisprobablytakencareofbysecondarymountsunderneatheachpieceofequipment(pumps,turbines,etc.),designedtoattenuatethespecifictypeofnoisegeneratedbythatparticularpieceofequipment.Inaddition,eachpieceofmachineryisprobablydesignedtobeassmoothrunningandnoiselessasAmerica'sbestmechanicalandelectricalengineerscanmakeit.Forexample,theseawatercirculationpumps,whicharearguablythemostnoisydevicesontheboat,transmitalmostnonoiseinthe688I-classboats.Supportingthisisanoise-monitoringsystemwithsensorsthroughouttheboatdesignedtotellifanypieceofequipmentorgearislooseormalfunctioning.Anaddedbenefitofthissystemisthatitprobablyiscapableofpredictingwhenandhowapieceofmachineryisgoingtofailbyitsacousticsignature(suchasthesoundofbearingswearingout).
ThevarioustechniquesusedtodecreasetheradiatednoiseofAmericansubmarinesconstitutethesinglemostclassifiedaspectoftheMiamiandhersisters.Theabovedescriptionisonlythemostcursorydiscussionpossibleofthisincredibletechnology.Infact,theonlyrealwaytodescribethemagnitudeoftheachievementistosaythattheS6Greactorgeneratessomethinglike35,000shafthorsepower10,yetwithallthispowerthetotalnoiseradiatedbytheMiamiisprobablysomethinglessthantheenergygivenoffbya20-wattlightbulb.ItisforthisreasonthatsubmarinerssometimesrefertotheirAirForcecousinsflyingtheF-117Astealthfighteras"thejuniorstealthservice."
LifeAboard
So,youask,whatisitliketoliveaboardasubmarinelikeMiami?Well,imagineacombinationoflivinginanoversizedmotorhomeandsummercamp,andthisisalotofwhatlifeinthe33-footpressurehullislike.Notmuchroom,verylittlenoise,verylittlenewsfromhome,andvirtuallynoprivacy.Againstthese"downs"aretheespritdecorpsofthesubmarineforce,andtheknowledgethatbeingasubmarinertrulymakesamanthebestofthebestintheU.S.Navy.
IfyouweretogooutonacruiseonMiami,theveryfirstthingyouprobablywouldnoticeisthatyouseemtobebumpingintoeverythingandeveryoneontheboat.Thisisnotunusualforsomeonenewonasub,andafterjustafewhoursyoubeginto"thinksmallandthin"sothatyoucansmoothlymovearoundyourfellowsubmariners.
Thenextthingthatcomestoyourattentionwillprobablybetheratheroddworkingschedule,awatchprogramthathasacrewmanworkingsixhours"on"andtwelvehours"off."Whileheis"on,"a
sailorisstandingwatch;while"off,"heiseatingandsleeping,doingmaintenanceonequipmentandsystems,andstudyingforqualification.ThiscreatestheunusualstandardofaMiami"day"beingeighteenhoursratherthantwenty-four.Unfortunatelytheentireboattakesonthisschedule,whichtendstoleadrapidlytocrewmembers'sufferingfromsleepdeprivation.Whileintheoryacrewmemberisallowedeighthoursof"off"timeinagiventwenty-four-hourperiod,thisrarelyworksoutintolongperiodsforsleeping.Veryquicklyonelosesallsenseoftimeonthesurfaceandbackhome,andthesleepthatonedoesgettendstobe"onthefly."
Themaincrewmessarea,USSMiami.Hereoneofthechiefsisconductingabriefingaspartofthecontinuing"schooloftheboat."JOHND.GRESHAM
Asforsleepingitself,thisisarelativelycomfortablethingtodoonMiami.WiththeexceptionofCommanderJones'sstateroom,thebunksforalltheofficersandmenareaboutthesamesize,withsimilarappointments.Andwhileaberthingspaceisaboutthesamesizeasabigcoffin,onceyoulearntothinksmall,thespaceseems
quiteroomy.Withfreshairblowingonyourfaceandanicefoammattress,fallingasleepisreallynotmuchofaproblem.
Whatisaproblemisthe"hotbunking"requiredforalargeportionoftheenlistedpersonnelontheMiami.Thistendstodominatetheschedulesofthejuniorenlistedcrewmembers,witharigidlysetscheduleformanyoftheberthingspaces.If"special"orextrapersonnelhavetobeaboard,thecrewwilllayoutextrabunksinthetorpedoroomovertheweaponsstowageracks.Theseareactuallyquitecomfortable,withgoodheadroom,thoughsomefolksfindtheideaofsleepinginaroomwithliterallytonsofexplosiveandfuelratherdiscomforting.Anotherproblemisthelackofpersonalstowagespace.Forthosewiththeirownbunksthereisa6-inch-deepstowagepanundereachmattress,aswellassomelockerspace.Forthosehavingto"hotbunk,"threemenhavetosharethespacenormallyallottedtotwo.
Atypicalbunkspaceorrackintheforwardenlistedberthingarea.Thesearestackedthreehigh,andfrequentlytwoofthesewillbesharedbythreemeninaschemecalled"hotbunking."JOHND.GRESHAM
DiningaboardMiamiistrulyapleasure,astheNavygoesallouttogivethementhebestchowthetaxpayers'moneycanbuy.Infact,becauseofthelimitedroomforexercise,manyofthemenactuallytendtogainweightoncruise.Thefooditselfissimplebutwholesome,withfreshfruitandvegetablesbecomingthemostprizeditemsafterafewweeks.TheNavyhasdonesomerathercleverthingstoextendthestoragelifeofmuchofthefreshfoodaboard.For
example,eggsarespeciallytreatedwithawaxcoatingtoextendtheirshelflife.
Thecooksandtheirhelpers(everyonedoesanoccasionalstintofmessduty)workhardtovarythemenuandmakemealsinteresting,usingagalleyaboutthesizeofanapartmentkitchen.Certainlytheculinaryhighlightofacruiseisthetraditionalhalfwaymealof"surfandturf"(steakandcrablegs).Unfortunately,bythelastfewweeksofthecruiseeverymanaboardwillbesickofthree-beansalad,anddreamingaboutfreshveggiesalmostasmuchashedoesabouthisfamily.
Thosedreamsofhomeandfamilyarealwaysatthecenterofthesubmariners'thoughts,thoughthereisverylittletheNavycandotogivethemthekindofcommunicationshomethatsailorsaboardacarrierorfrigatemighthave.ThestealthofthemodernSSNmeansthatthecrewoftheMiamiisalmostneverallowedtosendpersonalmessageshome,andnewsfromhomeisheavilylimitedandcensored.Wordfromhomeislimitedtoaseries(aboutoneaweekwhileonpatrol)offorty-wordmessagescalled"Familygrams."EachFamilygramiscarefullycraftedbyawife,parent,orlovedonetogivethecrewmanatseaanideaofwhatishappeningathome.AnexampleofanotionalFamilygramisseenbelow:
421.DOELTJG5/14:REMEMBEREDMOTHERS-FLOWERSBEAUTIFUL-THANKYOU.GREATNEWS.INCHARGESUMMERCAMPPROGRAM.THIRTYKIDS.STARTS24TH.BOUGHTSWIMMINGPOOLJOHNJR.BALGEBRASEMESTER.NOTIMEFORGARDENING,CERAMICS.MONEYFINE-FEWBILLS.SAVINGFORVACATION.MISSINGYOU.ILY.JANE
OncetheFamilygramhasbeenplacedintoadropboxattheboat'shomebaseofGroton,Connecticut,itisreviewedbypersonnelatthesubmarinegroupforanysecurityproblemsorpersonalbadnews.Occasionallythemessagewillbereturnedforaneditorsuggestedchange.Asageneralrule,no"DearJohn"lettersorbadnews(death,illness,etc.)willbetransmittedtotheboat.
Inaddition,whentheship'sofficeonMiamireceivestheFamilygram,thepersonnelwillalsolookoverthemessagesandforwardanythatlooklikeproblemstothecaptainorexecutiveofficerfordisposition.TheNavyisquiteconsciousofthesacrificesofthosewhochoosetoloveandlivewithsubmariners,andtriestocloserankswheneverthereistrouble.Asitis,themajorityofsubmarinersIhavemettreasuretheFamilygramstheyhavereceivedovertheyearsoncruise.Inthesenotesarenewsofbabiesonthewayandbabiesborn,birthdaysandfirstwords.ForthemenaboardMiamiandallU.S.submarines,theFamilygramwithits"ILY"(ILoveYou)greetingistheonlynewstheywanttohear.Itistheirsolelifelinetohomeand"theworld."
OneofthewaystheNavyhelpsthecrewkeeptheirmindsofftheirhomesandlovedonesistoworkthemveryhard.Everydaytheofficersandmenstandwatches,maintainequipment,andstudy.Thisstudying,knownasqualifying,takesupalmostallthe"free"timeofasubmarinesailor.SincethedaysofWorldWarII,whenthesubforcehadtoexpandrapidly,theNavyhasalwayspusheditssubmarinerstogainknowledgeandmoveupintheranks.Thereisaship'slibrary,andvideomoviesontheclosed-circuitsystem,butthesetendtobeleftaloneindeferencetoasailor'sorofficer'squalificationbook.Intheenlistedmess,thereisfrequentlyaclassrunninginwhatisknownas"theschooloftheboat."DuringavisittoMiamithechiefswere
runninganorientationprogramontheboat'sreactorplant--allofthiswhilestoreswerebeingpackedawayandlunchbeingserved.
Anotherfunctionistheritualofdrills.Oneofthebestwaystokeeptheskillsofthecrewhonedandtheirmindssharpistorundailydrillssimulatingresponsestovariousemergencyandcombatsituations.Thesemayrangefromfiredrills(whichareruneverydayorso)tosimulatedreactorrestarts,tochemicalspills("OttoFuelspillinthetorpedoroom"isafavorite!),andtrackingdrills.Thedrillsareanexcellentwaytokeepthecrewfromgettingbored,andthewords"DrillPeriod"ontheboat'splanofthedayarebothhatedandcherishedbythecrewforthedifficulttasksthisbrings,andtheconfidenceitbuilds.
AsailoroftheUSSMiamioperatestheballastcontrolpanelwhilewearinganemergencyairbreathing(EAB)maskduringafirefightingdrill.JOHND.GRESHAM
Thefiredrillsarequiteinterestingtowatch.WithoutthefacilitiesandequipmentbackhomeatStreetHallinGroton,thechiefsontheMiamiarehardpressedtosimulatetheeffectsofsuchemergencies.Forexample,saythereisafireinoneofthemachineryspaces.TheXOandhisfireresponseteammovetothecompartmentwheretheexerciseisbeingconducted,withalltheequipmenttheywoulduseiftheemergencywasreal.Therethefireteamfindthedrillsupervisionteamequippedwithgraytablecloths(tosimulatesmoke),andtheymustperformtotheship'sacceptedstandards.
Othernormalday-to-dayfunctionstakeonsomeinterestingbentsontheMiami.Justaftofthedrinkmachinesistheship'slaundry,whichhardlyseemsworthyofthetitle.Ataboutthesizeofaphonebooth,ithasatinywasheranddryerthatwouldhardlybesatisfactoryinanapartmentunit.Hereitservestheneedsofover130officersandmen.
Eventakingthegarbageouthasitsexoticaspects.JustforwardoftheenlistedmessonthestarboardsideisthecompartmentcontainingtheTrashDisposalUnit(TDU).ThecompartmentcontainstheTDU(whichlookslikeasmalltorpedotubegoingthroughthefloor),agarbagecompactor,alargesheetmetalroller,andthesuppliesnecessarytodisposeofthegarbageproducedby132menforseveralmonths.
Howthisisdoneisactuallyquitefascinating.Thefirststepistorolla"garbagecan"outofpiercedsheetmetal.Thiscanisplacedinthetrashcompactorandfilledwithgarbage.UsuallytheMiamigeneratestwotothreecansaday.Whenthetimecomestodisposeofthem,eachcanhasacoupleofleadweightsaddedtoitandissealed.Thenthesonarcrewdoesacompletecheckoftheareatomakesurenothingisaroundthatmightheartheoperation.Becauseofthenoisethecans
makeastheyrattledowntheTDUejectortube,itisnormalpolicytostorefullcansiftheboatisinatacticalsituationrequiringextremestealth.Inthiscase,thecansarestoredinoneoftherefrigeratedspacestokeepthesmelldown.Whenit'stimetoejectthecans,thecovertotheTDUisopened,andacircularcakeoficeisplacedinsidetoprotecttheballvalveatthebottom.Thecanisplacedontopoftheice,theTDUcoverisclosed,andthecanisejectedmuchlikeatorpedo.
AMiamicrewmembershowsofftheNavyinfraredthermalimager(NIFTI)usedtolocatefiresanddownedpersonnelintheheavysmokethatwouldbegeneratedbyafireonboard.JOHND.GRESHAM
ThedailylifeonboardtheMiamiisfilledwithmanyofthekindsofthingsthatgoonanywherethatmanymenarepackedtogethertodoaverytoughjob.Theboatbecomesaplaceofquiet,withwordswhisperedandstepstakenlightly.Andonthoseoccasionswhenadifficultmissionoroperationcomesalong,theboatcontinuesthesamekindofroutine,onlymoreso.Anythingthatmakesnoise,evenroutinemaintenance,isdeferredtokeepthenoisedown.
Andhowdowerewardsuchdevotion?Bysaying"Welldone,"andgivingthemmoreofthesametodo.Thelifeofasubmarinerisoneofaprivateandpersonalpride,thekindthatcomesfrombeingpartofaneliteclubthatyoucannotbuyorbegyourwayinto,andyouhavetoperform"aboveandbeyond"justtostayin.
Andthenthereistheultimaterewardofreturningthesementotheirfamiliesandhomes.Itissaidthatwhenaboatisgoingbacktobase,theengineersinthemachineryspaceshaveaspecialsettingfor"goinghome."Ifyouhaveeverseentheincrediblespectacleofawarshipreturningitsmentotheland,youknowwhy.Everywifeandgirl-friendhasherbestonforherman,manywithnewbabiesandolderchildrenundertheirarms.Ifyoueverwanttoknowwhytheydoit,lookatthelovedonestheyleavebehindintheknowledgethattheirsacrificesprotectthosetheylovemost.
Americacantakeprideinthesacrificesofthesemenandtheirlovedonesoverthelastforty-fiveyearsofSSNoperations.Prideforajobwelldone.Prideinwhattheyare.Andprideinwhattheywilldointhefuture.
TheBritishBoats:ATourofHMSTriumph(S-93)
AftertheUnitedStates,thelargestbuilderandoperatorofnuclearsubmarinesinthewesternworldistheUnitedKingdom.CurrentlytheBritishoperateaforceoftwelveSSNsandfourSSBNs.Inaddition,theyalsooperateasmallforceoffourdieselattacksubmarines.WhilethismayseemlikeaminorforcecomparedtothatoperatedbytheUnitedStates,theBritishfulfillanimportantroleinthestructureofNATO.Inaddition,sincetheyarelocatedmuchclosertopotentialpointsofconflictinEuropeandAfrica,theresponsivenessoftheirsubmarineforceismultipliedfarbeyondtheirsmallnumbers.
Ifyouweretotravelthroughouttheworldandtalktosubmarinecaptains,andthecaptainsofthesurfaceshipswhomighthavetoopposethem,andaskthemwhosesubmarinestheymostfear,youmightbesurprised.ForwhileeveryonedeeplyrespectstheAmericanswiththeirtechnologicallyandnumericallysuperiorsubmarineforce,theyallquietlyfeartheBritish.NotethatIusethewordfear.Notjustrespect.Notjustawe.ButrealfearatwhataBritishsubmarine,withoneoftheirsuperblyqualifiedcaptainsatthehelm,mightbecapableofdoing.
RoyalNavySubmarineHistory
Itissomewhatironicthatthenationthatmayhavethehighestqualitysubmarineforceintheworldhasitselfbeenmorevictimizedbysubmarinesthananyotherinhistory.ItwasaBritishship,HMSEagle,thatwasthetargetofthefirstattemptedattackbyasubmarine,
theTurtle.ItwasalsotheBritishwhoweretheintendedvictimsofRobertFulton'sNautilusandJohnHolland'searlysubmarinesbuiltfortheFenianSociety.AnditwastheBritishwhosufferedthemostduringtwoworldwarsfromtheeffortsofGermany'sU-boatfleets.Certainlynoothernationonearthhassuchunderstandingofthedamagesubmarinescando.
HMSTriumph(S-93).U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
ThisisnottosaythattheBritishhavehadaneasytimedevelopingtheirsubmarineforce.Thetruthisthatuntilthelate1960s,themen
whohadchosentoserveintheRoyalNavysubforcewereregardedaspariahsandnotconsideredtobegentlemenbytheotherlineofficersoffleet.Asfarbackas1804,whentheBritishadmiralsgottheirfirstlookatRobertFulton'sNautilus,thesubmarinehasbeenconsideredasneakyand"damnun-English"waytofightawar.ThisopinionhadnotchangedbyWorldWarI,thoughtheRoyalNavyhadbegunamodestinvestmentinsuchcraft.Ironically,oneofthefirstcustomersforJohnHolland'searlysubmarineswasGreatBritain,whichboughtfiveforexperimentationandestablishmentofherforce.Nevertheless,theRoyalNavypouredalmostallofitsfundsintoafleetofmodernbattleshipsandescortingvessels,keepingfundsforsubmarinesscarce.Withonlyalimitedforceofsubmarinestouseinwartime,theRoyalNavymadeapointofputtingonlytheirmosttalentedofficersincommand.Thiswounduppayinggreatdividends,althoughtheydidnothavetherichnumbersandvarietyoftargetsthattheU-boatshad.Theexploitsoftheircaptains,includingthegreatSirMaxHorton,havebecomelegendintheannalsofsubmarinehistory,andgavetheRoyalNavyatraditiontheywereabletobuildon.
Duringtheperiodbetweentheworldwars,theBritishexperimentedwidelyinsubmarinetechnology.Theydevelopedsubmarinesthatcouldcarryaircraftandheavyguns,andavarietyofnewanddifferentpowerplants.AlongwiththeU.S.Navy,theyledindevelopingthetypeofsubmarinethatwouldhavethegreatestimpactinWorldWarII,thelong-rangefleetsubmarine.DuringWorldWarIIthisforce,particularlythe"T"class,didthebulkofthedamageinflictedbyBritishsubmarines.IntheMediterraneanthe"T"boatsofthe10thSubmarineFlotillabasedatMaltasankmanysupplyshipsdestinedforFieldMarshalRommel'sAfrikaKorps,helpingkeephimfromtheoilfieldsofArabia.Severalofthe"T"boatsdeployedtothePacific,forwhichtheyhadbeendesignedoriginally,toassistinthefightagainsttheJapanese.TheyevenhelpedintheASWcampaignagainsttheU-boatsbysinkingseventeenGermanandItaliansubmarines.
AnotherBritishachievementwasintheareaofspecialoperations.ThroughoutWorldWarII,theRoyalNavysubmarinehadanexemplaryrecord,rangingfromtheinsertionofcommandoteamstothepreinvasionsurveysoflandingbeaches.Partofthisrecordincludestheuseofminiaturesubmarines,calledX-Craft,todamagebeyondrepairtheGermanbattleshipTirpitzandtheJapanesecruiserTakao,aswellasprovidingnavigationbeaconsfortheBritishlandingforcesonD-Day.Tothisday,specialoperationsareoneofthehallmarksoftheBritishsubmarinetradition.
Afterthewar,theRoyalNavytookitsshareoftheGermanU-boatsandtechnologythatithadcaptured,andbegantoworkonthedevelopmentofitsown"super"submarines.Liketheotherfleetsoftheworld,thedreamoftheBritishsubmarinerswastofindatechnologythatwouldallowasubmarinetotravelathighspeed,forlongperiodsoftime,withouthavingtouseasnorkeltubeandriskdetection.TheRNexploredtheconventionalstepsofhydrogenperoxideenginesandotherair-independentsystems.UnfortunatelytheydidnotinvestinthenuclearreactorprogramthattheUnitedStateshadstartedinthe1940s,andwounduphavingtoacceptthattheyhadbetonthewrongtechnologieswhenitbecameobviousthatnuclearpowerwasthefutureinsubmarinedevelopment.
BecauseofthespecialrelationshipthathadbeenforgedbetweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainduringthewar,however,theUnitedStateswaswillingtoselltheirreactorandpowertraintechnologytotheBritish.Soin1963,thefirstBritishSSN,HMSDreadnought(S-98),wascommissionedintotheRoyalNavy.ShewasessentiallyaSkipjack-classSSNfromthereactoraftandaBritishsubfromthereforward.Andwhileshemadealotofnoise,justlikeherAmericanhalf-sister,theDreadnoughtprovidedtheRoyalNavywithafootholdintonuclearsubmarineoperations,andthebeginningsofacadreofexperiencednuclearsailors.FollowingtheDreadnought,theRoyalNavycommissionedfiveadditionalSSNsoftheValiant(S-102)class.
ThesenewSSNswerecontemporariesofthePermitclass,andusedU.K.-builtreactorplantsbasedontheU.S.design.
DuringthisperiodtheBritishgovernmentwastryingtofindawayofmaintainingacrediblenucleardeterrentforcethatwouldbeunderBritishcontrol.TheforceofRAF"V"bomberswerequicklylosingtheirabilitytopenetratetheairdefensesoftheSovietUnion,andthedevelopmentofanICBMforcethatwouldresideonBritishsoilwassimplybeyondthefinancialresourcesofGreatBritain.SotheBritishgovernmentmadethedecisiontobuythePolarisA3missilesystemfromtheUnitedStatesandbuildaforceoffourSSBNstocarrythem.Thuswasbornthe"R"classofSSBNs,thefirstofwhich,HMSResolution(S-27),wascommissionedin1967.Foroveraquartercenturythe"R"boatshaveprovidedtheUnitedKingdomwiththeirnucleardeterrentforce,helpingkeepthepeace.
Bythelate1960stheRoyalNavywasbeginningtothinkaboutexpandingfurthertheirforceofSSNs.PartofthereasonwastheexpandingforceofSovietSSBNs,whichhadstartedmakingthemselvesknownbythistime.SoanewclassofSSNdedicatedtoASWtaskswasordered.Calledthe"S"class,thefirstunit,HMSSwiftsure(S-126),wascommissionedin1973.ContemporariesoftheAmericanSturgeonclass,fiveofthesixunitsbuiltarestillinservicetoday.
Itwasthe"S"classboats,alongwithseveralofthe"V"classSSNs,thatprovidedtheRoyalNavywithitsprimaryantishippunchduringOperationCorporateinthe1982FalklandsWar.Threeoftheboats,HMSConqueror,HMSSplendid,andHMSSpartan,werethefirstRoyalNavyunitstoarriveandsetupoperationintheBritish-declaredTotalExclusionZone(TEZ)aroundtheislands.TheyhelpedgivetheTEZcredibilitylongbeforethesurfacetaskforcearrivedinthearea,aswellashelpinglandthefirstofthespecialoperationsteamsthatweretobesoeffectiveduringthewar.Later,whentheArgentineNavytriedtoengagetheRoyalNavytaskforce,HMSConqueror
sankthecruiserGeneralBelgranoandscaredtherestoftheirnavybackintoport,nevertocomeoutagain.
TheyearaftertheFalklandsWar,theRoyalNavytookdeliveryofwhat,uptothewritingofthisbook,isthelastclassofSSNsbuilt,the"T"class.Deliveredin1983,HMSTrafalgar(S-107)istheultimateexpressionofBritishSSNdesign.StillpoweredbyanAmerican-designedreactor(calledPWR-1),itwastheleadunitofaseven-boatclass.AndintheareaofSSBNs,theRoyalNavyhasbeguntrialsoftheirreplacementforthe"R"classSSBNs,the"V"class.Theleadboatofthisclass,HMSVanguard,willhelpmaintaintheBritishnucleardeterrentforceintothetwenty-firstcentury.PoweredforthefirsttimebyaBritish-designedreactor,thePWR-2,shewillcarrythesameTridentD5missilesastheOhio-classSSBNsintheU.S.Navy.Atotaloffour"V"classSSBNshasbeenordered.
TheRoyalNavy'snewestSSBN,HMSVanguard,arrivesathernewhomeatFaslane,Scotland.Sheisescortedbyoneoftheolder"R"classSSBNs.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
BritishSkippers--ThePerisherCourse
Historyandtraditionarefine,butjustwhatmakesaBritishSSNsuchatoughpropositiontotakeon?Itis,inaword,personnel.AsintheUnitedStates,theRoyalNavyhasasubmarineschoolatPortsmouth(calledHMSDolphin),whichisequippedwitharangeofclassroomsandtrainersthatwouldlookquitefamiliartoanyU.S.submariner.TheBritishsystemformanningtheirsubmarines,whilesimilartotheU.S.system,hassomeimportantdifferences.Itisnotallthatdifferentintheareaofenlistedpersonnel,thoughtherearesomeminordifferencesinthecourseforenlistedmen(womendonotserveon
RoyalNavysubmarinesasyet).Therealdifferenceisfortheofficers,whosecareertrackiscompletelydifferentfromthatoftheirAmericancounterparts.Startingveryearlyinhiscareer,followinggraduationfromtheRoyalNavyAcademyatDartmouth,thesubmarineofficerisaskedtomakeachoiceoffourseparatetrackstofollowfortherestofhisnavalcareer.
Onetracktakeshimintothesupplybranchandcanleadtocommandofanavaldepotoraprogramoffice.AnotheristheMarineEngineeringOfficer(calledMEO)track,whichallowshimtooperateanuclear,steam,orgasturbinepowerplant.Therealsoisatrackforthosewhodesiretospecializeinweaponsemployment.Acceptingthisoption,calledtheWeaponsEngineeringOfficer(WEO)track,meansthatanofficercanrisetoheadtheweaponsdepartmentonasubmarineorship.Thegreatestdifferencesareinthetrackthatleadstocommand.
ForthoseofficerswhodesiretocommandoneofHerMajesty'ssubmarines,theSeamanOfficer'scareertrackmustbefollowed.MuchlikehisU.S.Navycounterpart,theyoungseamanofficerspendshisfirsttouronasubmarinequalifyingforhis"dolphins"andlearninghowthingsaredoneonasubmarine.Theimportantdifferenceisthatalthoughhespendsconsiderabletimewatchkeepingandlearningtheaspectsofnuclearengineeringthatdirectlyconcernhim,histrainingisconcentratedonmakinghimawareofallaspectsoftheboat'soperations.Fromtheverystartofhiscareer,theseamanofficerisbeinggroomedforcommand.
AnotherdifferencefromhisAmericancounterpartisthattheyoungofficerspendshisentirecareerassignedtosubmarines.Shoreand"joint"toursarevirtuallyunknownintheBritishsubmarineserviceandareseenasasignthatonemaynotbesuitableforcommand.Astheofficerrisesthroughthehierarchyofthewardroom,hebecomesfirstaNavigator,thenaWatchLeaderorOfficeroftheWatch(WL/OOW).Duringthistouracriticaldecisionabouthisfutureis
madebyhiscaptainandtheChiefofStaff,Submarines,atNorthwood,England:whetherornottosendhimtothePerisher.
PerisheristheRoyalNavy'ssubmarinecommandqualificationcourse,whicheveryprospectivesubmarinecaptainandfirstlieutenant(theequivalentoftheU.S.executiveofficer)mustpassbeforehecanmoveupintothosepositions.Itisacourseunlikeanythingelseinanyotherservice.AnAmericanprobablywouldconsideritapostgraduate-levelcourse,withanextrahelpingofstressbuiltin.ThereismoretoPerisherthanstressandlearninghowtodrivesubmarines.Itisatestofthetrainee'scharacter,designedtotelltheRoyalNavywhetherornotamanisqualifiedtocommandoneofthemostpowerfulconventionalweaponssystemsintheBritisharsenal.ProbablytheclosestthingthatmightbecomparedtoPerisheristheU.S.NavyFighterWeaponsSchool(TopGun)atNASMiramar,California,thoughTopGuntestsonlytheskillofapilotandradaroperator,nottheabilityofanofficertocommandmorethanahundredmen.TheaveragePerisherstudentisinhislatetwentiesorearlythirties,withbetweeneightandtwelveyearsofexperienceinsubmarines.
Abouttwiceayear,tenofficersareselectedtoattendthePerishercourse,whichisbasedattheRoyalNavysubmarinebaseatPortsmouth.IftherearenotenoughRNofficerstofillalltenspots,thesevacanciesaremadeavailabletotheprospectivecaptainsofotherselectednavies'submarines.Todate,officersfromCanada,Australia,Denmark,Holland,Israel,Chile,andmanyothershavetakenthePerishercourse.Theonlymodificationmadefortheseofficersisthatthepartsofthecoursespecificallyinvolvingnuclearsubmarineoperationsarereplacedwithinstructiononthedieselsubmarinesmorecommonlyfoundinthosenavies.Surprisingly,noAmericanofficerhasevertakenthePerishercourse--andithasbeenrunsince1914!Ishouldpointout,conversely,thatnoBritishofficerhasevertakenandcompletedtheAmericanPCOcourse.Thetwocountrieshave
differentfocusestotheircommandqualificationcourses,andbothseemsatisfiedwiththeproductsproduced.
ThefadedaccountingledgerthatisthelogbookofeveryPerishercoursesince1922(theearliesttimethattheykeptrecords)isfilledwitha"who'swho"ofRoyalNavysubmarinehistory,includingAdmiralSirJohnFieldhouse;AdmiralSirSandyWoodward,wholedtheRNforcesduringtheFalklandsWar;andthecurrentseniorPerisher"teacher,"CommanderD.S.H.White,OBE,RN.
Student"Perisher"workinganapproachataperiscope.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
AperiscopeshotofaRoyalNavyfrigateonthereceivingendofa"Perisher"student'spracticetorpedospreadduringanapproach.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
CommanderWhiteandtheotherPerisherteachersarethekeepersoftheinstitutionalmemorywherecommandofRoyalNavysubmarinesisconcerned.Justtwoyearsago,thePerishercourseunderwentasignificantchangeinitscurriculum,withmoreemphasisbeingplacedonnuclearsubmarineoperations,long-rangeweaponsemployment,andtacticsforwaratsea.Sincethattime,theteacherscontinuallytrytokeepthecourseandwhatitteachesasuptodateas
possible.
Thefive-monthcoursebeginsbydividingthetentraineeofficers(alsocalled"Perishers")intotwogroups,eachsupervisedbyoneofthePerisherteachers.ThePerishersvisitallthemanufacturersofequipmentthatgoesintotheRNboats,aswellasVickersShipbuildingandEngineering,Limited(VSEL),wherealltheBritishsubmarinesarecurrentlybuilt.Thentheyheadintotheattacksimulatorstolearnapproachestosurfacetargets.Afterthesimulatorrunsarecompleted,theyheaduptotheRNClydeSubmarineBaseatFaslane,Scotland.
PeriscopephotoofaBritishfrigatetakenbyPerisherstudentsduring
theircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
HeretherealtestofthePerishersbegins.EachgroupoftraineesistakenaboardaRoyalNavysubmarineandbeginstodovisualapproachesonafrigatechargingatthesubmarine.Eachtraineegetstodofiverunsadayforaperiodofseveralweeks.Asthecourseprogressesmorefrigatesareadded,untilthePerishertraineehasthreeofthemsimultaneouslychargingathisperiscope.Theideaisforhimtosafelyoperatethesubmarine,fireoffashot,andnotgetrunoverbyoneormoreofthefrigates.AllthetimethataPerisherstudentisattheconnofthesub,theteacherisevaluatingthetrainee'sreactionsandabilitytomaintainhisawarenessofthetacticalsituation.
Itisanemotionallybrutalregime,withaveryhighdropoutrate.Onaverage,between20percentto30percentofthePerishertraineesdon'tmakeit,andfailureratesonindividualcoursesmaybeashighas40percent.Unfortunately,todropoutofPerisheristoneverstepaboardaBritishsubmarineagain.Whenithappens,theteacher'scoxswaingivesthetraineeabottleofwhiskey,andescortshimbacktoshore.
Ifthetraineesurvivestheapproachphase,heheadsintoanequallychallengingoperationsphaseinwhichthePerishersplaytherolesofactualsubmarinecaptainsonmissions.ThesemayincludesneakinguponacoastlineintheBritishIslestodeliveraSpecialBoatService(SBS)commandoteam,snapsomepicturesofacoastline,orpracticelayingmines.Thefinalphaseofthecoursehasthetraineestakingpartinawar-at-seaexercise,designedtoseehoweachtraineecanhandleactualcommandofaboatincombat.Whenitisallover,andthePerisherhascheckedoffallitemsontheteacher'schecklisttotheinstructor'ssatisfaction,heiswhateveryseamanofficerdreamsofbeing,aPerishergraduateandqualifiedtocommandaRoyalNavysubmarine.
PeriscopephotosofcoastlinestakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
PeriscopephotosofBritishsurfacegrouptakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
PeriscopephotosofaNorthSeaoilplatformtakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
PeriscopephotoofaBritishASWhelicoptertakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
ThePerishercourseisaveryexpensivepropositionfortheRoyalNavy.Ifitdidnotalreadyhavetheassetsinplacetoconductthecourse,thecostperindividualtraineewouldbeapproximatelyPS1.2million.Thehumancostisalsohigh.FailedPerishersusuallytransitionintowhatisknownasGeneralServiceiftheychoosetostayintheNavy.Iftheyarelucky,theymayevenrisetocommandafrigateordestroyer.ButthestigmaofbeingfailedPerisherswillalwaysfollowthem.
Forallthecosts,justwhatdoesthePerishercourseproduce?Arguablytheworld'sfinestqualitysubmarinecaptains.PerisheristheRoyalNavy'scommitmenttomakingsurethatthemenwhocommandtheirsubmarinesareasgoodastheboatsthemselves.Withonlyabouttwentysubmarinesintheforce,theyfeeltheymusthavethemcommandedbytheverybest.ThisisnottosaythattheU.S.commandingPCOcourseisnotagoodcourse--itis.Butbyseparatingtheengineeringcareerpathsfromtheserviceofficersatanearlypoint,thefuturecaptainscanconcentrateonbeingcaptains,notnuclearengineers.ThisdoesnotmeanthatU.S.skippersarenotasgoodastheirRoyalNavycounterparts,onlythattheRoyalNavyhasaprocedureinplacethatautomaticallyselectsandqualifiesthebestoftheirsubmarinersfortheircommand,notengineering,skills.
OncethePerishertraineehasgraduated,hewillbeassignedasthefirstlieutenantofaRoyalNavysubmarine.Inthepast,whentheRNhadmoredieselsubmarines,aPerishergraduatecouldcountongettingcommandofoneoftheseboatsdirectlyaftercompletionofthecourse.Now,ofcourse,allofthemdoatourasafirstlieutenant.This
meansthateveryRoyalNavysubmarinehastwomenwhoarefullyqualifiedtocommandtheboat.Oncehehasdonethistour,theofficerwilllikelybegivencommandofhisownboat.In,fact,itisnotimpossiblethatagoodRoyalNavysubmarinecaptainmightcommandadieselboat,anSSN,andanSSBNbeforeheisfinishedinsubmarines.
HMSTriumphisrolledoutoftheVSELbuildingbarn.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
TheBritishliketogettheirmoney'sworthoutofthementhey
qualifyforcommand,andareallygoodcaptainisnotdoneyet.Onceacaptainhasfinishedwithsubmarines,theRoyalNavyfrequentlysendshimtodriveASWfrigatessuchasoneoftheType22BroadswordclassorType23Dukeclass.Bythistimeafullcaptain,heisreadytomoveontocommandataskgroupornavalbase,andthen,flagrank.ThisisthebigdifferencebetweentheAmericansystemandtheBritish.TheU.S.Navysystemcreatessuperiorsubmarinedriversandengineers;theRoyalNavysystemisdesignedtoproducepureleaderslikeaNelson,Rodney,orWoodward.
TheTrafalgarClass--AGuidedTour
HMSTriumph(S-93)istheseventhandlastunitoftheTrafalgarclass.ItisbasedattheRoyalNavalStationatDevonport,nearthetownofPlymouthinsouthwestEngland.Sheispartofthe2ndSubmarineSquadron,whichincludestheseven"T"boats,andthefourdieselboatsofthe"U"orUpholderclass.Orderedin1986andlaiddownatVSELin1987,shewaslaunchedonFebruary16,1991,andcommissionedintotheRoyalNavyonDecember10,1991.Atthetimethisbookisbeingwritten,theFlagOfficer,Submarines,fortheRoyalNavyisViceAdmiralR.T.Frere,RN.HisChiefofStaff,Submarines,isCommodoreRogerLane-Nott,RN.TheycommandtheBritishsubmarinefleetfromtheRoyalNavyoperationscenteratNorthwood,nearLondon.
TheplaqueshowsthevariousbattlesofthepreviousRoyalNavyvesselstocarrythename.ThefirstofthesedatesbacktothebattleswiththeSpanishArmadain1588.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
HMSTriumphisthetenthship(andthesecondsubmarine)oftheRNtocarrythename.Herpredecessorscarryatotalofsixteenbattlehonors,startingwiththebattlesagainsttheSpanishArmadain1588.ThecurrentTriumphiscommandedbyhercommissioningcommandingofficer,CommanderDavidMichaelVaughan,RN.HisfirstlieutenantisCommanderMichaelDavis-Marks,RN.BotharePerishergraduates,andeachhasevencommandedoneofthecherished"O"classdieselboatsbeforehecametoTriumph.Theyareanexcellentteam,generallyconsideredtobetwoofthebestcommand-qualifiedofficersintheRoyalNavysubmarineservice.
Theyareaggressive,confident,colorful,andseemfullycapableofanytasksthatmightbeaskedofthemandtheirboat.Hercrewismadeupoftwelveofficersandninety-sevenenlistedmen.Itisatrim,neat-lookingboatwithadefinitepolishtoher.Let'stakealookforourselves.
ThecaptainoftheHMSTriumph(S-93),CommanderDavidVaughan,RN.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
ThefirstlieutenantofHMSTriumph,CommanderMichaelDavis-
Marks,RN,onthedeckofhisfirstcommand,HMSOtis(S-18).U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
HullandFittings
TriumphissomewhatdifferentfromtheMiamiinthatsheisbuiltnotsomuchforspeedasstealth.Sheissmallerthana688I,at4,700tonsdisplacementversusthe8,100tonsforthe688I,andisshorter,around250feet/76meterslong.Inaddition,herhullismoreliketheclassicshapeoftheAlbacore,andissomewhatmore
hydrodynamicallystablethanthe688I.Herhulliscoveredinrubbertileslikethe688I,butthesearehardandstiff.Thiscoatingisanechoic,designedspecificallytodefeatactivesonarsthatmightbetryingtogeta"ping"offthehull.Shemayalsohaveadecouplingcoatingontheinsideofthehulltohelpreduceanymachinenoiseproducedinternally.
Muchlikethe688I,herfittingsaredesignedforaminimumofdrag,andtheonlyprotrusionisthesonardomefortheType2019acousticinterceptreceiverforwardoftheconningtower.Herdiveplanesarerecessedintheforwardpartofthehull,andshehasafairlyconventionalsetofcruciformtailsurfacesaft.Atthetipoftheverticalstabilizer,theType2046towedsonararrayisattached.Unlikethe688Iarray,thisunitisclippedon,notrolledout.Thismeansthatithastobeattachedandremovedwheneverthesubentersorleavesport.The2046isroughlyanalogousincapabilitytotheAmericanTB-16.
Thoughitisnotobviouswhensheissittingatdock,themostnoticeabledifferencefromthe688Iisthattheboathasnopropeller.Instead,Triumphisequippedwithadevicecalledapumpjetpropulsor.Ifyoucouldseeherindrydock,youwouldseewhatlookslikealampshadeattachedtoherstern;thisisthepumpjet.Thisdeviceworkslikeaductedfan,topushwateraftanddrivetheboatforward.Theadvantageofthissystemisthatitissomewhatquieterthanapropeller,anditoperatesmoresmoothly.Bythewayofexample,Triumphcanspeedupfrom5to18knotswithoutitscrewfeelinganyvibrationfromtheshiftinspeed.SoefficientisthissystemthattheU.S.NavyisplanningtousepumpjetsonalltheirfutureSSNs,includingtheSeawolfclass.
ABOVE:Aseaman"divesthetub"onaRoyalNavysubmarine.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
RIGHT:ARoyalNavysubmarinelaunchesaRoyalNavySubHarpoonantishipmissile.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
ConningTower
TheconningtowerofTriumphismuchlikethatoftheMiami,exceptthathershassomewhatmoreroom.Infact,therearetwoseparatepositionsforlookoutsandofficerstoworktopside.Thereistheusualarrayofperiscopesandmasts,includingahugedomefortheRacalUAPESMsystem.BothoftheperiscopesappeartobeRAMcoatedtokeepdowntheirradarsignature.Gettingdowntheconningtowertrunkintothecontrolroomis,ifpossible,tightereventhanonMiami.Infact,almosteverythingonTriumphseemstobeaboutthree-
fifthssizecomparedtoMiami--sortoflikethedifferencebetweenDisneylandinCaliforniaandWaltDisneyWorldinFlorida!
SonarRoom
IfyoudropdowntheladderintothecontrolroomandtakeaU-turntotheleft,youwillbeinthesonarroomoftheTriumph,wherealltheequipmentanddisplaysforthesonarsystemsarecontained.IshouldsayherethattheBritishhavenothingliketheBSY-1combatsysteminservicerightnow.Thereisaplanforasystemcalledthe2076inafewyears,butrightnow,allcontactdatahandedoffbetweensonarsystemsisdonemanually.ThesonarsuiteonTriumphmightbecomparedfavorablytothatonaFlightILosAngeles-classboat.Thevarioussonarsystemsinclude:
*Type2020,themainsonararray(bothactiveandpassive)inthebowoftheboat.UnlikethedomesonaronMiami,itiscomposedofanarrayofelementsaroundthe"chin"(conformalarray)oftheboat.Itcantrackseveraltargetsatonce,andcanpassdatadirectlytothefirecontrolsystem.Oneofthemoreinterestingfeaturesisthe"captain'skey,"whichmustbeinsertedinaslotinthe2020controlconsolebeforetheactivemodecanbeused.Itisequippedwithaspecialsignalprocessor,Type2027,which(ifthetacticalsituationisright)canautomaticallycalculaterangestothetargetandfeedthedatatothefirecontrolsystem.*Type2072,thenewflankarray(passivelisteningonly),whichcanonlybedescribedashuge.Itisdesignedtodetectbroadbandtargetsatlongrange.*Type2046,the"clip-on"towedsonararray(passivelisteningonly),attachedtoatowpointonthetipofthe
horizontalstabilizer.Itiscapableofdetectingbothbroadbandandnarrowbandsignals.*Type2019,theacousticinterceptreceiverfordetectingactivesonarsandtorpedoes.ThisisaFrenchsystemthatismanned,asopposedtotheautomaticoperatingmodeoftheU.S.WLR-9.
ThesonarsystemsonTriumphprovideexcellentcoverageinbothspectrumandazimuth.OnlythelackofafullyintegratedcombatsystemandtheTB-23towedarraysystemkeepsitfrombeingtheequaltechnicallyoftheBSY-1.
ControlRoom/FireControl/Navigation
Ifyouduckbackaroundthecornerwhereyoucamefromoriginally,youmaybesurprisedtofindthatthelandingfortheconningtowerladderhasnowbeenconvertedintoachairforCommanderVaughan.Fromthisposition,hecanviewtherepeaterforthesonarsystems,thefirecontrolconsolesinthetrackalley,andtheplottingarea.JustaftarethetwoperiscopesandthemastfortheUAPESMsystem.Thescopesarefirst-rate,withtheCK034searchscopeeasilybeingtheequaloftheAmericanType18.ItisequippedwithreadoutsfortheESMreceivermountedontopofthemastaswellasa35mmcamerafortakingphotographs.TheCH084attackscope,whichhasaverysmallhead(tomakeithardtodetect),isalsoequippedwithalow-lightTVcamera.Bothareveryquietwhenraised,andhaveexcellentoptics.Twodifferencesaretheuseofasplitimagerangefinder,aswellasmoreautomatedcontrols.
Thefirecontrolalleyisequippedwithsixpositionsforfirecontroltechnicians.Thesystemissetuptotrackandengageseveraltargets
simultaneously.Thescreensareround,red-oramber-coloredplasmadisplays;alightpenisusedtodesignatethetargetsandmovebetweenthevariousoperatingmodes.Allthefirecontrolsolutionsaregeneratedautomatically,andthereisnomanualTMAsolutionbeingplottedtobackuptheautomatedsystem.TheBritishseemtopreferthisbecausetheybelievethatmostengagementswillprobablybeatrelativelyshortrange.Thisislikewhattheymightencounterwithadieselboat,inwhichthereactiontimeforgettingthefirstweaponinthewateristhedecidingfactor.Thusthesonar/firecontrolfitoftheTriumph,aswellasthetrainingofthecrew(andespeciallythecaptaininhisPerishercourse),isareflectionofthecurrentRNcombatdoctrine.
ThecrewofaRoyalNavysubmarineconductsanescapedrill.ThetraineeattheleftiswearingthelatestMK8escapesuit.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
Travelingaftfromthetrackalley,youcomeuponthetwoplottingtables,calledSNAPStables.Theseareautomatedandcanbefedwithplottinginformationfromthefirecontrolsystemandnavigationalaids.Inaddition,theycanmakeuseofstandardnavigationalcharts,thecoordinatesofwhicharestoredinthecomputer'smemory.SupportingthenavigatorisaNavstarGPSreceiver,aswellasaSINSsystem(thegyrocompartmentisdowninthethirdlevelportside)tohelpkeepTriumphoncourse.
Acrossthecontrolroomtotheportside,youfindtheshipcontrolarea.ItislaidoutsimilarlytotheoneonMiami,themaindifferencebeingthattheBritishhaveautomatedthecontrolsystemsoonlyonemancontrolsboththebowandsterndivingplanesfromasingleposition.Theballastcontrolpanelistotherightoftheshiphandlingposition,withthedivingofficerseatedbehindthem.TheboatdivesinaboutthesametimeastheMiami,thoughsheseemstobesomewhateasiertotrim.Triumphhandlesextremelywell,abletoturnatover1degreepersecondwithonlyamoderaterudderon.Shealsospeedsupandslowsdownveryquicklyandsmoothly,withnonoticeablesoundorvibrationasshechangesspeed.ItisthepumpjetthatmakesmostofthedifferenceinnoiseandvibrationoverapropellersystemlikethatontheMiami.Also,herhullshapeissomewhatbetterfromamaneuveringpointofview.
TheESM/RadioSpaces
Aftoftheplottingareaistheradioroom.TheBritishcommunicationscapabilitiesappeartobequitesimilartothoseoftheMiami,thoughitappearsthissystemmaynothaveanELFcapability.JustaftoftheshipcontrolisadoormarkedRADARWARNINGROOM.ThisisthespacewherethereadoutsfortheESMsystemandcommunicationintelligence(Comint)systemsarelocated.Bothsystemsarefedoutofthemastantennas,especiallythebigESMdome.Thesearereallyimpressivesystems,andareclearlyagreatdealmorecapablethanastandard688I.ThisisnottosaytheU.S.NavyandtheRoyalNavydonothaveboatsspeciallyconfiguredforESM/Comintpurposes;theydo.ButifIwereanAmericanadmiralplanningtouseasubtomonitorradioorradaractivityoffahostilecoast,andIdidnothaveoneofthosespecialboats,ImightjustasktheBritishtoborrowaTrafalgar-classboatforthemission.
TheEngine--TheReactor/ManeuveringSpaces
Aftfromthecontrolroom,youwalkunderthemainaccesshatchtothedeck,andintotheaccesshatchforthereactorspace.AswiththeMiami,visitorsarenotallowedtoenterthisspace.TheTriumph'sreactor,calledPWR-1(PressurizedWaterReactor-1),isderivedfromtheAmericanS5Wplant.ThereforetheBritishhavetoabidebyalloftheproceduresandsecurityregulationssetdownina1958jointRN/U.S.Navyagreement.ThePWR-1suppliesabout15,000horsepower,translatingintoatopspeedofabout30knotswhensheisatdepth.Asfaraslayout,themachineryspacesareroughlyequivalenttothoseonMiami,withtwoofeverything(turbines,motorgenerators,etc.)exceptforthemainpowertrain.
LivingSpaces
Comingbackforwardonthestarboardsideisthecaptain'scabin.TheaccommodationsforthecommanderofaBritishSSNarepositivelySpartanbyU.S.standards,withthecabinbeingonlyaboutathirdthesizeofthatontheMiami.Ontheforwardendofthecabinisasmalldesk,withasinglebunkalongtheouterbulkheadaft.Maximumuseismadeofthespace,withabookcasebuiltovertheendofthebunk.
CommanderVaughanlikestoaddafewhomeytouchestohiscabin,likeapileofbooksonnavalwarfare(howpleasingtofindahardcoverofTheHuntforRedOctoberontop!)inthebookshelf,asmallsoundandvideosystempaneledintothebulkhead,andaThomastheTankEnginebedspread,courtesyofhisson.Whileitissomewhatcramped,andhedoesnotevenhaveaheadtosharewithLieutenantCommanderDavis-Marks,helikesit.Itisclosetothecontrolroom,andhecangettohisactionstationinjustamatterofseconds.
Ifyouproceeddowntheaccommodationladdertotheseconddeck,youfindtherestofthelivingspaces.Overontheportsidearetheofficers'quartersandwardroom.Thefirstlieutenantandthenavigatorsharethesingletwo-mancabin,withtherestoftheofficerssharingspaceswiththree-highbunks.Thereisasinglelavatoryfortheofficersinthepassagewayleadingtotheofficers'wardroom.Therearetheusualamenitiesofastereoandvideosystem,aswellasplentyofstoragefortheliquidrefreshmentsthatmaketheRoyalNavyseemsomuchmorecivilizedattimesthantheU.S.Navy.Asmallpantryservestheofficers'wardroom,thoughallthefoodiscookedinacentralgalleyservingallthemenontheboat.
Therestofthecreweatsandassemblesinapairofsmallmessareas(seniorandjuniorratings)onthestarboardsideofthesecondlevel.Theyarejustascomfortableastheofficers'wardroom;theseniorratingmesshastheaddedluxuryofabarwithbothFoster'sLagerandJohnCourageontap.Liketheofficers'wardroom,bothareequipped
withstereoandvideosystems.
Theberthingareasaresplit(seniorandjuniorratings),withaccessforallofthemlocatedonthesecondlevel.Again,theyarethree-highbunkswithstowagetraysforpersonnelgear.AsontheMiami,therearemorejuniorenlistedpersonnelthanbunks,sosome"hotbunking"isrequiredtofiteveryonein.
LifeSupportSystems--TheMachinerySpaces
Unlikethe688I-classboats,inwhichitisalllocatedinonecompartment,theTrafalgarshavetheirlifesupportequipmentscatteredinaseriesofdifferentspacesinvariouspartsoftheboat.TheCOscrubbersandtheoxygenproductionplantaredowninacompartmentonthethirdlevelforward,surroundedbyanacousticenclosure.Uponthesecondlevel,justabovethescrubbercompartment,istheair-conditioningplant,alsoinanacousticenclosure.Uponthefirstdeckforward,inthesamecompartmentastheforwardescapetrunk,aretheCO/Hburnersthatareusedintheeventofanemergency.ThemainHburnersarelocatedontheseconddeck.Thetwoauxiliarydieselenginesarelocatedaftintheengineroom.Thereasonforspreadingthesedifferentpiecesofequipmentoutaroundtheboatistoputtheminplaceswheretheycanbemosteffectivelyisolated,fromanoisestandpoint.
Weapons--TorpedoesandMissiles
Downonthethirdlevelandforward,youcometothetorpedoroom,whichthecrewcallsa"bombshop."HerearestoredthevariousweaponsthatarmHMSTriumph.Sheisequippedwithfive21-inch
/533mmtorpedotubes(twoperside,withonegoingoutunderthechinofthebow)andcanstoretwenty-fiveweaponsinthecompartment.ThetorpedotubesutilizeawaterramsystemsimilartotheoneonMiami,anduseasimilarloadingsystem.Thefifthtubemakesitpossibletofireasalvooffourweaponsofonetype,forinstance,whilestillhavingoneweaponofanothertypeinreserve.
CurrentlytheRNisdeployingtwodifferenttypesoftorpedoes.OneistheMk24TigerfishMod2,whichisanelectricallypoweredwire-guidedtorpedodesignedprimarilyforASWwork.Ithasa200-lb/91-kgwarhead,amaximumspeedof35knots,andarangeof22,000metersat24knots.Itisveryquiet(theBritishcaptainsarefondofcallingTigerfishthestealthtorpedo),thoughthesmallwarheadmakesitlesseffectiveforshootingatsurfacevessels.
ReplacingtheTigerfishisthenewSpearfishtorpedo,whichhasamuchlargerwarhead(6601b/300kg),comparablerange(approximately13miles/21km),andamaximumspeedofaround60knots.Thistorpedoisamonster,withmanyofthesamekindsofguidanceimprovementsandcapabilitiesastheMk48ADCAP.
Inadditiontothetorpedoes,theRNdeploysaversionoftheUGM-84HarpoonantishipmissiletogivetheTriumphalong-rangeantishipcapability.CalledRoyalNavySubHarpoon(RNSH),itisequivalenttotheU.S.Block1Cversionofthemissile.
WhiletheTriumphdoesnotdeployquitethevarietyofweaponsthatMiamidoes,oneshouldrememberthattheBritishboatsdonotpursuethesameroleandmissionsastheU.S.fleet.AndwhiletheRoyalNavycaptainsmightlikeaweaponequivalenttotheBlockIDorTomahawkcruisemissiles,budgetconstraintswillprobablyforcethemtobesatisfiedwithwhattheycurrentlyhave.Nevertheless,theyarealreadycapablyarmedandquitedeadly.
EscapeTrunks/SwimmerDelivery
MuchliketheMiami,theTriumphisequippedwithapairofescapetrunksforemergencytransfertoaDSRV,swimmerdelivery,oremergencyascentescape.Thereisatwo-manescapechamberintheforwardmachineryspaceonthefirstlevel,aswellasaftinthemachineryspace.Thesechambersaredesignedtoallowemergencyescapefromdepthsdownto600feet/183meterswhenusedinconjunctionwiththeRNMk8egress/exposuresuit.Thissuit,whichusesthesamekindofairreservoirbreathingsystemastheAmericanSteinkehood,providestheuserwithaninsulatedsuitforsurvivalonthesurface.Soeffectiveisthissystemthattestsubjectshavebeenabletosurviveforuptotwenty-fourhoursinwatersimulatingNorthAtlanticconditions.AlthoughtheBritishoperateinareaswherethewateris,onaverage,shallowerthanthatwheretheU.S.subsoperate,theystilltrainalltheirsubmarinepersonnelfordeep-wateregress.ThisisregularlypracticedinatowerattheirsubmarineschoolinPortsmouth.
AcousticIsolation
TheTrafalgar-classsubmarines,muchliketheirAmerican688Icounterparts,aredesignedtobeextremelyquiet.AndwhiletheBritishseemtobeusingmanyofthesamequietingtechniquesandequipment,theredoappeartobeafewinterestingfeatures.LikeMiami,theTriumphappearstousealargemachineryraftwithisolationmountsforallthelargepiecesofequipment(turbines,generators,etc.).Eventheshaftthatisconnectedtothepumpjetpropulsorhasaflexiblemountingtokeepdownbearingnoise.
Aswediscussedearlier,manyofthenoisierpiecesofequipment
seemtobesetintheirownacousticenclosures.Inaddition,alltheelectronicequipmentissetonleafspringmountstoprovideprotectionagainsttheshockofanearbyexplosion,aswellassomesoundisolation.Triumphalsohasafairlyextensiveself-monitoringnoisesystem,bothtodetectanyuntowardnoiseaswellastohelplocateanypendingfailures.Triumphisalsoequippedwithsystemstoreducetheriskofdetectionfromtheboat'smagneticsignature,aswellasreducingtheelectricalfieldgeneratedbythecorrosionoftheboatinseawater.Allinall,theTriumphisprobablytheequaloftheMiamiinnoisereduction.
DamageControl
AhallmarkoftheBritishcharacteristheirpowerofunderstatementandreserve.YetifthereisonethingthatpersonnelonboardtheTriumpharefanaticalabout,itisdamagecontrol,particularlyfirefighting.TheBritishexperiencewithfireduringtheFalklandsWarin1982,specificallythelossofHMSSheffieldandRFAAtlanticConveyertouncontrolledfires,hasleftapermanentimpression.Thisshowsinthedesignoftheirboats,whichhavetheabilitytoisolatecompartmentsandfloodthemwithHalon.VirtuallyeveryelectronicequipmentrackhasaporttoinjectCOgastosnuffanyelectricalfire.Likethe688I,TriumphhasanEABsystemwithforced-feedairmasksforeverymanonthecrew.Andthentherearethefirefightingtoolsthemselves.
Theirfirefightingcrewsuitsaremadeofchemicallytreatedwool,whichtheysayprovidesbetterinsulationagainsttheheatofacompartmentfire,withprotectionasgoodasthatofNomex.InsteadoftheEABmasksoranOBAtobreathe,theRNusesacompressed-aircylinderpack(calledaScottPack)toprovidebreathableairtotheirfirefighters.Theyareequippedwiththesamekindofthermal
imagerastheU.S.Navyhas,aswellasinfraredfiredetectors(whichlooklikeflashlights),andafullarrayoffireextinguishers,airtestkits,andfirstaidkits.
ThecrownjeweloftheTriumph'sfirefightingcapabilityistheirfixedAFFF(AqueousFireFightingFoam)system.Oneoftheseislocatedoneveryleveloftheboatforwardofthereactor,andIassumetheyarealsobackinthemachineryspacesaswell.Thissystem,whichlookslikeasmallwaterheater,mixesseawaterwiththeAFFFmixtureandfeedsitthroughapressurehose.CrewmembersonTriumphindicatedthattheycouldlaydownover100gallons/377litersofAFFFslurryperminutewiththissystem,whichcompareswellwiththestillveryeffectiveAFFFfireextinguishersusedontheMiami.
LifeAboard
LifeaboardTriumphisnotallthatdifferentfromontheMiami.Thoughthefoodisalittledifferent(cheesebunsforlunchandcurrysaladdressingarenormal),thedietishealthyandhearty.Theculturaldifferencebetweenthetwoservicesappearsintheattitudetowardalcohol.UnliketheU.S.Navy,theRoyalNavystillallowstheircrewstohavebeerandwineaboard(thedaily"tot"ofPussersRumisunfortunatelynolongerservedtotheratings).TheattitudeoftheRoyalNavyleadershipforoversixcenturieshasbeenthatifamanisresponsibleenoughtogotoseawithitsrisksofquickdeathandisolation,thenheshouldnotbedeprivedofthebasicpleasureofadrinkifheshouldwantit.Inreality,mostofwhatiscarriedaboardisconsumedwhileinport;mostmenjustdon'tdrinkatseawhiletheyareworking.
OtheraspectsoftheTriumphlifestylecloselyparallelthatonMiami.Waterisinshortsupply,andNavyshowersaretherule.Thecrewusesmanykindsofequipment,liketheTDU,whichanyAmericansubmarinerwouldfeelquiteathomewith.Watchesareroughlythesame,withthesameproblemsofhavingto"hotbunk."Thedailyroutineincludeslotsofdrillsofallvarieties,rangingfromdamagecontroltotacticaldrills.Asformessagesfromhome,theRNseemstofollowtheU.S.practiceof"Familygrams,"thoughprobablynotquiteasoften.Itisagoodlifeatsea,andthemenenjoyit.
HMSTriumph(S-93).U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
RolesandMissions
ThefolksintheU.S.NavyUnderseaWarfareOffice(N-87)callthem"RolesandMissions."Whateveryoucallthem,thesearethetasksthatarecurrentlydefinedfornuclearsubmarines.Upuntilveryrecently,though,justdiscussingthemwascauseforextremediscomfort(baseduponsecurityregulations)onthepartoftheseniorleadershipofthehandfulofnaviesthatoperateSSNs.Now,becauseoftheColdWar'scomingtoanendandtheneedtojustifythecostsofbuildingandoperatingsubmarines,thosesameleadersarelettingtheworldhaveapeekatjustwhattheirboatshavedone,andstilldo.Insomecases,theyareacknowledgingforthefirsttimemissionsthathavebeenconductedfordecades.Let'stakealook.
Mission#1--AntisubmarineWarfare
ThepremierASWplatformisandprobablywillremainanothersubmarine.Thereasonsforthisaredefinedbythebasicadvantageofthesubmarineoverotherantisubmarineplatforms.Environmentalfactorsdefinethesub'sabilitytohide.Watertemperature,thelocationofthermoclinelayers,variationsinsalinity,andambientnoisesourcesallarepartofthethree-dimensionalrealmofthesubmarine.Thesublivesinthatenvironmentandmonitorsitconstantly.Surfaceshipsandaircraftcanusetheirinstrumentstotakesnapshots,buttheycannothavethebroadviewthatasubmarinecommanderhas.Justasground-basedsurface-to-airmissilesandantiaircraftgunscanimpedebutnotdenyaircrafttheuseofthesky,socansurfacewarshipsnotcontrol
thedepthsofthesea.That'sthejoboftheSSN.
TacticalExample--StalkingaRussianSSBN
They'restilloutthere.They'recalledboomersintheU.S.Navy,bombersintheRoyalNavy.Theyarethefleetballisticmissilesubmarines,reallycreaturesofthepastColdWarera,buttheystillsail,andtheirmissilesmustbeaimedatsomething--whatthatsomethingmightbe,theirownersdonotsay.TheRussianonesareprobablyaimedattheUnitedStates,andtheAmericanonesatRussia,ratherinthemannerofa"default"settingonacomputerorwashingmachine.OneRussianboomercaptainwasrecentlyquotedassayingthatthetargetpackagesonhisboat'smissileshadnotchanged,andinfacttheymightbeaimedatsomeofthenationscurrentlysupplyingaidtotheCIS(CommonwealthofIndependentStates).Untilsuchtimeasthesedinosaursarerelegatedtothepast,itisonlyprudenttokeepaneyeonthem,andthatisonemissionoftheSSN.WhenaRussian/CIS(formerlySoviet)SSBNdepartsitshomeportontheKolaPeninsula,waitingoutatsea(possiblyinadepressionintheseafloorcalleda"tongueoftheocean")willbeaNATOSSN.Probably.Almostcertainly,infact.ThemissionoftheSSNandhercrewwillbetoshadowtheRussianSSBN.
Themissionisnotexactlyafriendlyone.Shouldasuddencrisisarise,theSSN'sjobistocloseanddestroythemissileboatbeforeshecanlaunchherbirds.Shortofthatexigency,theSSNremainsintrail,listening.Thereismuchtolearn.ProbablytheSSN'sCOknowsthename(orhullnumber)oftheboathe'swatching,andheobservestheotherCO'shabitstoaddtowhatwealreadyknow.He'lllistentotheboat,determiningheruniquemechanicalcharacteristicssothatotherSSNscanidentifyherbyheracousticsignature.Otherobservationswilltellusmuchofthequalityofthecrew,changesinRussian
operationaldoctrine,andfromtheboat'sday-to-dayroutine,drillsandreadiness.
It'snotquitethateasy,ofcourse.SovietSSBNsarefrequentlyaccompaniedbytheirownSSNguardians.ThustheWesternsubmarinemusttrack--andevadedetectionby--twoadversarieswhothemselveshavecarefullythought-outroutinesfordealingwithapotentialshadower.ThiscanbeassimpleasrunningtheboomerathighspeedtowardherprotectingSSN,forcingthetrailingboattomovequicklyherselfandsomakemorenoisethantheU.S.skippermightwish.Noiseisdeathinthisbusiness,andasimportantasthemechanicalcharacteristicsoftheplatformare,thecommanderwiththemostbrainshastheultimateadvantage.
Themissionmaybesomethingfromthepast,butitsimmediacyhasn'tchanged.Thewarheadsonthosemissilesubmarinesarestillreal.Theiraimingpointsareunknown,butsolongastheyexist,andsolongasmencanchangetheirminds,theyrepresentadangertoAmericaandherallies.Thesmartmoveistoeliminatethewarheadsthroughdiplomaticmeans.Untilthathappens,eliminatingtheminotherwayswillcontinuetobeanoptionthatourleaderswillwishtohaveattheirdisposal.
Sojusthowdoesonehuntsuchabeast?Firstyoumustlearnitshabitsandcharacteristics,andlikeeverythingelseinthisworld,thecharacteristicsoftheRussianboomerfleetarerapidlychanging.WiththedrawdownintheCISfleet,andthestipulationsofthenewSTART-IIarmscontroltreaty,theforceofRussianboomersisbecomingsmaller.Bytheturnofthecenturytheywillprobablyhaveonlyfifteentotwentymissileboatsaltogether.Theonestheykeeparegoingtobethenewest,mostquietboatsintheirfleet.ThismeansthataWesternSSNcommanderislikelytobehuntingeitheraDeltaIVorTyphoon-classboat.BoththesetypesofsubmarinehavethelatestinquietingtechnologyavailabletotheCISNavy.TotheSSNcommanderhuntingone,thismeansthatevenwithhisadvantagein
acousticdetectionandtracking,whichusedtoallowhimtodetectandtrackatargetatrangesoftensofthousandsofyards,nowit'slikelythatsolidcontactswillbeobtainedatrangesofthousandsofyards.
RussianTyphoon-classmissilesubmarinerunningonthesurface.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
AnotherproblemforpotentialhuntersofRussianSSBNsresultsfromthemannerinwhichtheyareemployedanddeployed.OneoftheearlygoalsofmissiledesignersintheformerSovietUnionwasto
maketherangesoftheirsub-launchedmissilesaslongaspossible.ItisanacknowledgedfactthatCISboomerscanlaunchtheirmissilesattargetsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesfromalongsidepiersattheirKolaPeninsulabases.ConsequentlytheonlyreasontheRussianleadershiphasformovingthemistohidethemagainstpossibleattackbyaircraftormissiles.Andlikeprizedjewels,theCISNavytendstoplacetheminthemaritimeequivalentofbankvaults:the"boomerbastions."
BastionswereoriginallycreatedtoplaceSovietSSBNsbeyondthereachofWesternASWforces.WhiletheactuallocationandlayoutofaboomerbastionisahighlysensitivesubjectinboththePentagonandtheKremlin,thebasicconceptisquitesimple:anSSBNisplacedinapatrolareathatishighlydefendableandasremotefromWesternoperatingareasaspossible.TheBarentsSea,theKaraGulf,theSeaofOkhotsk,andevensitesunderthepolaricepackhavebeensuggestedaspossiblebastionareas.ThismaymeantheSSBNisplacedinanareawithentrancesthatareeasilydefended,oritmightbesurroundedbyabeltofASWmines.Inaddition,itprobablyisaggressivelydefendedbyRussianattacksubmarines,maritimepatrolaircraft,and,ifavailable,surfaceASWgroups.
Clearly,aboomerbastionisnotthekindoftargetacarrierbattlegroupisgoingtotakeon.Infact,amodernSSNistheonlyplatformthatcanevenbegintothinkaboutpenetratingthebastionsandpursuingtheRussianSSBNscontainedtherein.Backintheearly1980stheU.S.maritimestrategyhadNATOtryingtoactivelypursuetheSovietboomersintheirlairs.TodaythetaskismademoredifficultbythedecreasedsizeoftheNATOSSNforceandthegreaterstealthoftheCISSSBNs.
Let'sassumethatWesternintelligenceservicesmanagetofindaboomerbastion.Themethodisnotparticularlyimportant--itmightbeasatellitephotoofamissileboatbreakingthroughthepolariceduringamissiledrill,orradiotrafficfromasupportingsurfacegroup.
Forourpurposes,though,wewillassumethatthetargetisaTyphoon-classSSBNbeingprotectedbyanAkula-classSSN.TheirbastionareaisaparceloftheBarentsSeathatoverlapsthepolaricepackinwhatiscalledthemarginalicezone.Theinterfacebetweenthepolarpackandthemarginalicezoneisanextremelycomplexacousticenvironment.Allthenoisefromtheicefloesbreakingapartandgrindingtogethermakesitverydifficulttolocateandtrackanopposingsubmarine.Inadditiontheboomer,muchlikearatinawarehouse,hasabackdoortoruntoundertheice.Forthisreason,onlythemostcapableofAmericansubmarines,anImprovedLosAngeles(688I),issuitable.
Afteratransittothepresumedbastionarea,the688Ibeginstolisten.Itmaintainsalowspeed,probablyaround5knots,tooptimizetheperformanceofitstowedarrays.Asthe688Ifinallyentersthetargetzone,thetrackingteaminthecontrolroomutilizeseverysensorandcapabilityoftheBSY-1systemtolocateandtracktheopposingboats.Thisisvitalbecauseofthebackgroundnoisesintheocean(waves,fish,marinemammals,etc.),aswellasthenoisecomingfromtheicepack.Thefirstcontactisgoingtohavetobea"directpath"contact,sothe688Isearches,runninginaseriesofexpandingboxesuntilthefirstcontactisachieved.Thiscontact,whichmightbeeithertheTyphoonortheAkula,isnonetooexactwithregardstorange,butbearinginformationisenoughtocontinuethehunt.Thehuntnowbecomesataskofpatience.Theboatwillprobablygotothequietestroutinepossible,astheclosuretoattackmighttakemanyhours.
WhiletheAmericancommanderprobablypreferstoavoidtheAkulabymovingaroundtheTyphoonandusingittomaskthe688I'sownnoisesignature,theextensivequietingontheTyphoonwillprobablyprecludethis.ItsimplywouldbetooeasytomisstheboomerandstumbleintotheAkula.Again,patienceandstealthisthebesttacticoftheAmericanboat.ThegoalatthispointistoholdasonarcontactontheTyphoonwhiletryingtoavoidtheAkula.The
keymomentcomeswhenafiringsolutionisfinallygeneratedbytheBSY-1,hopefullywithintheCO'sdesignatedfiringrange.Normallyitwouldbehelpfultotakethetimetoestablishasolidsolutiontothetargettoincreasethechancesofahitonthefirstshot.But"polishingthecannonball"withsuchopponentsastheTyphoonandtheAkulacouldcostthechancetogetthefirstshotin.WiththetrackingcapabilitiesoftheMk48ADCAPtorpedo,andthedangerposedbytheAkula,itisnowinthebestinterestsofthe688Ito"shootandscoot."AssoonasthesolutiononTyphoonisgoodenough,theAmericancommanderprobablyordersthelaunchingofapairofMk48ADCAPs.Eachislikelytobelaunchedabout12degreesofftheinterceptcourse(leftandright)tothetarget,soastocovertheentirefront180-degreesectorofthe688I.ThefishareprobablylaunchedintheBSY-1'sShortRangeAttack(SRA)modeatthehigh-speedsetting,theguidancewiresarecut,andtheseekermodeissettoactivepinging.IfheknowsthebearingtotheAkula,theAmericancommandermaychoosetofirehisothertwotorpedoesinSRAmodedownthatbearingalso.
WiththetorpedoesheadingontheirowntowardtheTyphoon,theAmericanboatcannowrunforitsownsafety(called"clearingdatum").Thecaptainofthe688Iisprobablygoingtokickupthespeedasfastaspossible(over30knots),launchsomedecoysorothercountermeasuresfromthe3-inchsignalejectortubes,andgoasdeepasthelocalseabedandthecapabilitiesoftheboatwillallow.Ifit'sdoneright,theAmericanboatshouldhavealeadofseveralmilesbeforeoneoftheRussianboatscanlaunchatorpedoinresponse.Thistheywilldo,though,andtheAmericanboatissuretohaveoneormoreRussiantorpedoesheadedinitsdirection.ButtheCISsubsarealsorunningfortheirlives,kickingoutdecoysandcountermeasuresanddesperatelytryingtomaneuveroutofthewayoftheoncomingADCAPs.Butwithaspeedof60-plusknotsandaseekerheadthatcanseetargetsalmost180degreesaroundit,thesimplefactisthatno
submarineafloatcanoutrunanADCAP.Theencounternowmovestotheendgame.
Theanglingofthetorpedoesfromthe688IisdesignedtoensurethatatleastoneoftheMk48ADCAPswill"acquire"theTyphoon,thoughinabouttwo-thirdsofthesituations,bothweaponsshouldtrack.AtthispointtheRussianboomerisgoingallouttoevadetheincomingweapons.Itlaunchescountermeasures,tryingtojamtheseekerheadsofthetorpedoesandoutmaneuverthem.Thisprobablywillnotwork.AstheMk48scloseonthetarget,theTyphooncrewwillinevitablyhearthepingingoftheseekerheadsontheirownacousticinterceptreceiversandknowwhatiscoming.AtthispointtheMk48'selectronicguidancepackagedeterminestheoptimumpointfordetonatingthewarheadofeachADCAPonorneartheouterhulloftheTyphoonand/orAkula.Andtheeffectswillbehorrendous.IftheAkulaishit,itisprobablydead.GameoverfortheenemySSN.TheRussianboomer,ontheotherhand,willcertainlysuffermassiveouterhullandshockdamage.Insomecasesabreachoftheinnerhullmayoccur,causingflooding.ShouldbothMk48shit,theymaysinkthemissileboatimmediately.ButmostlikelythemassiveconstructionoftheTyphoonwillallowittosurvivetheimpactofevenapairofADCAPs.Thelargespacebetweentheinnerandouterpressurehulls,aswellastheTyphoon'shugereserveofbuoyancy(approximately35percentofherdisplacement)willlikelyallowtheboattosurvive.IftheRussianboathassurvivedtheinitialshockandflooding,itmayhaveenoughreservebuoyancytoblowitsballasttanksandfighttothesurface,assumingitisnotundertheice.Inanycase,withthehullshredded,interiorcompartmentspossiblyopentothesea,andmassiveshockdamagetotheweaponsandcontrolsystems,itisnolongercombatready.Iftheboomerhassurvived,itismakingaterrificamountofflownoise,aswellasgeneratingmechanicaltransients(rattling)fromtheshreddededgesofthedamagedhullplatesbeatingagainsteachother.
Whilethetorpedoendgameisbeingconducted,the688Iresumesitsquietroutine.Inaddition,thecrewarereloadingthetorpedoandcountermeasurestubesaswellasdoinganythingnoisythattheydeferredduringtheapproach.AssumingthattheAmericanboathasoutrunanyweaponsthatwerecounterfired,itslowsandbeginsthelisteninggameanew.AtthispointtheAmericanSSNcommanderisfacedwithachoice.Ifthemissileboathassurvived,itwillbefightingforitslife.AndwhileitisprobablyincapableoffiringitscomplementofSS-N-20Seahawkmissileswithoutamajoroverhaul,theAmericanboatmaytrytofinishthejobjusttobesure.
Andthusthehuntbeginsagain....
TacticalExample--HuntingaNuclearAttackSubmarine
Thisisajobthathasbecomebotheasierandharderinrecentyears.Since1988theRussianNavyhasvoluntarilyretiredawholegenerationofitssubmarines.Many,perhapsalloftheHotel,Echo,andNovemberclassesofSSNsarereportedtohavebeendeactivated--insomecaseshauledoutofthewatertorotwhileRussiannavalofficersseektheadviceoftheirAmericancounterpartsonthebestwaytodisposeoftheirstill"hot"reactorplants.EarlyVictor-classSSNshavereportedlybeenofferedforsaletotheWestasASWadversaries(theU.S.Army'sNationalTrainingCenterhasalargesupplyofSoviet-madefightingvehicles,obtainedthroughlessconventionalmeans).TheRussianNavyappearstoberevertingtoitsentirelylegitimateroleasitscountry'smaritimedefenseforcewhilethatcountry'slandforcescontinuetoassumetheirplaceasthatcountry'sprincipaldefensearm.ThatmeansasmallerRussianNavy,andonethatremainsclosertohome.
Butnuclearsubmarinesarenotnecessarilycreaturesofone'shome
coast,andthoseRussianSSNsremaininginservicearethebesteverproducedbythatcountry.TheVictorIIIisthemechanicalequivalentoftheAmerican637(Sturgeon)class,andtheAkula(theRussianwordforshark,appliedtothatclassbyNATOaftertheWestranoutofletter-codedesignators)isreportedlyequivalenttoanearly688(LosAngeles)class.Theyare,inaword,closeenoughinperformancetoWesternSSNsthattheskillofthecaptainandcrewbecomesthedecidingfactor.
Trackingoneofthesesubmarinestakesontheaspectofaone-on-onesportingevent.AnditisaneventthathasbeenplayedoutmanytimessincebothsidesacquiredSSNsintheearly1960s.Duringthistime,theSovietforcesweremakingpreparationsforapossiblegroundwaragainstNATOinwesternEurope.AndmuchastheGermanU-boatfleetdidinWorldWarII,theSovietNavywasplanningtosupportthemwithamassivesurgeofSSNsandSSGNs(Nuclear-GuidedMissileSubmarines)intotheNorthAtlantictostopconvoyswithreinforcementsfromreachingtheNATOforces.Sinceproficiencyinsuchskillstakespractice,theSovietsbegantohavetheirSSNsmakeregularpatrolsintotheAtlanticOceanandneartotheAmericancoast.UsuallythesewereconductedbynewerboatssuchasVictorIIIs.
PartoftheproblemwithstayingaheadoftheSovietsinthosedayswasrecognizingwhentheywereusingordoingsomethingnew.Duringthe1980stheRussiansbroughtoutalargenumberofnewnuclearsubmarineclasses,andearlyidentificationandclassificationwasatoppriorityfortheboatsofthevariousNATOpowers.Usuallythiswasaccomplishedbyaboatsittingata"gatekeeper"stationoffPetropavlovskandVladivostok(inthePacific),andofftheKolaPeninsulanearMurmanskandSeverodvinsk.Thejobofthegatekeeperwastositandwatch.Anythingthatwentinorcameoutwascarefullynotedandcatalogued.OccasionallythesubwouldstickanESM/Comintmastupandsnifftheairfortheelectronicemissions
thatarepartofeverymilitarybaseintheworld.
Thereisastory,toldinwhispersandwithguardedglances,aboutoneofthegreatestofthegatekeeperboatsandherskipper.Itisonlyastory,andneithertheU.S.NavyorRoyalNavywillofficiallystatethatitevertookplace,butsucharethestoriesthatcomefromthesilentservice.
Sometimeinthemid-1980sagatekeeperboatwasofftheKolaInlet,doingitsjobdayafterday.ThesonarwatchdetectedasubmarinecomingoutofthebarnfromSeverodvinsk.WhenthenoisesignatureofthepowerplantandtheothermachineryonboarddidnotmatchanyknownclassofRussianboat,thecaptainoftheU.S.boatdecidedtotrailitandlearnallhecouldaboutthisnewmachine.PerhapsitwasthefirstoftheSierra-orOscar-classboats,oreventheone-of-a-kindMike-classboatwithitstitaniumhullandliquidsodiumreactor.Whateveritwas,though,theU.S.commanderwasintentongettingtoknoweverythingpossibleaboutthenewSovietsub.TheU.S.skippercarefullyandquietlystartedstalkingtheRussianboat,probablyfromtherear,atashortdistance.
Inthechasethatfollowed,theAmericansublistenedandwatchedeverymoveofthenewboat.Thesoundsofthepropellersandtheall-importantbladerate,whichisusedtocalculatethespeedofashiporsubmarine.Allofthemachinerynoisefromthereactor(orreactors--manyRussianboatshavetwo),turbines,andpumps.Theymayevenhaveheardsomeoftheday-to-daylivingnoisesaboardtheSovietboat.Thebilgetanksbeingpumpedout,theTDUdumpinggarbage,andmaybeeventhesoundsofhatchesclosingandpotsandpansclanginginthegalley.Andthroughitall,theAmericanboatandhercrewremainedundetectedbytheRussianboatandanysupportingvesselsthatmighthaveaccompaniedher.
Afteraperiodoftime--andherethestorybeginstotakeontheairofunrealitythatisahallmarkofthetruesubmarinestories--theSoviet
subcametothesurfaceandsloweddown.AstheAmericansonarcrewsobservedtheRussiansgoingtothesurface,theAmericanskipperapparentlydecidedtotryforthegrandslamofsubmarineintelligence-gatheringcoups,gettingsomehullshotsofthenewRussianboat(videopicturesofthehull,propellers,andcontroldevicesbeneaththesurface).
Suchanoperationisdonebyrunningunderneaththetargetboat,raisingtheperiscopeequippedwithalow-lightvideocamera,andrunningapatternaroundthehulltocollectthevideopictures.ThisissodifficultanddangerousthatcaptainsofU.S.submarinesarealmostneverorderedtotryit,asbumpingatargetcanbenon-careerenhancing.Ontheotherhand,successfullygatheringhullshotsisasuresignthattheboat'sskipperhastherightstuffandisworthyofpromotiontohighercommand.AndwithonlyafewO-6(captain)commandslotsavailableforboomers,tenders,andsquadrons,thecompetitionisfierceamongthevariousattackboatskippers.
Whathappenednextwasamarvelofseamanship.TheAmericanboatwasabletomakeatleastone(severaltellersofthestorysaymore)passaroundtheRussiansub'sundersides,andnotoncegetnoticed!UpanddownthesidesoftheSovietboat,theAmericanskipperdrovehisperiscope,obtainingthebroadestpossiblecoverageofthetarget.Thecoverageapparentlyincludedthecontrolsurfaces,propellers,andseveralsonararrays.Thequalityofthevideopictureswasexcellent,addingmuchtoNATO'sunderstandingofthenewRussianboat.Andmaybemostimpressiveofall,shewasabletobackaway,continuethechase,andeventuallyresumehergatekeeperpositionofftheKolaInlet.
Theachievementwassoimpressiveinitsday,sothestorygoes,thattheskipperwasawardeda"black"DistinguishedServiceCross(i.e.,therecipientisunabletowearit,butthedecorationappearsinhisservicefilefolderor"jacket").Whilesuchpeacetimedecorationsarenotunprecedented,theyareextremelyunusual,andtheawardof
suchathingwouldbeanindicationofhowimportanttheU.S.highcommandconsideredtheaction.
Thisisthewaythegameofhide-and-seekwentforalmostfortyyearsbetweenthenuclearboatsoftheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.Andthegamecontinuestoday.Onlyrecently,therewasaverypublicairingofaminorcollisionbetweentheUSSBatonRouge(SSN-689)andaRussianSierraInorthoftheKolaInlet.Thereweresomebenthullplates,someexchangesofdiplomaticmessages,andminorapologiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheRussians.Buthavenodoubt,theday-and-nightstalkingstillcontinuesasthisbookgoestopress.
TacticalExample--EscortingaBoomer
InWorldWarIItheU.S.8thAirForcefoundoutthehardwayaboutthepriceofrunningbombingraidsintoGermanywithoutfighterescort.Thebig,heavybomberswerenomatchforthequick,heavilyarmedfightersofGeneralAdolfGalland'sLuftwaffefightercommand.Thusitwasnosurprisethatassoonastheycouldbeobtained,the8thAirForcestartedtodeployfighterstoescortthebombersagainstthedangertheLuftwaffefightersposed.ThesefightersnotonlyreducedbomberlossesbutalsotoreouttheheartoftheLuftwaffefightercommand,makingtheinvasionofEuropepossibleandvictorythatmucheasier.
Today,lessonssuchasthesehavenotbeenlostontheoperatorsoftheboomerforceintheU.S.Navy.TheOhio-classSSBNsarethelargestandmostcapableFBMboatseverdeployedbytheUnitedStates,andalsothemostvaluable.TheNavyisproudofsayingthatnoU.S.SSBNhaseverbeentrackedwhileonpatrol.Butwhataboutwhenitisheadedouttopatrol?WithsomanyofAmerica'sstrategic
"eggs"injustafewOhio-classhulls,theyclearlyarecrownjewelsneedingprotection.AndwhentheboomerscomeoutofKingsBayorBangor,theyareextremelyeasytosee,whetherbysatelliteorjustasetofhumaneyeswatchingastheysteamupthechannel.Oncetheyareatseatheyfadeawayintothedepths,butwhiledepartingandarrivingatthebase,theyarevulnerable.
WhiletheU.S.Navyhasnevermadeabigdealaboutsuchthings--andwiththeendoftheColdWaritisunlikelythattheyeverwill--suchvulnerabilityisaconcernwhenyouhaveonlyafewofthebigOhiostocarryover50percentofAmerica'stotalnuclearweaponsload.Allitwouldtakeissomeeasycueingfromasourceashoretotellanenemysubmarinejustwhenaboomermightbeheadedtosea.ThusitmakesgoodsensetohavethebigFBMboatescortedouttoseabyattacksubmarines,muchasafightermightescortabomberonabombingraid.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatahostileboatwouldprobablynottrytogetashotin,thoughinwartimeconditionsthisisalwaysapossibility.MorelikelythethreatboatwouldtrytogetonthetailoftheOhioandtrackitforaslongasitcould.
Let'ssupposesomeonewantedtotrytrackinganOhioasitcameoutofthechannelatKingsBay,Georgia.ThecontinentalshelfnearKingsBayissomewhatlongerandflatterthanatBangor(theseabeddropsrighttothecontinentalslopeatthemouthofPugetSound),givingapotentialenemysubmarineasomewhateasiertimefindingtheOhioasshecomesout.Sometimebeforetheboomerisscheduledtoleaveport,oneofourSSNs,probablyaLosAngeles-classboat,willbestationedoffthemouthofthechanneltositandwatchforanysignsofforeignsubmarines.TheU.S.boat'smissionwillbetosanitizethearea,makingsurenoothersubmarineshavecovertlyenteredAmericanterritorialwaterstolieinwaitfortheSSBN.Itwillbealong,boringprocess,withmanyofthesamekindsofproblemsdescribedintheprevioushuntingscenarios.Theywillslowlypatroltheareaandlisten,lookingforanysignofsomethingunusualorman-
made.
ASovietVictorIIIwallowsonthesurfaceafterbecomingentangledinatowedarraycable.Theincidentoccurredin1983offtheCarolinacoast.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Iftheyfindanothersubmarineatthistime,itwillbereportedquickly,andactionwillbedecideduponbyhigherauthority.Morelikely,though,isthescenarioinwhichahostilesubmarineiswaitingjustoutsidethetwelve-milelimitofAmericanterritorialwaters.InthiscasetheLosAngeleswillprobablytrytositastridetheplannedrouteoftheOhioandwaitforanysignofactivity.Ifsuchcontactoccurs,theactionthatfollowsmightgosomethinglikethis:
AstheOhiocomesout(escortedbysupportandsecurityvesselstokeep,ifnothingelse,theGreenpeaceprotestersatasafedistance)andpreparestodive,theLosAngelescontinuesitsjobofsanitizingtheoceanaheadoftheboomer.Muchlikeasheepdogherdingaflock,itsjobistointerposeitselfbetweentheSSBNandanythreatuntiltheboomercanslipquietlyintothedeepwatersofftheCarolina/Georgiacoast.OnceanOhioisfreeofthecontinentalshelf,eventhelatest688I-classSSNwouldfinditalmostimpossibletotrack.
TheLosAngelescontinuesaheadoftheboomer,untilitgetsthefirst"sniff"ofahostilesub.Thentheengagementtakesonalltheaspectsofagameofchickenwithtractor-trailertrucks.TheLosAngelescloseswiththethreatboat,tryingtogetitawayfromtheOhiowitheverythingshortofactuallyrammingitorfiringweapons.TheSSNinitiatesmaneuversconformingtotherulesoftheroad,whichrequirethehostileboattoevade.TheAmericanSSNmightlaunchnoisemakersandothercountermeasuresinanattempttomakesomuchnoisethattheOhiowillbelostinthebackground.AnothertechniquehastheLosAngelesmaskingtheOhiobystandingalongthepathbetweenitandthehostilesub,andblastingawaywithitssphericalsonararrayasajammer.
Ifthethreatsubprovestobeparticularlyobnoxious,theAmericanskippermightevenengageinamaneuvertoforcethehostileboat'sskippereithertotakeevasiveactionorsufferthepossibledamageandembarrassmentofanunderwaterfenderbender.Whatevermaneuverstheattackboatchooses,thedesiredresultisthatbynowtheOhiohas
slippedintothedeepwatersoffthecontinentalshelfandissilentlyonthewaytoherdesignatedpatrolarea.Oncethisisaccomplished,theLosAngelesprobablybreaksoffthechaseandheadsforhome.
Thusbeginsanotherinthemorethan3,000FBMpatrolsthattheUnitedStateshasrunoverthelastthreedecades.TheSSNwillhavehelpedmakeitasuccessfulone,thatis,oneinwhichtheboomerreturnstobasewithalltwenty-fourofitsmissiletubesstillloaded,missilesunfired.Somemightclaimthattheabovescenarioisonlythewildestspeculationandconjecture,andperhapsthisistrue.ButjustwhatwasthatVictorIIIthatsurfacedofftheCarolinacoastin1983doingthere?JustrememberthatthesubmarinebasesatCharleston,SouthCarolina,andKingsBay,Georgia,arerightinthatneighborhood.DoyouthinktheVictorwastherejusttophotographtheresortatHiltonHead?Hardly.
Kilo-classsubmarinerunningonthesurface.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
TacticalExample--HuntingaDieselSubmarine
Oneofthefewgrowthindustriesinthedefenseworldtodayisthediesel-electricsubmarinemarket.SincetheendoftheColdWar,moreandmoresmall-tomid-sizenavieshaveseenthesecompact,cost-effectivecraftasawaytomakeupforwhateverprotectiontheymayhaveenjoyedfromwhicheversidetheyalliedthemselveswithduringtheColdWar.Unfortunately,becauseofcutbacksinthedefenseindustryworldwide,someofthenationsthatproducesuchboatshave
soldtheirwarestonationsthattherestoftheworldmightconsidersomewhatlessthanresponsible.China,India,Pakistan,Iran,andAlgeriaarejustafewofthecountriesthathavedecidedtoinvestheavilyindieselboats.
SurelytheVolkswagenofthecurrentgenerationofdieselboatsistheKilo-classboatproducedbytheCIS/Russia.Thistrimlittleboatiscompact,hasagoodcombatsystem,adequateweaponsandsensors,andisveryquiet.Thismakesitanexcellentcandidateforoperationsinstraitsandotherchokepoints.Inaddition,awell-handledKiloisalmostimpossibletodetectpassivelywhensheisrunningonherbatteries.Andsoourlittlestorybegins.
LetussupposethattheIslamicfundamentalistmovementtakesaseriousholdinAlgeria,alongthecoastofNorthAfrica.Andletusagainsupposethatthelocalayatollahdecidesthemerchanttrafficpassingalonghiscoastshouldhavetopaysomedutyfortheprivilege.ItmightthenbepossiblethattheAlgerianNavy,therecentrecipientofseveralKilo-classboats,willbeorderedtogivethewesternmerchantsademonstrationofwhatmighthappeniftheydonotcomplywiththewishesofthenewIslamicgovernment.
Anidealwaywouldbetosealthenearestchokepoint,thentrytocollectreparationstorefrainfromdoingitagain.Foracash-starvedcountrylikeAlgeria,thistollmightbeconsideredanexcellentwaytogeneratecapital.ThelikelyplaceforthisdemonstrationwouldbetheStraitsofGibraltar.Notonlyisitanidealplaceforadieselboattooperate,butthesymbolismofdoingitunderthenoseoftheBritishEmpirewouldbetoughtoresist.
Thefirstnoticeofwhatwashappeningwouldprobablybethe"flamingdatum"ofanexplodingmerchantship.Mostmoderntorpedoesaredesignedtoexplodeunderthekeelofthetargetship,snappingitintwo.Ifthisweredonetoatanker,forexample,therewouldlikelybeamassiveoilspillandfire,aswellaswreckagethat
mightfloatasahazardtonavigationforsometime.This,combinedwiththeinevitabledeclarationfromtheAlgeriangovernment,wouldundoubtedlycauseareactionfromtheWesternpowers.ForhundredsofyearsGreatBritainhasheldcontroloftheseasaroundGibraltar,andanymischiefintheareawouldprobablymakethemwanttodealwithitthemselves.ThelikelycandidateforthisASWexterminationjobwouldbeaTrafalgar-classnuclearboat,becauseofitsabilitytodeployrapidlytotheareathreatenedbytheAlgerianKilo.Mostfolksdonotrealizethatadieselboatisactuallyjustamobileminefield.Itsimplydoesnothavethestrategicmobilityorsustainedspeedofanuclearboat,asimplefactthatislostoncriticsofnuclearsubmarines.
ThedeployingT-boatislikelytohavesomehelpintheformofRAFNimrodASWaircraft.Inaddition,itisasafebetthattheBritishhaveseededthestraitswithavarietyofacousticsensors,andtheareaisaboutaswiredasapinballmachine.TheproblemfortheBritishhuntersistheadversenoiseconditionsinthestraits.Thereareseveralthermallayers,whichmakepassivesonaralmostuseless.Inadditionseveralcurrents,overlappingandopposedindirection,generatealotofflownoise.Allinall,theStraitsofGibraltarisamiserableplaceforpassiveASWhunting.
Fortunately,though,thenuclearsubmarinehasanotheradvantageoverthedieselboatbesidessheermobility.Thatadvantageisthehugeactivesonararraypositionedinthebulbousbowoftheboat,whichisabletosendoutpulsesofsoundandbouncethemoffatargetsubmarine.Aspecialoperatingmodemakesitevenmoreeffective:inareaswithrelativelyflat,hardbottoms,atechniquecalled"bottombounce"canbeused.Muchlikeskippingastoneacrossthewater,anactivesonarcanbouncesoundwavesoffthebottomtocontactanothersubmarine.Usingthistechnique,anuclearsubmarinemightcontactanalmost-silentdieselboatatrangesbeyond10,000yards.Andasanaddedbenefit,becauseofallthereverberationsfromthesoundwavesbouncingofftheseabed,thetargetsubmarineprobably
willnotbeabletotellwhatdirectiontheactivesignaliscomingfrom.
TheTrafalgarentersthestraitsfromtheAtlanticside.TheBritishmaytrytousetheirotherassets,theNimrodsinparticular,tohelpdrivetheKilointothehuntingTrafalgar.TheNimrodsmaybetaskedtodropactivesonobuoys.These,combinedwithactivesonarsfromASWhelicopters,mightjustmaketheKilocaptainmovedeeperintothestraits,rightintothewaitingT-boat.Theaircraft,however,willnotbeallowedtodropanyASWordnanceonit.Withmanysubmarinesofvariousnationstravelingthroughthestraits,andtheclosenessofoneoftheirownnuclearboats,thepossibilitiesfora"blue-on-blue"orfriendlyfireconfrontationaresimplytoohigh.TheTrafalgarislikeasurgeon'sscalpelcomparedtothebludgeonsoftheaircraft.
OncetheBritishthinktheT-boatiswithinrangeofabottombouncedetection,theTrafalgarwouldprobablyuseher2020activesonartoscanfortheKilo.ThiswillbeextremelydisconcertingfortheKilocaptain,withthebuoysandactivesonarsoftheaircraftandhelosdrivinghimfromtheMediterraneanside,andtheblastingfromtheactivesonaroftheTrafalgar.HemaychoosetofindashallowspotandbottomhisboatinanattempttowaittheBritishforcesout.Thiswillnotwork.Withtheonstationloitertimegrantedbyitsnuclearpowerplant,theKilowillbeoutofbatterypowerandsuppliestorunherenvironmentalcontrolsystemslongbeforethebeerrunsoutinthewardroomsoftheT-boat.
InevitablytheKilowillhavetomakearunforit,andthat'sthetimeforthekill.Theadvantageofactivesonaristhatrangeandbearingtothetargetareknownwithafairdegreeofaccuracy.AnaddedbonuswiththispowerfulgenerationofactivesonarsisthattheacousticinterceptreceiverontheKilowillbesoswampedwithnoise(likeastereosystemwiththevolumetoohigh--youcannotmakeoutanydiscretesound),theywillnothearanythingbutthesoundoftheBritish2020sonarblastingaway.OncetheT-boathasclosedtothedesiredrange(probablyover10,000yards),itistimetoprosecutethe
Kilo.TheTrafalgarmaylaunchapairofSpearfishtorpedoesinhigh-speedmode,activepinging,withthewiresactingasdatalinkstotheweapons.
TheKiloislikelytohearnothingofthis.OnlywhentheseekerheadsoftheSpearfishhaveacquiredtheKilowilltheactivesonaroftheT-boatbesecured,andthenthecrewoftheKilowillhearovertheiracousticinterceptreceiverthepingingoftwoSpearfishtorpedoesalreadycommencingtheirendgames.Unlikethepreviousscenarios,inwhichthenuclearboatscouldsometimesrunfromtorpedoesandpossiblyoutmaneuverthem,theKilojustdoesnothavethatoption.Itsrelativelyslowspeedmakesitsomethingofasittingduck,andtheendwillcomequickly.Thistimetherewillbenodoubt,forwhenthefirsttorpedohits,itwillkillthelittledieselboatandallitscrew.Inalllikelihood,allthatwillbeleftisscrapmetalandfishfood.
Andthat'sthewaytodealwithmodernBarbaryPirates.
TacticalExample--BattleGroupEscort
Thebiggunofthefleetisstilltheaircraftcarrierbattlegroup(CVBG),whichforthatveryreasonisitselfatarget.Thecarrierremainsthebestplatformforprojectingpowerfromseatoland,andthebestforestablishingpresence,atermthatmeansjustwhatitsays.Acarrierandherbattlegroupcanappearonthehorizonandjustbethere.Asapolicecarcancalmaneighborhoodmerelybycruisingdownthestreet,socanapowerfulair/surfaceforceletpeopleonlandknowthatsomeonecareswhatishappening.
Themostlikelythreattoacarrierisasubmarinearmedwithantishipcruisemissiles(SSMs).Thoughunlikelytocausefataldamagetoasupercarrier,afewwell-placedSSMscanforceherto
leavethesceneofactionforrepairs.Therangeofmoderncruisemissiles(upto300miles)makesthetaskofprotectingthecarrierfarmorecomplexthanitwasonlytwodecadesago.AnotherproblemisthedecreasingnumberofASWescortsavailabletothecommandersofCVBGs.InjustthelastcoupleofyearstheU.S.Navyhasretireddozensofcruisers,destroyers,andfrigates.Sincethesubmarineremainstheprimarythreat,anothersubmarinemustbeoneoftheprotectors.
Themostformidablededicatedcruise-missilesubmarine(SSGN)istheRussianOscarclass(nicknamed"Mongo"bysomeNATOsubmarinersbecauseofitsawesomesize).TheOscar-classSSGNis,insomeways,theRussians'firstmodernsubmarine.Itislargeandrelativelyquiet(muchlikeaSierra-classSSN)andisequippedtostreamalargetowed-arraysonar.Thisboat,designedspecificallytobeacarrierhunter,isequippedwithtwenty-fourSS-N-19ShipwreckSSMsaswellasafullarrayoftorpedoes.Itisthesinglemostpowerfulattacksubmarineintheworld,andthusmustbehuntedbythebestboatswehave,the688Is.
CurrentlyeachCVBGusuallyhasapairofSSNsassignedtoprovidelong-rangeASWprotection.Unlikethesurfaceescorts,whichhavetostaywithinafewdozenmilesofeachother,thesubsmaybehundredsofmilesfromthemaingroup.TheywilllikelyoperateinclearlydefinedASWkillzones,intowhichonlytheyareallowedtooperateandshoot.Thisisdesignedtominimizethechancesofa"blue-on-blue"ASWencounter.
Oscar-classguidedmissilesubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
HuntingSSGNsisamostinterestinggame,differentfromotherASWtasks.UnlikeSSBNs,whichrunsilentanddeep,theCVBGreliesonmobilityforitsdefense.Andwhenthecarriermovesswiftly,somustthehuntingSSGN.Speedrevealsanysubmarine'svulnerability.Speedcreatesnoiseanddegradessensorperformance.TheSSNstaskedtodefendthecarrierknowbothwhereandhowfastthebattlegroupisgoing,andcanpositionthemselvesinambushforwhatevermissile-carryinghuntermaybelistening.Inaddition,theAmericanforcemayhavetheedgeofaSurveillanceTowedArraySystem(Surtass)shipsupportingtheCVBG.Usinganadvancedtowedarray,theSurtassshipsarelikemobileSOSUSlisteningposts,andthedatacollectedcanbeforwardedtotheCVBGcommanderand
thehuntingSSNs.
Thepatternofthishuntwillbesprint-and-drift.Thehuntersonbothsidesalternatelyraceforward,thenslowdowntolisten.Asinallunderseaencounters,thesidethatcanhearfirstandfarthestawayhasthebiggestadvantage.KnowingwhereandwhenanSSGNwouldhavetoapproach,theU.S.subhastheabilitytostayquietandwaitfortheOscartocometoit.BecauseofitsneedtoobtaintargetingdatafromtheRussianRORSAT,theOscarhastocomeshallowperiodicallytoraiseitssatellitedatalinkmasts.Thiscauseshullpoppingandmastflownoises.Thusitisentirelylikelythatthe688IcanbeguidedbytargetingupdatesviatheELF/VLFradiocircuitstoapointwhereitwillbeabletoobtainadirectpathpassivesonarcontacttotheOscar.Thiswillprobablyoccuratadistanceof10,000to16,000yards.
AsinthehuntfortheTyphoon,the688Imustgotoanextremelyquietoperatingroutine,toremainundetectedbythetowedarrayoftheOscar.Butunlikethehuntfortheboomer,heretimeisoftheessence.Potentially,theOscarcanfireitsmissilesonceitiswithinrangeoftheCVBG.Thismeansitmustbeeliminatedquicklyandeffectively.TheU.S.skipperislikelytotrymaneuveringtoapositionbehindtheOscar,sothatanytorpedohitwillstrikenearthepropellershafts.Thisislikelytopoptheshaftseals,floodingtheengineroomoftheRussianboatandhopefullysinkingit.AllthewhilethefirecontroltechniciansoperatingtheBSY-1systemwillbe"polishingthecannonball"onthefiringsolutiontotheOscar.At6,000to8,000yards,assumingtheOscarhasnotyetheardthem,theU.S.skippermaylaunchapairofwire-guidedMk48ADCAPs.Thesearefiredinitiallyintheslow-speedsetting,usingthewirestoguidetheweaponsandprovidedatabacktotheU.S.boats.Thefirecontroltechniciansmayeventryto"swim"theweaponsunderathermallayertomasktheirnoisesignaturefromthesensorsoftheOscar.
Inevitablythough,theOscarhearsthetwoMk48sandbeginsto
react.ItcounterfirestorpedoesdownthebearingoftheattackingMk48s,forcingthe688Iskippertocuttheguidancewiresandrunforcover.ItsdistanceleadovertheRussianfish,aswellasefficientmaneuveringofdecoys,shouldallowtheAmericanboattosurvive.ThesamemaynotbetrueoftheOscar.ThecaptainoftheRussianboattriesthesameevasiontacticsashisAmericanopponent,buttheyareprobablynotaseffective.
AsintheTyphoonexample,atleastoneandpossiblybothADCAPsarelikelytohittheirtarget.Andifthedesiredshafthitshaveoccurred,thentheOscarisdeadinthewater.Evenifonlyasinglehithasbeenmade,the688Ihasaccomplisheditsmission.TheOscarisbadlyhurt,andlikelysufferingfromsevereshockdamage.Itmayevenhavetosurface.Inanycase,itwillbemakinghorrendousamountsofflownoiseandmechanicaltransients.TheU.S.skippermayreattackandfinishofftheOscar,orhemayalsocallthecarriertogiveitthecoordinatesofthedamagedmissileboat.WithinaveryshorttimethecarriergroupcouldhaveaflockofS-3BVikingASWaircraftandSH-60ASWhelosoverthedamagedRussianboattofinishitoff.Muchlikeawoundedbearbeingstungtodeathbyaswarmofbees,itwoulddie.AndtheAmericanboatcannowheadoutonanothermission.
Mission#2--AntisurfaceWarfare
Thenineteenth-centuryFrenchmanJeuneEcolefirstcodifiedtheideathatanavyisn'ttherealtargetofmaritimewarfare--therealtargetiswhatnaviesweredesignedtosafeguard,merchantshipping.Theseais,beforeallthings,ahighwayoverwhichnationstrade.Andnavieswereinventedtoprotectthat,firstfrompirateswhowerelittlemorethanthievesatsea,andthenfromforeignnavieswhosethieverywas
onasomewhatgranderscale.Onemightsaythattherealroleforthesubmarinegrewfromthisdoctrine.Thefirstsubmarinesweretooslowtobereallyeffectiveathuntingotherwarshipsbutquitefastenoughtoseekoutandkilltheslowerandmorefragilemerchanttubsthatcarriedthethingsnationsneed:food,rawmaterials,manufacturedgoods.Sincetheglobaleconomyhasmadeallcountriesintoislandnationssurroundedbywater,thevulnerabilityofinternationalmaritimetradeismadegreaterstillbythefewer,slower,larger,andmassivelyexpensivemerchantvesselsoftoday.Theenvironmentalconsequencesfromevenminordamagetoasinglelargecrudeoilcarrierrepresentyetanotherwayinwhichtheworldasawholecanbeatrisk.Naviesexisttoprotectthetradeandthetraders,andathreattoeitherisathreattoboth.
TacticalExample--HoldingaChokePoint(InterdictionofaSurfaceActionGroup)
Thesimplestexampleofachokepointisahighwayintersection,arelativelysmallareathroughwhichpeoplefromdistantplacesmustpassontheirseparatejourneys.Justastheintersectionisaconvenienceformerchantswhobuildshoppingcentersandpeoplewhoestablishmaritimetradingcenters,soitcreateshighlyrewardinghuntinggrounds.InWorldWarII,thefirstJapanesetaskgrouptobedetectedwaspreparingfortheinvasionoftheKraPeninsulaandthesubsequentdescentonSingapore,whichguardstheStraitofMalacca.Englandspentagreatdealofitshistoryseizingandbuildinguponsuchplacesasthese,evenbeforeAlfredThayerMahanpublishedhisthoughtsontheirimportance.TheFalklandIslandsbecameBritishpropertybecausetheyareconvenientlyclosetotheStraitsofMagellan.AscensionIslandisinthemiddleoftheAtlanticNarrows.MaltaliesclosetotheStraitsofSicily.Gibraltarsitsontheentranceto
theMediterranean.SuchwasthevisionoftheEnglishinthedaysofsail.
Shipsmovefasternow,butthechokepointsremain.Intheseplacesthatpeoplemustpassthrough,arrivaltimeandengagementrangearepredictablequantities.
Aluckysubmarinewillhugashallowbottom.Shallowwater,notuncommoninstraits,generallymakeslifeeasierforasubmarine,thoughSSNsusuallylikeatleast600feet/200metersofwatertooperate.Giventime,thesubmarinewillsniffaround,learningcurrentsandenvironmentalfactors.ThemouthoftheMediterraneanisknownforthetreacherousmixtureofwarmcurrentsandcold,makingforconfusedsonarconditions.Inotherplacessuchconditionsmightmitigateagainstasub,butlong-rangedetectionisoflessimportancewhenyouarealreadyastridetheplacewhereothersmustpass.
Theothersideknowsthis,too,ofcourse.Themerepossibilitythatsomeonemightbetheretothreatenyourbattlegrouporyourcrudecarrierforcesyoutotakethisthreatseriously.WillieSuttonrobbedbanksbecause,hesaid,"That'swherethemoneyis."Chokepointsarewherethetargetsare.Youcanbankonit.
Letusconsiderthemostfamoussubmarineactioninrecenthistory:thesinkingoftheArgentinecruiserGeneralBelgranoduringthe1982FalklandsWar.BeforetheBritishtaskforceenteredhostilewaterstheRoyalNavydeployedatrioofnuclearsubmarinesalongthemostlikelyapproachroutestotheislands.Becauseofhislimitedairpowerandsurface-to-surfacemissilecapabilities,Admiral"Sandy"WoodwardwascountingonthistrioofboatstobetheflankguardsagainstanytypeofcounterattackbytheArgentineNavy.Asitturnedout,theyweretheonlyunitsoftheRoyalNavytoengagethemajorsurfaceunitsofArgentinaduringthewar.
InthelastfewdaysofApril1982theArgentineansurfacefleetwassplitintothreetaskgroups.Theirplanappearstohavebeenbasedon
athree-prongedpincersmovementagainsttheBritishtaskforcefromthenorth,south,andwest.ThenortherngroupwascomposedoftheiraircraftcarrierVeinticincodeMayo(Twenty-fifthofMay)withasmallairwingofA-4Skyhawkattackaircraft,andseveralguidedmissiledestroyerscarryingExocetSSMs.ThewesterngroupwascomposedofseveralExocet-armedfrigates.Thesoutherngroupwaspotentiallythemostdangerousforceofall,composedofthecruiserGeneralBelgrano(theformerUSSPhoenix)armedwith6-inchguns,ExocetSSMs,andSeacatSAMs,accompaniedbytwoExocet-armeddestroyersofWorldWarIIvintage.
ItislikelythatnationalintelligencesourcesoftheUnitedKingdomandtheiralliesnoticedtheplannedmovementevenbeforetheshipsraisedanchorandlefttheirharbors.Andoncetheyhadsortied,itmusthavebeenfairlystraightforwardfortheRoyalNavyoperationscenter(knownasHMSWarrior)atNorthwood,England,tofeedtheupdatestothesubsviatheirsatellitecommunications.ThethreeBritishboatswereplacedalongthethreesurfacegroups'linesofadvance,andwereleftinwaitingwhiletheBritishnavalandcivilianleadersdecidedwhethertoshoot.
Mark-8torpedoesareloadedaboardaRoyalNavysubmarine.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
ThekeyquestionherewaswhetherornottheArgentineforceswouldattempttopenetratethe200-mile-radiustotalexclusionzone(TEZ)fromPortStanleyintheFalklands.Clearlyiftheytriedtopenetrateit,therewouldbenoquestionbuttoattackwiththenuclearboats.Buttheshipsdidnotcomeondirectlyandseemedtorallyjustoutsidethezone,thoughquitecloseenoughtodashinatamoment'snotice.ThenortherngroupwastryingtofindsomewindtolaunchherstrikeofA-4sattheBritishtaskgroup,though(amazinglyfortheweatherintheSouthAtlantic)itwascalmandwindless.
Thechokepointinthatareawas,ironically,notastraitbutthe
extremelyshallowwater.TheArgentineansoutherngroupwasoperatingoverashallowriseintheoceancalledtheBurdwoodBank,whichmadedifficultoperatingconditionsforHMSConqueror(S-48),thesouthernboatintheBritishbarrier.ThishydrographicchokepointwasamajorproblemfortheBritishSSN,andbecameafactorinthedecisioncomingfrom10DowningStreet.AlreadytheConquerorandanotherboatweretrackingtheirassignedtargetgroups,andadecisionwasneededfromonhigh.
TAperiscopeshotofaRoyalNavyfrigateonthereceivingendofaPerisherstudent'sthree-torpedopracticespreadduringanapproach.AspreadofMark-8torpedoesjustlikethissanktheArgentinecruiser
GeneralBelgrano.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
LateonMay2,1982,themessagewassentfromNorthwoodauthorizingthesinkingoftheBelgrano,andanyofherescortsthatattemptedtointervene.EventhoughitwasstillsomedistanceoutsidetheTEZ,theConquerorwasthefirsttostrike.Hercaptain,CommanderChristopherWreford-Brown,setupaclassicPerisherapproachontheGeneralBelgrano.LoadedinhisfivetorpedotubeswerethreeWorldWarII-vintageMark8torpedoesandapairofTigerfishMod1s.TheplanwastousetheMk8sfirstbecauseoftheirlargerwarheads(800lb/363kgversus200lb/91kgfortheTigerfish),andsavetheTigerfishforasecondshotifrequired.IftheMk8sworkedonthefirsttry,theTigerfishwouldbeavailableforashotortwoattheescortingdestroyersifnecessary.
IntheplottingareaofConqueror,LieutenantJohnT.Powis,theboat'snavigator,carefullyplottedtheinterceptfromrangesandbearingscalledbythecommanderontheperiscope,andinputsfromthesoundroom.Itwasatotallynormalapproach,whichlaterwouldbejudgedconsiderablyeasierthanmostoftheapproachesmadeduringaPerishercourse.Wreford-BrownmaneuveredtheConquerorjust1,200yardsofftheprojectedtrackoftheGeneralBelgranoandpatientlywaited.TheArgentineshipscontinuedblindlyalongtheirtrack,completelyobliviousofthecomingdanger.Andthenitwastime.
Justbefore1600hoursonMay2,1982,theonlycombattorpedoshotseverfiredbyanuclearsubmarinewerelaunchedfromConqueror.ThethreeMk8swereangledinawaydesignedtoensurethatatleasttwoofthemwouldhittheGeneralBelgrano.Andthatisexactlywhathappened.ThefirstMk8hitforwardnearthebow,tearingitfromtheship.Thesecondonestruckintheengineeringspaces,causingacompletelossofpowerandmassiveflooding.TheGeneralBelgranoimmediatelytookonaheavylisttoport,andwithinminutesitwassinking.Hercaptainhadnochoicebuttoabandonship
andhavehiscrewtaketotheliferafts.(Ironically,theexactsametypeofhitsinthesameplaceshadsunkhersistership,theUSSHelena,duringtheBattleofKulaGulfin1943.)Some400oftheBelgrano'screwofover1,000perishedinthesinkingandwhilewaitingtoberescued.
Inadditiontothetwohitsonthecruiser,thethirdMk8appearstohavehitoneoftheescortingdestroyers,thoughitfailedtodetonate.UnfortunatelyforthecrewoftheGeneralBelgrano,theescortingdestroyersdidnotevenknowwhathadhappeneduntiltheylookedandnoticedthatthecruiserwasnolongerinformation.Itwouldbealmostforty-eighthoursuntilallthesurvivorsofthesunkencruiserwerefinallyrescued.
HMSConquerorreturnshomeaftersinkingtheArgentinecruiserGeneralBelgranoduringthe1982FalklandsWar.Notethe"JollyRoger"flaghangingfromthemast.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
AlocalresidentoftheFalklandIslandspersonallygreetsandthanksthecrewofaRoyalNavysubmarinefollowingthe1982war.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
AboardtheConqueror,therewasthesatisfactionofhearingthesoundsoftwosolidhitsandthebreaking-upnoisesfromthecruiser.Inaddition,thesubreportedthedroppingofafewdepthcharges,thoughthishasneverbeenconfirmedbytheArgentines.Sincetheescortingdestroyershadjustcontinuedblindlyon,therehadbeennoopportunitytoimmediatelyfollowupthefirstattack.AndwhentheymovedawayfromtheTEZ,itislikelythattheprevailingrulesofengagementpreventedfurtheraction.TheConquerorcontinuedonstation,asassigned.
AsfortheArgentineNavy,theeffectswererapidandenormous.Onestory,toldatthebarswheresubmarineofficersgoafterhours,saysthatassoonasthecarriergrouptothenorthoftheFalklandsgotwordonthesinking,theyimmediatelyreversedcourseandheadedbacktoport.ThestorygoesontosaythatapparentlythisspoiledtheopportunityofanotherRoyalNavysubmarinecommander,whoallegedlywaswatchingtheoncomingcarriergroupthroughhisperiscope.RoyalNavygossiphasitthathewatchedthecarrierandherescortsturnforhomelessthanthirtyminutesbeforehehimselfwouldhavegotteninhisshotsattheVeinticincodeMayo.TheArgentinesurfaceforcesneveragainventuredoutofportduringthewar,andtheBritishhad,inessence,reducedtheconflicttoaset-piecebattleagainsttheairandlandforcesofArgentina.AllfortheexpenditureofthreeWorldWarII-vintagetorpedoes,perhapsthemostcost-effectivenavalvictoryinhistory.
TacticalExample--MaritimeInterdiction(AttackofaConvoy/AmphibiousGroup)
Thisisahigh-risksituationforeveryone.Aconvoybydefinitionis
alargegroupofvaluableshipsprotectedbyaforceofwarships.Ifyourenemyhasaconvoy,heistransportingsomethingimportanttohiswareffort,somethingthatyoudon'twanttoletarrive.Anamphibiouswarfaregroupisalittledifferent;inthiscasethecargoisthemostpreciousofallfortheenemyandthemostdangerousofallforyou:fullyequippedcombattroopswhohaveajobtodo.You'vegottotrytostoptheenemyineithercase,whilehemustguardamovingasset.Infact,thatassetwillbemovingasrapidlyaspossibletominimizetherisk--thefastertheymove,thelesstimeyouhavetoattack.Butunlikeacarriergroup,inwhicheveryshiphastheabilitytodefenditself,mostoftheflockinaconvoyisrelativelyhelpless.Fortheamphibiousgroup,thereisoneotherdifficulty.Whileaconvoyprobablywantstogofromonefriendlyporttoanother,theamphibsbydefinitionareheadingintoharm'sway--theywanttogowhereyouandyourallieslive.Thatmeansthesubmarineswillhavetohunttheirenemyontheenemy'sground.
Let'ssupposethatthegovernmentoftheUkrainehasdecidedtosupportsomeoftheirformeralliesintheBalkans,theSerbiansperhaps,withanamphibiousexpeditionfromtheBlackSeatotheAdriatic.Itmightbecomposedofsomesixtoeightex-SovietRopucha-orPolnocny-classlandingshipswitharegimentoflandingtroopsaboard.Thelandingshipsprobablyhaveanescortoffourtosixfrigates(likeKrivaksorGrishas)and/orcorvettes(likePauksorTarantuls),thoughnothinglikethekindofescortthattheoldSovietNavyusedtobeabletoputtogether.Inanycase,thisistheverykindofinterventionthattheUNisdesperatelytryingtoavoidinafesteringpartoftheworld.WhileNATOairandsurfaceforcescouldcertainlydealwithsuchagroup,itwouldbemessy.Andtherewouldberepercussions:furtherconfrontationsbetweeneastandwestmightdevelop.Or,someonecouldjustdealwithit.Someonewhohassomethingthatcanjustmakethingsdisappear.
Wordoftheexpeditionwouldnotbedifficulttofindout.Stateslike
theUkrainearefilledwithoppositiongroups,andthenationalintelligenceassetsoftheUnitedStatesclearlynoticethegatheringoftheshipsandthemovementsofthetroopsandvehiclestotheport.ThustheUnitedStateswouldhaveseveraldaystocoordinatethenecessaryassetsandmovea688IintotheAegeanorAdriatictointercepttheamphibiousgroup.
Whenitcomesout,theamphibgrouphasthelandingships(sayeightofthem)intwocolumns,withacircleofASWescorts(sayfourofthese)surroundingthemattheflanks.ThekeyproblemfortheU.S.skipperistodoenoughdamagetostopthegroupbutnotnecessarilykillallthetroopsonthelandingships.Onewaytodothisistodestroytheescortsinplainsightofthelandingships,sothattheywillrealizehownakedandvulnerabletheyare,andgobackhome.AndthisisexactlywhattheAmericanboatdecidestodo.
TheoneconstraintisthattheU.S.skippermustmakesurethattheweaponsusedarenotunique.Thisistosay,atorpedoisatorpedo,aHarpoonmissileisaHarpoonmissile.Manynationshavethesethings.Usingtheseweaponswouldnotleavea"smokinggun"pointingattheUnitedStates."Credibledeniability,"theycallit.ButusingauniqueweaponlikeaTomahawkantishipmissilewouldpointthefingerdirectlyattheUnitedStates,sothesepowerfulweaponssimplywillnotdo.
Themostfavorableangleoffireisdirectlydowntheamphibiousgroup'slineofadvance.SincethebestASWshipsintheescortwillprobablybeoutfront,thesewillbethefirsttargets.ThefavoredweaponswouldbetwopairsofMk48ADCAPs,eachpairbeingcontrolledbyafirecontroltechnicianattheBSY-1consolesinthecontrolroom.Inthisway,theonlythingtheoncomingescortswillhearisthehigh-speedsoundoftorpedoes.Therewillbenowaytoknowwhomanufacturedthem,orwhofired.
TheapproachmaybeaidedbytargetingassetslikeaP-3Orion
patrolaircraftorotherover-the-horizontargetingsystems.Everynowandagainthe688Ipokesitscommunicationsmastabovethewaterforashorttime,takesinthelatesttrackingdataontheamphibiousgroup,andthengoesbacktothejobofpositioningitselfalongthegroup'slineofadvance.EventuallytheBSY-1systembeginstopickupindicationsoftheoncomingvessels.Thefirstcontactsmaybe"convergencezone"(CZ)contacts,whichoccuratregularintervalsofaboutthirtymilesfromthetarget.Inthiswayasubmarinecanhearasurfacevesselatsomethinglikeninetymiles,orthethirdCZ.ButmostlikelythenoisydieselenginesofthelandingshipswillallowtheU.S.boattohearthemcomingfromoverahundredmilesaway.
Bynowtheboatisatitsmostquietroutine,sothattheoncomingescortvessels,aswellasanyASWaircraft,willnotbetippedtothepresenceoftheintruder.Nowthegamebecomesoneofpatience,stayingquietwhiletheUkrainianforcebearsdown.FinallythelastoftheCZcontactsdieout,andthefirstdirectpathcontactsbegintobeheard.ThecaptainoftheU.S.boatnowtriestoplacetheboatrightdownthemiddleofthegroup'scoursetrackandwaitsforthemtoclose.Whentherangegetsdowntoabout15,000or20,000yards,thetimeforactionhasarrived.ThefourADCAPsarelaunchedintheslow-speedmodeandguidedunderanythermallayerthatmightbepresent,sotheirpassagetothetwoleadingescortswillbeascovertaspossible.
Evenwhenthetorpedoesgetclosertotheirtargets,itisunlikelythattheescortswillfinallyhearthemandreact.NowisthetimetomovetheMk48suptohighspeed(60-plusknots)andrunthemrightintotheirtargets.Therewillbelittleforthetargetstodo.Withatopspeedofaround30knots,theescortswon'tbeabletooutrunthefishanyway,andwiththewiresstillguidingthem(eachADCAPhastenmilesofthestuff,remember),itshouldbeaneasymattertoguidethetorpedoesundertheirtargetsanddetonatethem.Theeffectswillbeincredible.AsingleMk48detonatedunderthekeelofafrigatewill,
attheminimum,snapitintwo.
AtthispointthenextmoveisuptotheseniorUkrainianofficerpresent.Ifheissmart,hewillturnaroundandrunforport.Ifheisstupid,hewillattempttochargehisremainingescortsintothearea,callforsomeairsupportifanyisavailable,andtrytofindtheintrudingboat.BythistimetheAmericanskipperhasreloadedhistubesandissettingupshotsonthetworemainingescorts.Thiswilllikelyleadtothedestructionofthoseshipsaswell.Shouldthishappen,thecaptainsofthelandingshipswillundoubtedlyhavethesensetorunforhome.TheUkrainianadventureisover.IftheUkrainiangovernmentissmart,theywillnotevenbringupthefactthattheincidenttookplace.
AsfortheAmericanskipperandhisboat,theironlyproblemisslippingquietlyanddiscreetlyaway.Andthistheywilldo....
Mission#3--CovertMissions/SpecialOperationsSupport
Intoaworldthatismovingawayfrommajorwarandtowardalong-hoped-forglobalpeacecomesanewandintermediatehazard:low-intensitywarfare.Actually,thisisnotanewphenomenon.Itusedtobecalledbanditry,brigandage,orotherdesultorynamesbyprofessionalsoldiers--whenasoldierdiesinsuchaconflict,he'sjustasdeadasonekilledonNormandyBeach.AsaformercommandantoftheMarineCorpsputit,"Ifthey'reshootingatme,it'sahigh-intensityconflict."Thatsaid,however,therulesarealittledifferent.Todayonemustbemorecircumspect.
Thenewrealityofwarfareisamodificationoftheold.Whatwasoncereconnaissancebecomescovertoperations,puttingsmallteams
ofexquisitelytrainedspecialistsintoaplacewheretheyoughtnottobe,allowingthemtodotheirjob,whateveritmaybe,andthengettingthemout.Ifthejobisdoneright,nobodywilleverknowwhodidit;andinmanycases,nobodywilleverknowwhatwasdoneatall.
Accomplishingsomethinglikethatmeansstealth,andstealthisthesubmarine'sstockintrade.
TacticalExample--SpecialOperationsInsertionandExtraction
Thequintessentialspecialopsmission:picturesthatneedtobetaken,anasset(humanorelectronic)thatneedstoberecovered,abridgethatneedstoberearranged.Whatevertheparticulars,itisessentialthatthemissionbecarriedout.Suchthingsare,bydefinition,outsidethescopeofnormalnationalintelligenceassetsandmaybeconsideredtobeactsofdesperation.Thustheymustbeundertakenbypersonnelwhohavenodesperationintheirsouls--inshort,submarinersandSEALs.
Thenicethingaboutcoastlinesisthattheyaredifficulttoguard.Thereisnosuchthingasastraightpieceofcoast;windsandtidesseetothat.A1,000-miletrawlforashipcanbedoubleortriplethatdistanceforaforceofsoldiersondryland.Thecovertentryteamneedonlyselectapiecethatisunguardedandthengetashore.It'snotaseasyasitsounds,though--it'sdangerouswork.Thesubmarinenosesasclosetothebeachasitcan.ThefirstthingabovethewateristhesearchperiscopewithanESMreceiver,sniffingforelectronicsignals--radarfirstofall,thenradiocommunications.Iftheseareidentified,thesubmarineskippergetsmovingtoavoidboth.
TheSEALs--theNavy'seliteandexclusiveSEa-Air-Landcommandoteams--willprobablyexitthesubmarinefromunderwaterusingoneoftheescapetrunks.AstheSEALsareapproachingland
withtheutmostcaution,thesubmarinecaptaintriestofindaconvenientplacetowait,perhapshuggingthebottom,probablypokingaradiomastupatpresetintervals,waitingtorecoverthereturningSEALswhentheirmissionisdone.
WhentheSEALshavecompletedthismissionit'stimetoreturntothesub.Despitewhatthemovieswouldhaveyoubelieve,usuallytheegressphaseisquitecalmandgoesaccordingtoplan.Iftheyhavecommittedviolence,therewillbeconfusion.Ifalltheyhavedoneistolookaroundandtakepictures,thenthevictimswillprobablyneverknowtheyhavebeenhad.OncetheSEALsareonboard,thesubmarine'sskipperquietlyleavesthearea.Anotherspecialoperationhasbeencompleted,andthejointSEAL/submarineteamwithintheNavyhasgrownjustalittlebitcloser.Andeachgroupofmenfeelsbothkinshipanddistantadmirationfortheother:thesubmarinersbecausetheyhavenodesirewhatsoevertogoontothebeach--iftheywantedtobeMarines,theywouldhaveaskedforit.TheSEALs,ontheotherhand,shudderatthethoughtofbeinginsideasteelpipeforweeksatastretch.Ittakesallkindstodothejob.
TacticalExample--SpecialInformationGathering
ItwascalledIvyBells.OnceuponatimetheU.S.Navylearned,nevermindhow,thattherewasatelephonecableontheflooroftheSeaofOkhotskthatranfromVladivostoktoPetropavlovsk.BothcitieswerethesitesofmajorSovietnavalbases,andsomeone,nevermindwho,wonderedifitmightbeworthwhiletotapthattelephoneline.Andso,anAmericanSSNenteredthearea.
TheRussiansclaimtheSeaofOkhotskasterritorialwaters.TheUnitedStatesdoesnotrecognizethatclaim.It'safinelegalpoint,overwhatclosureruleyouthinkisappropriate.Ineithercase,it's
relativelyshallowwater,alittletooshallowforasubmarinecommandertobecompletelycomfortable,allthemoresosincetheRussiansregarditashomewaters,holdexercisesthere,andprobablyhaveitthoroughlywiredforsound.
Butatsometimeinthelate1960sorearly1970s,aU.S.SSN(perhapsUSSSkate)madeacallandlocatedthatphoneline.Swimmerswentouttheescapetrunkandmadethetap.Thentheyattachedarecordingdevice,probablyusinganextremelylongcassettetape.Forthenextseveralyears,perhapsextendingintothe1980s,asubmarineperiodically(everymonthorso)hadtoreentertheSeaofOkhotsktodownloadthedataonthetapecassettefor"processing."
Sureenough,thephonelinewasusedbytheSovietNavy,andsosecuredidtheybelievethephonelinetobethatthedataonthelinewasnotencrypted.EverythingtheRussiansknewanddidatseacameacrossthattelephoneline,andafterabriefhandlingdelay,allofthatdatareachedtheU.S.Navy'sintelligenceheadquartersatSuitland,Maryland,justoutsideWashington,D.C.,notfarfromtheSmithsonianInstitution'sSilverHillAnnex.
OfalltheintelligenceoperationsconductedbytheUnitedStatessinceWorldWarII--atleast,allthosethathavecometothelightofday--thisisprobablyoneofthemostproductive,andcertainlythemostelegant.Whichisnottosayitwaseasy.OnatleastoneoccasionwhenaU.S.subwastryingtoretrievethedataonthecassette,aSovietlive-fireexercisewasunderwayoverhead,andtheAmericancrewhadnooptionotherthantohugthebottomandhopetheSovietweaponswereworkingproperly,becausetomoveawaywouldhavepresentedtheircounterpartswithatargetuponwhichtheymighthavefiredliveweapons.Itbecamedicierstilllater.AspybythenameofRonaldPelton,anemployeeoftheNationalSecurityAgency,revealedIvyBellstotheKGB--forwhichhewaspaidtheprincelyfeeofperhaps$15,000;theKGBwasnevergeneroustoitsspies--andthetapwasdiscovered.Atthiswriting,Mr.Peltonlivesinthebasement
leveloftheUnitedStatesPenitentiaryatMarion,Illinois.
Whathappenedwhenthenextsubmarinewentintodownloadthemonthly"take"?That'sanuntoldpartofthestory.SufficeittosaythatMr.Pelton,inadditiontodenyinghiscountryahugelyvaluablesourceofinformation,placedoverahundredmenatthegravestrisk.Wasthedataworththerisk?Yes.Cansubmarinesstilldothingslikethat?Whatdoyouthink?
Mission#4--PrecisionStrike:TomahawkAttacks
AswasshowninDesertStorm,asubmarinecandomanythings.Let'ssaythereisabuildingyoudon'tlike.Theotherguyhaslotsofradararoundit,andmaybetheF-117Astealthfighterscan'tgetthere.(Oneneedstorememberthattheso-calledblackjetisinvisibleonradar,buttheaerialtankersitrefuelsfromarenot.)Andyouwanttodothisjobwithminimumnoticetotheotherside.
Asubmarineapproachesthecoast--notallthatclose,actually--probablyatnight,andlaunchesaUGM-109TomahawkLandAttackMissile(TLAM).Forthefirstfewsecondsofflightthebirdrisesrapidlyonitsrocketbooster.Thenthewingsandtaildeploy,theintakefortheturbofanengineopens,andtheTomahawksettlesdown,easilytowithinahundredfeetorsoofthesurface.It'sasmallmissile,difficulttodetect,especiallywiththenewstealthfeaturesaddedtotheBlockIIImissilesnowinproduction.Themissile,knowingexactlywhereitlaunchedfrombecauseofGPSsatellitefixes(anotherBlockIIIinnovation),thenfollowsapathdefinedbyitsinherentlyaccurateterrain-followingnavigationsystems.Howaccuratewillitbe?Onagoodday,aTomahawkcanflyintothedoorofatwo-cargarageatadistanceofseveralhundredmiles.Andthatcanruinyourwholeday.
ATomahawkcruisemissileislaunchedfromtheUSSPittsburgh(SSB-720)duringOperationDesertStorm.AtotaloftwelveTLAMSwerelaunchedbysubsduringDesertStorm.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
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TacticalExample--ExecutionofaTLAM-CStrikeonanEnemyAirfield
ItisnotoftenrememberedthatthemajorityofattackaircraftemployedbytheImperialJapaneseNavyinthePearlHarborattackweretaskedtocounterairmissionssothattheremaindercouldattacktheU.S.Navyinrelativepeace.Enemyaircraftarealwaysthemostenticingoftargets,especiallywhentheyaresittingstill.Butyouraircraftalsohaveflightcrews,andtheirlivesareprecious.That
makesthemtargetsalso.Iwill,foronce,blowmyownhorn.Iwasthefirst,Ithink,toconsiderthispossibilityintheopenmediawhenIincludedit(asOperationDoolittle)inmysecondnovel,RedStormRising.(AmoreprofessionalversionwasruninTheSubmarineReview,withmypermission.)I'ddecidedthatIwantedtodosomethingthatwasseeminglyoutrageousbutwellwithintherealmoftechnicalcapability.So,whynotusesubmarineslaunchingcruisemissilestotakeoutaircraft?Thiswas,accordingtoreports,amissiontheNavylobbiedforinDesertStorm,butwhichtheAirForcedenied.ThusafewRAFTornadoaircraftwereprobablylostasaresultofthefactthateventheUSAFwasn'tfullyawareofwhatTomahawkcoulddo.
AU.S.NavyTomahawkcruisemissilegainsaltitudeafterbreakingthesurfacefollowingitslaunchfromUSSGuitarro(SSN-665).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
AconventionallyarmedTomahawklandatackcruisemissile,launchedfromasubmergedsubmarine400milesoffthecoast,approachesareinforcedconcretetargetduringalivewarheadtest.OFFICIALU.S.NavyPHOTO
Missilestrikingareinforcedconcretetarget.OFFICIALU.S.NavyPHOTO
Concretetargetexplodes.OFFICIALU.S.NavyPHOTO
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Theonlyhardpartoftheoperationistiming.Youwantallthemissilestoarrivewithinaveryshorttimeofoneanother.TheaccuracyofTomahawkmeansthatitcanflyrightdownthecenternotjustofrunwaysbutalsooftaxiways,sprinklingclustermunitions(inthecaseoftheTLAM-Dversion)asitgoes,toattacktheworld'smostdelicateartifacts--high-performanceaircraft.ThetrulyadventurouscanaimtheTLAM-Cversions(with1,000-lbhigh-explosivewarheads)rightatthedoorsofaircraftshelters.Butifyou'veplannedthisright,thosedoorswillbeopenanyway,andmanyoftheaircraftwillbeintheopen,becausethewholeideaofthissortofmissionistocatchtheotherfellowunaware.Therehaveevenbeenreportsof"specialwarhead"variantsoftheTomahawk,includingonethatfiresrocket-propelledconductingfilamentsoverhigh-tensionpowerlines
toshortoutanenemy'spowergrid.Yousee,theU.S.NavylearneditslessonatPearlHarbor.It'sbettertogivethantoreceive.
Sowhomighthaveaircraftthatwemightnotlike?Well,considerthoseperennialwesternfavorites,theIranians.SincetheendofDesertStorm(withitsunexpectedwindfallofIraqiwarplanes),theIranianshavebeenconductingatrulyhugearmsbuildup.Onereportevenhasthemtryingtobuyaregimentofex-SovietBackfirebomberscompletewithheavyantishipmissiles.Moremundane,butprobablyabitmoreuseful(andaffordable)arethelargenumberofSu-24FencerstrikeaircrafttheyhaveacquiredfromIraqidefectorsandtheRussians.Thesemediumbombershaveexcellentrangeandradar,andcanbeequippedwithavarietyofair-to-groundordnanceandantishippingmissilessuchastheKh-35(roughlyequivalenttotheU.S.Harpoonmissile).AndconsideringthattheRussianswillsellalmostanythingforhardcurrencythesedays,youcanbetthattheIranianscanbuyeventhelatestinCISmissiletechnologyatbargainprices.
JustsupposethattheIranians,havinginitiatedoneoftheirperiodicmisunderstandingswiththeirPersianGulfneighbors,begintohintthattheymightinitiateanothertankerwarthewaytheydidinthe1980s.Andlet'sjustsupposethattheIraniansfollowhabitanddecidetoholdalive-firedemonstrationfortelevisionoftheirnew-foundcapability.Theyseemtobelievethatsuchdemonstrationswillcauseotherstobowtotheirwill.Morelikely,though,itwillresultinthesigningofapresidentialfindingauthorizingtheuseofforcetopreemptivelyremovetheIranianSu-24threattoshippingintheregion.
Thequestionnowisjustwhatkindofforcetouse.Acarrierairstrike,longafavoriteofpresidents,risksthepossiblelossofaircraftandthedeathand/orcaptureoftheaircrews.UseofF-117As,sosuccessfulandinvulnerableduringDesertStorm,requiresthecooperationofafriendlygovernmentintheregiontoprovidebasing.
Anduseoflong-rangeB-2AsflyingdirectlyfromaU.S.base,suchasDiegoGarcia,wouldplaceatriskthecrownjewelsoftheAirForce'sAirCombatCommand.Allfortakingoutacoupledozenfighter-bomberswhosenetworthwouldnotpayforasinglelostB-2A.SurfacevesselscouldlaunchaTLAMstrikebutwouldbesittingtherevisibleafterthestrike.ClearlywhatisneededissomethingdiscreetandsafefortheAmericanattackers.Thatsomethingmaywellbeasubmarine-launchedTLAMstrike.
TorendertheairfielduselessanddestroytheSu-24FencersandKh-35swillprobablytakebetweentwenty-fourandthirty-sixTLAMs.ThusapairofVLS-equippedLosAngeles-classboatswillbeneededtodeliverthemissiles.Ifsubmarineswiththenecessarynumbersandtypesofmissilesarenotalreadyinplace,themissilescanbedeliveredtotheboatsataforwardbaseortender.Inadditiontothemissiles,thesubmarineswilltakedeliveryofthecomputerizedmissionplansdevelopedatoneoftheTheaterMissionPlanningCenters(TMPCs).Thisplan,whichcanbeusedasisorupdatedviaasatellitelink,willhavebeendesignedtoputthemaximumnumberofTLAMsoverthetargetairfieldintheshortestdurationpossible.ItshouldbenotedthatnotoneTLAMwillbeaimedattherunways.Thisisbecause,asDesertStormproved,itmakeslittlesensetoattackconcrete,whichisquiteeasytorepair.Destroyanairplane,itisgoneforever.Andthatisthegoaloftheplannedstrike.
Therun-intothetargetprobablycanbeonthecoastoftheIndianOcean,thoughUSSTopeka(SSN-754)recentlyoperatedinsidethePersianGulfitself.The688Isstandoffthecoastatarangeof50to100milesandawaitthefiringordersfromWashington.Oncethesecome,thefiringtimesandtime-on-targetofthemissileswillbecoordinatedbetweenthetwoboats.Themissioncanberunatalmostanytimeofthedayornight,aslongasthevisibilityoverthetargetisrelativelyclear.Forourpurposes,though,wecanassumethattheattackwillbemountedintheearlymorninghours,priortosunrise.
Thiswillhavetheeffectofcatchingthepersonnelattheairbaseintheirbeds,reducingcollateralcasualtiesaswellastheeffectivenessofthebasedefenses.
EachsubmarineprobablyloadsthreetorpedotubeswithTLAMs,andonlyonetubeisloadedwithanMk48ADCAP"justincase."Thethreemissilesinthetubeswillbefiredfirst,followedbythetwelveintheVLStubes.Approximatelyevery30secondsanotherTLAMisejectedfromitsfiringtubeandheadedonitsway.Whilethisisbeingdone,eachboat'storpedoroomcrewquicklyreloadstheemptytubeswiththreeadditionalTLAMs,sothesecanalsobelaunchedontheirwaytothetarget.Thismakesatotalofthirty-sixTLAMsheadedforthetargetairfield.Oncethisisdone,thesubmarinesjustslipquietlyaway,leavingnosignofeverhavingbeenthere.
Onceitsenginehasignitedandthewingshavedeployed,eachmissileskimstheoceanandmaneuverstowhatisknownastheprelandfallwaypoint.Thisaspotintheoceanthatleadstothefirstlandfallnavigationpoint.Fromhere,eachmissilenavigatesviaacombinationofGPSfixesandTercomupdates.Theideaisforallthirty-sixmissilestoarriveoverthetargetatpreciselytherighttimeandinorder.Thefirstfewmissiles,sayfourtosixofthe1,000-lbhigh-explosive(HE)warheadTLAMs,arededicatedtoreducingtheradarandSAMdefensesoftheairfield.Themissileshavebeenprogrammedeithertodiveintoaradarandexplode,ortoflyovertheradarvansanddestroythembyoverpressurescreatedbythehigh-explosivewarheads.
Withthewaynowclearfortheremainingmissiles,theactualattackontheairfielddevelops.Itwillprobablybeoverinjustamatterofseveralminutes.SeveraloftheTLAMsarmedwiththeCEMsubmunitionswillrundownthereadyramps,scatteringbombletsoveranyaircraftwaitingthere.Onceeachofthemissileshasexpendeditsloadofsubmunitions,itwillprobablybeprogrammedtodiveintooneofthesmallerbuildings(suchastheaircrewquarters)ontheairfield,
addingitsremainingfueltothedestruction.Inaddition,eachofthelargehangarshasprobablybeenallocatedapairofHE-warheadTLAMstodestroyanyaircraftbeingservicedthere.ThefuelstorageareasandweaponsbunkersalsoreceivetheattentionoftheirownTLAMs.ThelastitemfortheTLAMsisanyrevetmentsorhardenedaircraftshelters(HAS)thatmightpossiblycontainsomeoftheSu-24s.
AUGM-109CTomahawkcruisemissilelaunchedfromasubmarinesubmergedoffthecoastofCaliforniaapproachesitstarget,arevettedaircraft.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
The1,000-poundconventionalwarheaddetonatesoveritstarget.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Explosionandblastfragmentsdestroythetarget.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Beforethebasepersonnelhaveevenhadachancetoreact,theattackwillbeover.Mostifnotalltheoffendingfighter-bomberswillbeeitherdestroyedorseverelydamaged.Inaddition,theantishippingmissilesareprobablyblowingupintheirbunkers,andthejetfuelwillbeblazinginitstanks.Andwiththis,thethreatoftheseaircraftandmissilespreyingonthetankertrafficinthePersianGulfwillbeatanend.AllofthishasbeenaccomplishedwithoutasingleAmericanlifebeingplacedinharm'sway.
Mission#5--IntelligenceGathering
Nobodyreallylistensatkeyholesanymore,mainlybecausekeysaresmallerthantheyusedtobe.Butelectronicshavemadethedoorsratherwide,andtheyalsoallowthingstoleakoutmorereadilythanbefore.Themajorityoftheworld'smajorcitiesarenearthewater--theystartedoffasportsandtradingcenters--andthusarewithinthereachofsubmarinesandtheirsensors.ThosesensorsandtheirassociatedanalysisequipmenthelpgivetheUnitedStatesandheralliesanedgeinfiguringoutthepoliciesofforeigngovernments,andtheirpotentialtocausemischiefintheNewWorldOrder.
TacticalExample--ReconnoiteringanEnemyHarbor
Ithelpstobeinvisible.Thatmeansyoucangetinclose,andwhenyoudothat,youcanlearnthings.Theprimeintelligence-gatheringmissionforasubmarineiselectronicsurveillance.Asimple-lookingreedlikemastcangatherallmannerofelectronicsignals.Youmightwanttolearnabouttheotherguy'sradarsystems,andhe'llbecarefulwiththesesoasnottoletyouknowexactlywhatyouraircraftwillbeupagainst.Thereforehewon'tusethemmuchwhenunknownaircraftareabout--buthehastousethemsomeofthetimeinorderthathisownpeoplecanpracticeusingthem.Andsowhatyoudoissneakaboatintohiscoastaloperationszone,runupyourESMmast,andwait.Youcanalsolistenintoshort-rangeradiotraffic,theFMstuffthatstopsatthehorizon.Suchradiosarenormallynotencrypted,andit'samazingwhatpeoplewillsaywhentheydon'tthinkanyoneislistening.
Inshortorder,youcanmonitortheotherfellow'swholeelectronicspectrum,andoveraperiodoftime,toboot.Thisallowsoperatingpatternsandprocedurestobeexplored.Andyoucanlearnalotfromthat.Youcandocombinedoperations,withsubmarinesandaircraftworkingtogethertoseewhatisreallyontheotherfellow'smind,and
youcangetawaywithitbecausehecanseeonlyoneelementoftheoperation.Oryoucantrysomethingreallycrazy--takeacloselookforyourself.Whatisheuptoinsidehismainnavalbases?Ifthewater'sdeepenough,ifthesubisquietenough,youmightbeabletogoinandsnapafewpicturesthroughtheperiscope.Maybeevenafewhullshots.DoSSNseverreallydothiskindofthing?It'smuchtoodangerous,isn'tit?
Mission#6--MineWarfare
Question:Howmanyminesdoesittaketomakeaminefield?Answer:None;youonlyneedapressrelease.GeneralNormanSchwarzkopfsaiditallduringDesertStormwithonequestiontoanobtusereporter:"Haveyoueverbeeninaminefield?"Imaginewhatit'slike.Everystepyoutakemightplaceyouonthetriggerofanexplosivedevice.Everysinglestep.Youhavetogetwhereyouwanttogo.Butthesimpleactofgoingtheremaykillyou.Youdon'tknowwhenyou'reenteringtheminefield,andyouprobablywon'tknowwhenyou'refinallyoutofit.Soundlikefun?
Andsoitisforships.Aship,remember,isasteelbubbledesignedtokeepairinandwaterout.Andanyshipcanbeaminesweeper.Once.Minescanbelargeorsmall,butineithercasetheyblastholesinships.Improvingtechnologyhasmadethemmoredeadly.Nolongerthesphericalsteelcontainerswithacid-filledhorns(thoughthesestillexistandstillwork),modernminescanlieonthebottom,beactivatedweeksafterbeinglaid,andcanincludespecialtriggeringdevicessothatonemightgooffwhenthefirstshippassesover,anditsneighborwhentheeleventhdoes.Mines,therefore,haveaseverepsychologicalimpact,andinthenaturaldreadofsuchthingscomespanic,concern,andaninordinatedegreeofefforttogetridofthe
damnedthings,ataskbothtime-consumingandvery,veryiffy.Howdoyouknowwhenyouhavesweptthemall?Youdon't.Youcan't.
TacticalExample--Quarantining(Mining)anEnemyPort
Itonlytakesapressrelease,butasingleexplosionwillputalittleemphasisonit.Minesarerelativelysmallandcompact,andasubmarinecancarryagoodlynumberofthem,tradingoffroughlyonetorpedoforeverytwomines.Andthesubmarinecandeliverawidevarietyofthem:Mark57mooredmineswithsophisticatedsensorandtriggeringsystems.ThentherearetheMk67mobilemines.TheseareobsoleteMk37torpedoesthathavebeenrebuiltintobottommines.Asubmarinecanfirethemintoashallowchannel(whichitselfmightbemined)uptoadistanceof5to7miles.TheMk67thenliesonthebottom,waitingforashiptopassoveritbeforedetonating.Finally,forrealimpact,therearetheMk60Captormines.TheseareencapsulatedMark46torpedoesprogrammedtowaitfortherightkindofnoise(inthiscaseenemysubmarines),atwhichpointthetorpedoswimsclearandattacks.Forexample,youcouldprogramthemtolistenforacertaintypeofsubmarine(likeaKilo),whichisn'texactlycricket.Minesthatshootfirst?Justthethingsforclosingaportdown.
Letussaythatthereisacountry,NorthKoreaforexample,withanastyhabitofexportingmilitaryhardware,whichoffendsthesensibilitiesoftherestoftheworld.Let'ssaytheirnuclearweaponsprogramhasfinallyyieldedresults.Beingstrappedforcapital,perhapstheymightchoosetoselloffafewtothehighestbidder.Somehow(perhapsthroughsomeoftheircontactsintheSwissbankingindustry),theAmericanintelligenceservicesgetwordofthetransaction.ThisstartstheballrollingonaconfrontationbetweentheUnitedStateswithherallies,andtheNorthKoreans.It'sthekindof
confrontationthattheUnitedStatescouldgototheUNwith,andmakeapointtotheworldaboutarmsproliferation,orsufferamajorforeignpolicydebacle.Notsolongago,theUnitedStatesexpendedhugeresourcestrackingashiploadedwithacargoofNorthKorean-manufacturedmissilesonitswaytoIran.AtthelastminutetheCENTCOMmaritimesurveillanceforceslosttrackoftheship,andthecargowasdelivereddespitetheprotestsoftherestoftheworld.WoulditnothavebeenmoreeffectivetojustbottleuptheportinNorthKoreawithminesandneverlettheshipoutinthefirstplace?Thatway,wouldn'ttheUNhaveachancetoinspectthecargoandmakesureitdidnotcontaintheoffendingweapons?Youbet!Itisa"mustwin"kindofsituationthatrequiresadelicateanddiscreettouch.
Sohowdoesonedeploytheminestoclosetheportinquestion?TheproblemhereisthattheNorthKoreanshaveaproventrackrecordofhostilitytowardU.S.surfacevesselsandaircraftoperatinganywhereneartheirborders.(RememberthecaptureoftheUSSPuebloandtheEC-121shootdownin1968?)Thusitisimperativethatanysuchactionbehandledcarefully.Justthekindofjobsubmarinesarebestsuitedfor.
Theminesarequietlydeliveredtoa688IatatenderatGuamorsomeotherforwardbase.The688Iprobablyoffloadsallhermissiles(exceptperhapsforTomahawkantishipmissilesintheVLStubes),andmostofherMk48torpedoes.Otherthanthemines,heronlyweaponsarelikelyforself-defense.Inaddition,aSEALteammightbeembarkedtoassistinanyon-the-spotsurveysrequiredtosupportthemission.Theminingplanhasprobablybeencarefullyworkedout,withappropriateconsiderationgiventosuchthingsastheactivationtimes,tidalandseabedconditions,typesofmines,andappropriatewarningstotheotherinterestedpartiesinvolved.Ofcriticalimportanceisknowledgeoftheexactplacementofeachmine,aswewouldprobablyhavetosweepthem(aswedidinNorthVietnamin
1973)aftertheincidentisclosed.
Theoperationbeginswiththe688Ireconnoiteringtheareassurroundingtheport.PartofthisistoestablishtheoperatingpatternsofNorthKoreanpatrols,butalsotocheckforirregularitiesinthechartsandseabedsurveysthatmightaffecttheminingplan.Here,theNavstarGPSsystemiscritical,asitallowsforprecisenavigationoftheboatintheconfinesoftheNorthKoreancoastalwaters,andplacementofthemines.Oncethesurveyisfinished,thejobofminedeploymentbegins.
FirstoutofthetubesprobablyaretheMk57mooredmines,tobeplacedintheoutermouthoftheport.The688IgoesinslowlyusingeverysensoroftheBSY-1systemtolookfortrouble.Everyfewminutes,anotherminepackageisejectedfromhertorpedotubes,theiractivationclockstickingawaytoaprearrangedtime(probablyonetotwodayslater).Aseachmineisreleased,itspositioniscarefullynotedforfuturesweeping.Itwillnottakemanyofthese,asshipcaptainsarecreaturesofhabitwhofollowtheirchartsandrarelydeviateintolesstraveledchannels.Oncethisisdone,thesubmarine'scommandermayfiresomeoftheMk67mobileminesupintotheshallowchannelleadingtotheinnerharbor,saysixtoeightoftheseforeachsideofthechannel,tositonthebottom.Nowthe688Icarefullymovesoutofthearea.Justtokeepthingsfairinthecomingcrisis,theboatmightmovetooneofthenearbynavalbasesthathandlestheirfleetofdieselsubmarinesandpatrolboats.HereitcouldlayafewmoreMk67sinthechannel,andpossiblyabeltofMk60CaptorstokeeptheNorthKoreanNavy,particularlytheirforceofdieselsubmarines,bottledupduringthecomingconfrontation.Youdon'tevenhavetodoittoalloftheirbases.Justdoittoone,andsaythatyouhavedoneittoallofthem.Whoistoknow,right?
Younowhaveaforeignpolicyfaitaccompli.Anddon'tforgetthepressrelease....
Mission#7--SubmarineRescue
Itisanacknowledgedfactthatdutyonsubmarinesismorehazardousthanotherformsofmilitaryservice.Andunfortunately,theseextrahazardscantranslateintothelossofasubmarineanditscrew.Thisisthepartofsubmarinedutythatisalmostneverspokenof,evenbetweenmembersofthesubforceandtheirfamilies:ifaboatispostedasmissingandpresumedlost,itprobablyhasbeenlostwithallhandsatsea.Thiswascertainlytrueofsubmarinelossesduringtheworldwars,whenveryfewindividualssurvivedsubmarinesinkings.AndinbothofthenuclearsubmarinelossessufferedbytheUnitedStatesduringtheColdWar(theThresherandtheScorpion),thisprecedentheldtrue,withallhandsbeinglost.
Nevertheless,historyalsotellsusthatsometimesmendosurvivesubmarinesinkings.WhenthesubmarineUSSSqualussankbecauseofafaultyinductionvalveofftheNewEnglandcoastinthe1930s,promptactionbytherescueforcesoftheU.S.Navysavedabouthalfhercrew.AndwhenUSSTangwassunkbyacircular-runningtorpedoin1944,asmallnumberofhercrewwereabletoescapeandsurviveuntilbeingpickedupandtakenprisonerbytheJapanese.Thepointhereisthatcircumstancessometimesdoallowthecrewofadamagedorsunkensubmarinetosurvive.Andifanavyfailedtoprovidethosesurvivorsachancetoliveandberescued,moraleinthatforcewouldplummet.
Sothosenaviesthatoperatelargeforcesofsubmarineshaveinvestedconsiderablefundsintoprovidingtheirsubmarinerswithequipmentandskillstoallowfortheirrescueiftheysurvivewhateverinitialcalamitybefallsthem.Someofthese,liketheSteinkehoodsandMark8survivalsuitsissuedbytheU.S.NavyandRoyalNavy,aredesignedforusebythementhemselves.Butcertainlythemostvisiblesignsofcommitmenttothemissionofsubmarinerescueare
theDeep-SubmergenceRescueVehicles(DSRVs)operatedandmaintainedbytheUnitedStatesandEngland.InthewakeofthelossofThresherin1960,theUnitedStatesbuilttwooftheseminiaturesubmarines,andtheUnitedKingdombuiltone.Thesesmallsubmarines,operatedfromamothershiporanothersubmarine,canoffloadthecrewfromasunkenordamagedsubmarineandreturnthemtosafety.
TheAvalon(DSRV-2)isadeep-submergencerescuevehicledesignedforuniversalusewithNATOsubmarineforces.TheAvalonisattachedtotheaftsectionofitshostsubmarine,heretheUSSBillfish(SSN-676).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Example--RescueofaDownedSubmarine
It'safunnything:mostsubmarinersfeelthatthetimeoftheirgreatesthazardisduringthetransitstoandfromtheirhomebases.Thisisbecauseofthesimplefactthatsubmarinesare,bydesign,hardtoseeandfind.Thisisespeciallytruewhentheboatsareonthesurface,inthetransitlanesleadingintoandoutoftheirlairs.Theirlowsilhouettesandrelativelylowradarsignaturemakethemtoughtosee.Andifamerchantshipcrewbecomessloppyorlax,itisquiteeasytogetrunover.TheBritishlostaboatintheThamesestuaryinthe1950s,andtheFrenchalargecruisersubmarineinWorldWarII,tojustsuchaccidents.Andwiththesloppyhandlingofsupertankersthathasbeensoevidentoverthelastfewyears,itisnothardtoimagineaneventlikethistakingplace.
Soletussupposethattheworstcomestopass,andamerchantvessel,runninginheavyfog,collideswithaBritishnuclearattacksubmarineduringatransitbackintobaseatPlymouth.Wewillsupposethatthehitoccurswhilethesubisrunningonthesurface,strikingtheafterportionoftheboat,rupturingtheafterballasttanksanddestroyingthepropulsiontrain.Theboatwillprobablybegintosettlefromthestern,andthereisagoodchanceoffloodingbackintheengineeringspacesthroughtearsinthehullandtheshaftpackingseals.Withtheinrushofwateraft,theboatwillbeheadeddowntothebottom.Duringthistime,thecrewaretryingtosecurethefloodingandsealhatches.Theautomaticsafetysystemswill"scram"thereactor,makingitsafe.Ifthereistime,thecaptainwillordertheradioroomtogetoffadistresscalltotheoperationscenteratPlymouth.Ifnot,thecrewdeploysabuoy,whichwilltransmititsowndistresssignaltoattractattention.
BecauseofthelongcontinentalshelfaroundtheBritishIsles,thereisagoodchancethatthedamagedboatwillbottomoutinwatersomethinglessthan1,000feetdeep.Sincethisislessthantherated
crushdepthofaBritishSSN,thereisagoodchancethatsomeorallofthecrewwillescapeanyfloodedcompartments.Atthispoint,theirgoalistosurviveandwaitforrescueifpossible.Ifthereiscontinuedflooding,thecrewwillmovetotheforwardescapetrunk,dontheirMk8escapesuits,andfree-ascendtothesurface.Butifthesurvivingcompartmentsaredry,theywillprobablytrytostayput,hopingforrescuebyforcesfromPlymouth.
OncethePlymouthOperationsCentergetsthewordthatsomethinghasgonewrong,theysetinmotionaseriesofpreplannedactivitiestorescuethedownedsub'ssurvivors.OneofthefirstisacalltotheU.S.NavytogettheloanofoneoftheDSRVrescuesubmarinesfromSUBDEVGRU1atBallastPointinSanDiego,California.Asquicklyasitcanbearranged,aC-5GalaxyorC-141StarlifterwillarriveatNASNorthIslandtopickuptheDSRV,itscrew,andthenecessaryfittingsandequipmenttoconducttheoperation.TheideaisthatSUBDEVGRU1candeliveraDSRVtoanypointonearthwithintwenty-fourhours,andrescueanycrewwithinforty-eighthours.Inthiscase,thedeliverypointwillbethepointclosesttooneofthe"R"classSSBNs,whichareequippedtocarryandoperatetheU.S.DSRVsfortheRoyalNavy.Whenthetransportaircraftarrives,theDSRVandhersupportequipmentaretruckedtotheport,tobeloadedontoaspecialrackonthebackoftheBritishSSBN.
AcasualtyisevacuatedbyaSeaKinghelicopterfromthediesel-electricsubmarineHMSOsiris.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYDAVIDPERFECT
Whileallthisisgoingon,thecrewofthedownedsubmarinearedoingtheirbesttodoabsolutelynothingbutstayalive.Topurifytheairinthesurvivingcompartments,thecaptainwillorderthelightingofspecialcandleswhich,whentheyburn,releaseoxygen.Everyonewillbeorderedtostayquiet,sleepifpossible,andjustwaitcalmly.Bythistime,theRoyalNavyhasprobablyassembledarescueforce,whichwilltrytomakecontactwiththesurvivorsandhelporganizetherescueeffort.Thefirstvesselatthesiteofthesinkingmaywellbeanothersubmarine,becauseoftheirrapidmobilityandtheirabilitytostayonstation,whatevertheweatherandseaconditions.(WhentheUSSSqualuswaslostinthe1930s,itwasasisterboat,theUSSSculpin,thatmadefirstcontactwithsurvivorsofthatdownedboat.)
Withluck,the"R"classSSBNwillabletoreachthesinkingsitenearPlymouthwithintwenty-fourtothirty-sixhoursofthesinking.Andatthispoint,thingsbegintohappenratherquickly.Oncethesiteofthesinkinghasbeenestablishedandtheattitudeofthesunkensubascertained,theSSBNwillsubmergeandloiternearthedownedboat.ThecrewoftheDSRVwillentertheirboatviatheafterescapetrunkoftheSSBN,sealtheirbottomhatch,andliftoff.Sincetheafterpartofthesunkensubisflooded,allthesurvivorswillhavetoexitthroughtheforwardescapetrunk,andthecaptainwillhavetoorganizethesurvivorsintogroupsoftwenty-four,themaximumtheDSRVsarecapableofcarryingononetrip.Atthispointtheoperationbeginstolookmoreliketwospacecraftdockinginorbit.TheDSRVmaneuversoverthehatchofthedownedsub'sforwardescapetrunkandcarefullymaneuversdowntodock.Oncesecure,theDSRV'screwblowthewateroutofthedockingcollarandbangonthehatchoftheescape
trunktotellthecrewofthesubthatitistimetostartthetransfer.Ifthesurvivorsrequireanymedicalattention,theDSRVwillprobablytransferamedicalteamfortheinjured.Atthispoint,thefirstloadofsurvivorsenterthetwospheresoftheDSRV,sealthehatches,andliftofftoreturntotheSSBN.Oncethere,theDSRVdockswiththeboomeranddischargesthefirstloadofsurvivors,thenrepeatstheprocessasmanytimesasrequired.Iftheentirecrewofthedownedsubhassurvived,itwilltakefourtofivetripstooffloadthemall.Atthispoint,anysurvivorswhoareseriouslyinjuredareMedEvackedviahelicoptertoashorehospital.
Withthesuccessfulrescueofthedownedsub'screw,thenextjobwillbetobeginsalvageofthedownedboat.Andhavenodoubtthatthiswillbedone,bothfortheobviouspoliticalreasons,andhopefullytoputherbackintoservice.Andbeforeyoudoubtthepossibilityofsuchathing,rememberthataftertheUSSSqualuswassunkinthe1930s,shewasraisedandrenamedUSSSailfish.Shewouldgoon,rebornwithanewnameandcrew,toanoutstandingcombatrecord,includingthesinkingofthefirstJapaneseaircraftcarrierbyaU.S.submarine.Sometimesfromthedepthsofdisastercomethetoolsofvictory.
TheEndofHistory:SubmarinesinthePost-ColdWarWorld
Whatadifferenceadecademakes.SincethepublicationofthefirsteditionofSubmarine,therehavebeennumerouschangestothesubmarineforcesoftheworld'snavies,especiallythatoftheUnitedStates.PerhapsthemostobviousofthesearetheintroductionoftheSeawolf-class(SSN-21)boatsintoserviceandthecontinuingworkonanewsubmarine--theVirginia(SSN-774)class.Therehavebeenotherdramaticchangesaswell,especiallyinthefieldsofengineering,sensors,andweapons.Theseadvanceshaveledtobreathtakingimprovementsinthewaywedesignandplansubmarinesofthefuture.Atthesametime,theywillhaveaprofoundimpactonthewaytheNavy'snewestsubmarineswillfightthepotentialbattlesofthetwenty-firstcentury.
SubmarineOperationsinthe1990s
Thedecadeofthe1990sopenedwithAmericansubmarinessupportingtheirfirstshootingwarsince1945.OperationDesertStormallowedtheU.S.submarineforcetoparticipateinamajorconflict,throughtheuseofBGM-109Tomahawklandattackcruisemissiles.TheAmericanboatsalsoprovidedothervaluableservicesduringthe1990-1991war,suchasintelligencegathering,maritimesurveillance,andspecialoperationssupport.Thistrendcontinuedthroughoutthedecade,despitetheradicaldrawdowninthesizeofthesubmarineforcesofallnations.Infact,thecollapseoftheSovietUnionandits
navyinthe1990sactuallyfreeduptheU.S.submarinefleettoundertakeamuchbroaderandmoresignificantsetofrolesinadditiontosuchdangerousyetessentialtasksaskeepingtrackofenemy"boomers"andtheirescortingattacksubmarines.
Twoartists'conceptsforfutureRoyalNavynuclearsubmarinedesignsforthetwenty-firstcentury.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
Submarinesinthe1990sbecamesignificantstrikeplatforms,launchingTomahawkattacksintoIraq,theBalkans,andeventheretaliationstrikesagainsttheOsamabinLadenterroristorganization.Sovaluablewasthecapabilityofsubmarine-launchedcruisemissilesthattheUnitedKingdomboughtasupplyofTomahawksfortheirownboats,firingseveraldozenatSerbiantargetsduringOperationAlliedForcein1999.Thiscovertprecision-strikecapabilityhasbecomesoattractivethattheRoyalNavyhaslookedatequippingeveryBritishsubmarine,includingstrategicballisticmissileboats,withasupplyofAmericancruisemissiles.TheU.S.NavyhasalsoconsideredaddingTomahawkstostrategicmissileboats,proposingtoconvertthefouroldestOhio-classSSBNsintohugeguidedmissile/specialoperationsplatforms.11
Anotherrolethatsubmarineshavemadetheirownhasbeeninthearenaofspecialwarfareandoperations.WhiletheBritishhavealwaysusedtheirfleetofboatstodeliverandextractspecial-operationsforce(SOF)unitsliketheRoyalMarinesandtheirSpecialBoatSquadrons,AmericannuclearboatsspentmostoftheColdWarchasingSovietsubsandships.Theexception,ofcourse,wasthehandfulofso-calledSpecialProjectsboats,whichwereconvertedfromexistingSSNs.12However,theendoftheEast-WestconflictandtheemergenceoftheU.S.SpecialOperationsCommandasaresultofthe1980sdefensereorganizationactshaschangedallthat.Today,SOFunitsfromnotonlytheNavy(thefamousSEALteams)butfromtheArmySpecialForces(the"GreenBerets")andMarinesnowregularlypracticetheirtradefromnuclearsubmarines.13TwoolderstrategicballisticmissileboatshaveevenbeenconvertedintotransportsubmarinestosupporttheSOFmission.14
Another"growth"missionforsubmarinesinthe1990shasbeenintelligencegathering,thoughobviouslywithlessofafocusontheformerSovietUnion.TheendoftheUSSRin1991freedupAmericanandBritishboatstokeepaneyeonanumberofother"hot"spotsaroundtheworldandprovidetheintelligenceserviceswithevenmoretoolsandresourcestokeepaneyeandearonthings.Onerecentexampleofthisprobablyoccurredfollowingthein-flightcollisionofaU.S.NavyEP-3EArieselectronicsurveillanceaircraftandaChineseJ-8interceptorovertheSouthChinaSea.Thoughtherewasa"gap"inthecoveragefortheU.S.fromtheairpriortotheflightsbeingresumed,restassuredthatelectronicandcommunicationsactivityalongtheChinesecoastwasprobablybeingmonitoredbyoneormoreU.S.submarines.Notonlydidthisfulfillourminimumintelligence-collectionrequirements,butitalsomaintainedacovertdiscretionthatsurfaceshipsandaircraftcannotmaintain.
Finally,therearethenow-mundanebutterriblyvitaljobsthatnuclearboatsdidthroughouttheColdWar:watchingandtrackingtheshipsandsubmarinesofpotentialenemiesandhostilenationsaroundtheworld.ThishasmeantthatinadditiontowatchingthedwindlingfleetofRussianshipsandsubmarines,U.S.andBritishboatshavebeenkeepinganeyeonthosenationswhowerequietlydevelopingtheirownfleetsinthe1990s.Thismaysoundsurprising,giventheworldwidedrawdownofnavalandsubmarineforcesthatfollowedtheendoftheColdWar.However,anumberofcountriesbegantobuilduptheirnavalforcesinthedecadejustpast,andAmericanandBritishsubmarineswereoutthere,watchingthemeveryimportantstepoftheway.
IntotheTwenty-firstCentury:SubmarineForcesattheMillennium
TherehasbeengoodnewsandbadnewsforthesubmarineforcesoftheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain.ThegoodnewsisthatduetothedemiseoftheUSSR,severalregionaleconomicdownturns,andthegeneraloutbreakofpeace,thesizeoftheworldwidesubmarineforcehasshrunkentoafractionofitsColdWarpeak.Literallyhundredsofsubmarines,fromancientdieselboatstostate-of-the-artnuclearattackandmissilesubmarines,weretakenoutofservice.Inthemostradicalcases,someoftheunitsfromtheformerSovietfleetwerejustdrivenupontoshoreandditchedlikewhalesbeachingthemselvestodie.Itwasapitifulendingfortheworld'slargestsubmarineforce.
Thebadnewsisthatthesubmarinesthatremaininworldwideusearegenerallythepickofthelitter:thebesteverynationstilloperatingthemcanaffordtomaintain.Thismeansthatifashootingwareverbreaksout,theboatsandcaptainsfacingU.S.andBritishsubmarineskipperswilllikelybeverycapableenemiesindeed.Thenthereisthematterofthosenationsthathavefailedtonoticethegeneraloutbreakofpeaceinthe1990s.CountrieslikeChina,Iran,andIndiahavebeenbuildinguptheirnavies,andatthecoreoftheseeffortshavebeentheexpansionoftheirsubmarineforces.ManyofthesehavebeenexportedRussianProject877/Kilo-classdiesel/electricsubmarines(SSKs),armedwithsomeofthebestweaponseverofferedforsaleontheopenmarket.
Similarly,theU.S.andmanyofouralliesareproducingthefinestsubmarines,skippers,crews,andweaponsthattheirtreasuriescanbuy.However,theseforceswillbelargelybasedon"legacy"designslikethe688IsandTrafalgars,withonlylimitednumbersofnewboatstoreplacethemanyunitsthatwereretiredinthe1990s.Thismeansthatfriendlyforceswillhavetomakedowithwhattheyhavewhilethenewdesignsmatureandcomeintoservice.Whiletherecanbelittledoubtoftheoutcomeofaone-on-onebattlebetweenaU.S.orBritishSSNandasubmarinefromsomeroguenation,thereisalwaysthesmallchancethatthe"badguys"willscorealucky"kill."The
godsofwarareaficklelot,andtheworstfrequentlyhappenswhenordnancebeginstofly.GiventhepublicreactiontothelossofeighteenU.S.specialoperationssoldiersinSomaliain1993,onecanonlyimaginewhatthenationalreactionmightbetothelossofabillion-dollar-plusnuclearboatandoverahundredsailors.TheaccidentallossoftheRussianKursk(K-141)inthesummerof2000gaveeveryonewhooperatessubmarinesashock,andsomethingtothinkaboutastheyheadedintothenewmillennium.
Sowhatdoesthisallmeanintermsofnumbersofboats?Well,notasmanyastheleadersoftheU.S.orBritishnavieswouldlike,ofcourse.FromaColdWarhighofalmost100and20,respectively,thetotalshavedroppedtoaroundhalfthat.Today,theAmericansplanonmaintainingaforceofaroundfiftySSNs,whiletheBritisharehard-pressedtokeeptentotwelveinservice.Thisrepresentsaverysmallnumberofplatformstoaccomplishalargerangeofmissions.Wearethankfullywithoutanactivenavalconflicttofight,andthisnumberwillhavetodo.
TheprogressivelylowernoiselevelsemittedbyvariousU.S.,Soviet,andRussiansubmarineclasses.Ascanbeseen,theSoviet/RussianboatshavegottenmuchclosertothestealthofU.S.boatsovertheyears.OFFICALU.S.NAVYGRAPHIC
TheSeawolf(SSN-21)Class:TheUltimateColdWarAttackBoat
Withoutadoubt,themostadvancedsubmarineevertoenterservicedidsoatagrandcommissioningceremonyonJuly19,1997in
Groton,Connecticut.TheUSSSeawolf(giventhehullnumberSSN-21)wastobethetouchstoneoftheU.S.Navy'ssubmarineforces'transitionintothetwenty-firstcentury.15CertainlySeawolfisanimpressiveforeshadowingoftechnologicaladvancestocome,thoughthisisachievedatanalmostunacceptablecost.Also,asimpressiveasSeawolfis,sheisnotwithouthershareofdisputesanddetractors.Infact,SeawolfhasoftenbeenreferredtoasthemostcontroversialsubmarineinAmericanhistory,andthereisalotoftruthtothisclaim.
Authorizedtothedefensebudgetinfiscalyear1989(FY89),Seawolfwasoriginallyintendedtobetheleadunitofaclassofalmostthirtyboats.ThisrevolutionarysubwasdesignedtosucceedtheImprovedLosAngeles(688I)classattacksubmarines.Assuch,shefallsintothesameclassofweaponsastheF-22ARaptorfighterandB-2ASpiritbomber:unlimitedColdWardesignsputintoproductionwithlittleconcernforcostattheirtimeofconception.Inthisregardsheisasuccess,asSeawolfisreportedtobeanimprovementovertheLosAngeles-classboatsinnearlyeveryaspect.Thebiggestpureattacksubmarineeverbuilt,SeawolfalsowasthelastSSNtobeartheimprintofthefatherofAmerica'snuclearnavy,AdmiralHymanG.Rickover.Inparticular,theSeawolf'sS6Wreactorwasthelastwhosedevelopmenthesupervised,thecrowningachievementofhiscareerinmanyways.Perhapsthemostimportantimprovementsoverthe688Iswereintheareasofmachineryquieting,sensorsandelectronics,andweaponsloadoutandhandling.Allofthiswillbecoveredlater,butfirstlet'sexaminethepost-ColdWarenvironmenttogetabetterideaofwhytheSeawolfbecamesuchahotlydebateddesign.
USSSeawolf(SSN-21)layout.RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO
Seawolf(SSN-21)DesignConceptsandHistory
Everyweaponssystemhasacoreconceptbehindit,andSeawolfisnoexception.Backin1989,theSovietUnionwasstillconsideredamajorthreattotheUnitedStates,thoughmuchlessofonethanithadbeenduringthepreviousdecades.Thelastyearofthe1980swasoneofthemostdramaticinworldhistoryandincludedthefalloftheBerlinWallandwithdrawalofthelastSoviettroopsfrom
Afghanistan.However,asPresidentGeorgeH.W.BushwasenteringtheWhiteHouse,theU.S.governmentwasjustifiablycautiousandunsureofhowpermanentthechangesinsidetheSovietUnionreallywere.TheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)evencontinuedpublishingafamousannualdocumentassessingtheSovietmilitarythreat,thoughwithaminorsubtitle--SovietMilitaryPower:ProspectsforChange--recognizingapossiblethawingoftheColdWar.Thenextfewyears,though,wereaveryconfusingtimeforthemilitaryplannersatDoD.
USSSeawolf(SSN-21)conductsherfirstat-seatrialsonJuly3,1996.
OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
PerhapsthebiggestproblemDoDfacedinthechangingglobalclimatewasthatwhiletheendoftheColdWarfinallyappearedtobeapossibility,theAmericanmilitarystillneededtopreparefortheworst.TheSovietNavystilloutnumberedtheUnitedStatesNavyinmanyshipcategories,includingtheall-importantareaofsubmarines.NewclassesofSovietsubmarinesseemedtobecontinuallyenteringserviceinthe1980s,andtheUnitedStatessimplycouldnotrestonthehopethattheLosAngeles-classwouldforeverremainthebestboatsintheworld.ItwasthisenvironmentinwhichtheUSSSeawolfwasconceived.
Fromanavalcombatpointofview,itwasclearlyunderstood(infactitwasofficialU.S.Navypolicy)thatantisubmarinewarfare(ASW)wastobetheU.S.Navy'stopwar-fightingpriority.TheSovietUnionandtheirWarsawPactalliescoulddeploymoresubmarinesthantheAmericansandNATO,andmanyoftheirattackandcruisemissilesubmarinesweredesignedwithtwodangerouslyimportantpurposesinmind--antishippingandanticarrieroperations.ThefirstofthesemissionsdealtwithdestroyingEuropean-boundshipping,alongwithescortingwarshipsthatprovidedthevitallifelineoftheAtlantic--whichtheUnitedStateswouldhavetocrosstoreinforceandsupplyitsNATOalliesintheeventofWorldWarIII.
ThesecondroleofSovietattacksubmarineswastheso-calledanticarrierrole,designedtodestroyAmericanandNATOaircraft-carrierbattlegroups,thealliance'smostpowerfulandmobilestrikeweaponatsea.TheSovietsandtheAmericansbothknewthatwhileacarrier'saircraftandescortsmightdetectandinterceptenemybombersatgreatdistances,thenatureofthesubmarinethreatmeantthattheywouldnotbeabletodefendagainstSovietboatswiththesamelevelofefficiency.Theroleofcarrier-huntingsubmarines,likethemissile-armedProject670/CharlieI/IIandProject949/OscarI/IISSGNs,wastosneakintorangeofanAmericanbattlegroupand
attackthepreybeforetheywereeverdetected.ThiswasaveryrealthreatduringtheColdWar,anditwasforthisreasonthatASWwassovitallyimportant.
Oneofthebestwaystokillasubmarineiswithanothersubmarine.ContinuedimprovementstotheLosAngelesclassofsubmarineswereextremelyeffectiveandsignificantlyincreasedthe688I'sabilitytoconductmanytypesofmissions.However,asmuchasthebudgetcuttershatetoadmitit,therecomesatimewheneventhemostadvancedweaponsdesignsbegintoreachtheirtechnologicallimits.Intheearly1980s,justastheNavywasorderingthefirst688Is,thinkingbeganinearnestaboutthefollow-ontotheLosAngeles-classboats.
Inthepast,muchofthesilentEast-Westsubmarinebattlehadbeenfoughtinthedeepoceandepths,farfromviewofthenearestland.ThiswastohavebeentheSeawolf'struehome.Shewouldbefaster,deeperdiving,andquieterthananyattacksubmarinetheworldhadeverproduced.WithASWalreadyacknowledgedastheU.S.Navy'stopmission,Seawolfwouldbecomethetoolformeetingthisessentialpriority.Asmightbeimagined,theprojectwasgoingtocostsomemoney--lotsofmoney!InitialFY89costestimatesforthesubmarineranintheneighborhoodof$39billionforthefullclassofthirtyboats,whichmadethemthemostexpensivesuchvesselsinAmericanhistory.Initialplanscalledforbuildingthreesubsperyear,whichwouldallowtheU.S.NavytomaintainasufficientforceofboatstoconducttherequiredoperationsintheeventtheColdWareverturnedhot.Itwasagoodplan,exceptforthefactthatthewarithadbeendesignedtofightdisappearedwithinalittleovertwoyears.
Thattypeofmoney--$39billion--washardenoughtocomebyduringtheheightoftheColdWarandbecameimpossibleonceitended.AsanuneasyfriendshipbetweentheU.S.andtheformerSovietUnionbegantogrow,sodidpressuretotrimtheAmericandefensebudget,whichhadbeenslowlydecliningsincetheendoftheReaganyears.AsU.S.politiciansclamoredfortheirshareoftheso-
calledPeaceDividend,theDefenseDepartmentandtheNavybegantoreexamineexactlywhatroleSeawolfmightplayintwenty-first-centurysubmarine-forcestructure.OneoftheprimarylessonslearnedfromthePersianGulfWarwasthatwhilesubmarinesweredesignedtooperateinthedepthsoftheblueocean,therewasalsoanalltoofrequentlyignoredrequirementforthemtosupportoperationsonland.Quickly,theNavybegantoseethewritingonthewallconcerningspendingonthisveryexpensiveweaponsprogram.Severalmonthsaftertheendofthe1991GulfWar,thechiefofnavaloperations(CNO)announcedthatSeawolfconstructionwouldbecutfromtheplannedthreesubsayeartoamoremodestoneperyear.However,eventhisplanwasmodifiedoncetherealitiesofpost-ColdWarfinancesandtechnologybegantomakethemselvesknowninthe1990s.
Thefirstoftheproblemsforthenewclassweretechnical,asmightbeimaginedforsuchastate-of-the-artweaponssystem.High-strengthHY-80steelhadbeenusedinnearlyallpreviousAmericannuclearsubmarinedesignssincetheSkipjack(SSN-585)classofthe1950s.Nevertheless,forthedeep-divingSeawolf,strongermetalwouldbeneeded.InitialplanslookedatmaterialasstrongasHY-130steel,butthiswaseventuallyshelvedinfavorofHY-100.TheHY-130wasjusttoohardtoworkandweld,andproductionproblemswithitlookedinevitable.Therefore,theNavyandElectricBoatthoughtHY-100wouldbeagoodcompromisebetweeneaseofmanufactureandgreaterdivingdepth.Unfortunately,eventheHY-100steelhaditsproblemswhenElectricBoatgotworking.Inmidsummer1991,theNavyannouncedthatmassiveweldfailureshadbeenuncoveredonSeawolf'shullasitunderwentconstruction.Theseweldingcracks,whichmightverywellhavebeendeadlyhadtheynotbeendiscoveredandrepaired,meantthatallweldingdonetodateneededreplacement.ThiscausedproductionofSeawolftobedelayedanadditionalyearandaddedmorethan$100milliontothealreadyhighpriceofthenew
boat.
Thenfurtherbadnewsarrived.In1992,afterconcludinganagonizinganalysisofthesituation,theDoD(underthenSecretaryofDefenseDickCheney)decidedtocutfundingforalloftheplannedSSN-21-classsubmarinesexceptfortheSeawolfherself,whichwasalreadyunderconstruction.Asmighthavebeenpredicted,withthe1992presidentialelectionlooming,theSeawolfprogramwouldbecomeahotlycontestedpoliticalissue.
RunninginatightDemocraticprimary,ayounggovernorfromArkansasnamedWilliamJeffersonClintonannouncedin1992thatifelectedpresident,hewouldsavetheSeawolfprogramandcontinueproductionpastthefirstunit.ThoughcriticizedbysomeDemocratsassupportingaweaponsprogrameventheRepublicanswantedtocancel,Clinton'sgambitpaidoff.WhenhewontheWhiteHousein1992,hetookwithhimConnecticut'selectoralvotes,somethingthatmighthavebeenimpossiblewithoutthesupportofoneofthatstate'sbiggestemployersanditsworkers--GeneralDynamicsElectricBoatDivision--theSeawolfsubmarine'sprimecontractor.ItisinterestingtonotethatthesecondsubmarineoftheclasswasappropriatelynamedUSSConnecticut(SSN-22).
Theyear1992alsomarkedthebeginningofachangingstrategyforU.S.Navyforces.ItwasduringthisyearthattheNavyandMarineCorpsreleasedtheirseminaldocumentthatwastoserveasaguideforplanningtheNavyandMarineCorpsofthetwenty-firstcentury.EntitledFromtheSea:PreparingtheNavalServiceforthe21stCentury,thedocumentspelledoutthebiggestchangeinU.S.navalstrategyandpolicysincetheendoftheSecondWorldWar.DeclaringboldlythattheNavy'scurrentcommandoftheseasallowedittoconcentrateonareasofmorelikelyfutureconflicts,namelythe"littoral"orcoastalzonesoftheearth,theNavywoulddramaticallyaltertheplannedenvironmentinwhichtheywerepreparingtofight.Inessence,FromtheSeadeclaredthattheabilityoftheNavyand
MarineCorpsteamtoprojectpowerfromthewaterandimpacteventsonlandwouldbeofdramaticallygreaterimportancetofuturenavalplanning--moresoeventhanthedeepoceanoperationsoftheColdWar.Gonewerethedayswhentheso-calledblue-waternavytooktopprioritywhilebrown-waterunits(riverine,mine-hunting,andamphibiousforces,amongothers)languishedasaresultofalackoftraining,funding,andattentionfromtheseniorleadership.ImpactingeventsonlandwassomethingtheU.S.MarineCorpsandSEALscommunityhaddonefordecades,butitwassomethingthemajorityofU.S.NavyofficersandsailorshadtolearnquicklyiftheNavywastohaveaseatatthetablewhennewconflictserupted.
WhilethisconfidentnewplanwasessentialtotheNavy'sfuture,itwasnotgoodnewsfortheSeawolfprogram.SeawolfhadbeendesignedtofightintheoceandepthsandtohuntSovietsubmarines.Tothisend,itwasthequietest,deepest-divingattacksubmarineAmericahadeverplanned.Theproblemsfacingwarshipsintheshallow,murky"brown"waterofthecoastalregionswereentirelydifferentfromthoseencounteredintheopenocean.Thiswasespeciallytrueforsubmarines,whichreliedondeepdivingdepthsandsensitivepassivesonarstomaintaintheirstealth--bothofwhichwouldbeoflimiteduseinthebrown-watercombatenvironment.
Asifthiswasnotbadenough,thenewSeawolf-classboatswerealsoextremelyexpensive.PracticallyeverypartoftheSeawolf'sdesignwascontroversial.Whilethiswaslargelyduetothehighcostofincorporatingadvancedsystemsintoarevolutionarydesign,thereseemedtobeproblemsallalongtheway,whichsomeoftheworld'sbestexpertswereputtoworksolving.Theresultwasatrulyamazingpieceofmachinery,whichhasruntaxpayerssomewhereintheneighborhoodof$2.8billionperunitoftheclass.Whilethismaysoundlikealot,takeintoconsiderationthattheAirForcepaid$2billionforeachoftwentyoneB-2ASpiritstealthbombers.
Fortunately,plansforanewsubmarinethatwouldincorporatethe
technologyoftheSeawolfintoaboatthesizeandcostoftheLosAngelesclasswerealreadyintheworks.Facedwiththesefiscalandstrategicrealities,theNavyputnewemphasisonasubmarinetheywerecallingCenturion--todayknownastheVirginia(SSN-774)class.Itthuscameasnosurprisewhen,inOctober1993,SecretaryofDefenseLesAspinreleasedtheresultsoftheBottom-upReview(BUR)inwhichitwasexplainedthatSeawolfproductionwouldendafteronlythreeboats,holdoversfromClinton'selection'92promise,hadbeenconstructed.
Seawolf(SSN-21):AGuidedTour
Onceyougetoverthesticker-priceshock(somethingCongressneverseemedtodo!),youcandiscoverexactlyhowrevolutionarySeawolfactuallyis,andit'ssomethingofwhicheveryAmericancanbejustlyproud.Let'sstartoutbydiscussingthedesignofthisbig,beautifulboat.PriortoSeawolf'sdesign,everyclassofU.S.submarinesincetheSkipjack(SSN-585)classofthe1950shadbeenan"iterative"design.Thatistosay,thebasicdesignofsubmarineswasmodifiedsothateachnewclasswasbasedonthesoliddesignofanoldership,incorporatingamixofoldandnewtechnology.
ThustheclassesbetweentheSkipjackandLosAngeleswereallmodifieddesignsofthesameoriginalboat.ThisallchangedwiththeSeawolfdesign.Seawolfwasthefirstsubmarinedesigninoverthirtyyearstobeplannedtotallynewfromtoptobottom.
USSSeawolf(SSN-21)interiorlayout.RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO
EverythingabouttheSeawolf(SSN-21)andhersisterboats,Connecticut(SSN-22)andthenot-yet-in-serviceJimmyCarter(SSN-23),isnewandimproved.Sheisbig,displacinganimpressive9,137tonssubmerged.Startingfromthestern,webeginourlookwithwhatmanypeoplewouldmistakenlythinkisoneofthesimplestpartsofasubmarine:itsscrew.KnownasapropellertothoseoutsidetheNavy,thescrewisactuallyoneofthemostcomplicatedpartsofasubmarine,anditsconstructionisacloselyguardednationalsecret.TheconstructionoftheSeawolf'sscrewhasbeenessentialtoherrequirementforquietrunningathighspeeds.
Asmentionedearlier,theBritishbuilttheirTrafalgar-classSSNswithashroudcoveringthepropeller,whichhadthebenefitofquietingexcessnoisegeneratedbythesub'sscrewoutintothewater.AsimilardesignisusedintheU.S.Navy'sMk48torpedo,albeitonasmallerscale.Knownasa"pumpjetpropulsionsystem,"thedesignworkswell.Accordingtoonereport,runningat25knots,Seawolfisquieterthana688Ithatisjustsittingatthepier!OtherstoriesindicatethatSeawolfisabletorunquietlyattwicethespeedofanypreviousAmericanattacksubmarine.OthersourcesaremoredirectandattributetoSeawolfavirtually"silentspeed"of20knots.Whilenumerouselementsgointothesequietingsecrets,youcanbetthattheSeawolf'spumpjetpropulsorplaysakeyrole.HiddeninsidethecoveringshroudofthepropulsorisasinglepropellershaftsimilartothosethathavebeenusedbyU.S.attacksubmarinessincetheadventofnuclearpropulsion.
IfyouweretolookataphotographofaSeawolfunderconstructionorindrydock,youwouldbeabletoseemanyofthesub'ssensorsasyouglanceatthesidesofitshull.Inparticular,theboatisdesignedwithauniquesurfacetailconfigurationandgivestheimpressionofsixthin,flat"finstabilizers"juttingfromtheaftoftheboat,whichfaceoutatvaryinganglesfromtheshroudedprop.Fittedtothestabilizeratthefour-andeight-o'clockpositionsareshroudsthroughwhichthesensitiveTB-16DandTB-29towedarraysonarsarestreamedoutfromtheboat.Asyoumovearoundtothesidesofthelowerhull,you'llnoticeoneofthebiggestadvancesperfectedbetweentheconstructionofthelastofthe688IboatsandthenewSeawolf.ThisistheadditionoftheBQG-5DWideApertureArray(WAA)systemsensorfittings.Althoughinvisiblewhenthesubliesinthewater,theWAAisoneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesofthisrevolutionarywarshipdesign.Anadvancedpassivesensorsystemfittedintothreerectangularhousingsattachedtoeachsideofthelowerhull,theWAAperformsanessentialmissionwhentheboatisinthedetectionandtrackingphasesofanengagement,andSeawolfisthefirstfullclassofsubmarinesfittedwiththesystem.TheWAAhasbeensosuccessfulintrialsthatplanscurrentlycallforfittingitintothefutureVirginia(SSN-774)classaswell.
Inthebowisalarge,24-foot/7.3-meter-diametersphericalsonararray,whichistheheartoftheBSY-2combatsystem.BasedontheearlierBSY-1systemweshowedyouaboardMiami,BSY-2is,intermsofsoftware,processingpower,andintegration,agenerationaheadoftheearliersystem.BytyingtogetherallthevarioussonarandothersensorssystemsintotheBSY-2,SeawolfhasacapabilityformultitargetcombatengagementsandsituationalawarenessmatchedonlybytheAegiscombatsystemontheTiconderoga(CG-47)andArleighBurke(DDG-51)missilecruisersanddestroyers.
AswecontinuealongourjourneyonSeawolf,you'llnoticemanybulgesandbumpsalongthehull,eachofwhichservesavitalpurpose.
Walkingalongthelonghull,whichis353feet/107.6meterslongand40feet/12.2meterswide,you'llseealong,thinfaringthatisraisedseveralinchesoffthedeck.Thisiswherethetowedarraysonarsarestored.Also,asduringourvisittoMiamiandTriumph,you'llnoticethatthedeckismadeofathick,spongycoatingknownasanechoictiles.TheseblackrubberliketilesdomuchtosealsoundinsidetheSeawolfaswellaskeepothersoundsfrombouncingofftheboatandreflectingsonar"pings"backtoprowlingsurfaceships,sonobouys,orenemysubmarines.Everynowandthenyoumightseeasubmarine,especiallythoseoftheformerSovietUnion,missingatileortwo.Theseoccasionallyfalloffandmakeforsomeinterestingphotoops!
Navyandcontractorpersonnelmantheunderwaymaincontrolwatch,aboardSeawolf.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
UnderneaththetilesisoneofthehardeststeelhullseverconstructedonanAmericanship.OncetheweldingworkofSeawolfwasfixed,therealbenefitsofHY-100steelbecameapparent.Withasignificant(meaningclassified)increaseindivingdepthoverthe688Iclass,SeawolfisabletooperatefartherintotheoceandepthsthananyattacksubmarineinAmericanhistory.ThishasrestoredmuchofthetacticalcapabilitylostwhentheHY-80hullsoftheLosAngeles-classboatswerethinneddowntosaveweightanddisplacement.AstherecentlossoftheRussiansubmarineKurskillustrates,theoceandepthscanbeanythingbuthospitable,andthedeeperasubmarinegoesthemorepressureisexertedonitshull.ItwasjustthesedangersthatthesubmarinedesignershadinmindwhentheybuiltinthenextfeaturewerunacrossaswetourSeawolf'sdeck--thesubmarineescapetrunkandDeepSubmergenceRescueVehicle(DSRV)matinghatch.
Thisafthatch,alongwithasecondhatchfartherforward,iswherearescuechamberorsubmarineliketheDSRVwouldmatewithSeawolfintheeventshesufferedacatastrophicaccidentandthecrewmemberswerestillsafe.Thisis,ofcourse,areallybigif.Itis,however,averyrealpossibilitythatwasdemonstratedquitesadlybythelossoftheKurskandhercrewin2000.AnumberoftheKursk'screwsurvivedthesinkingoftheirboatandmighthavebeensavedhadtheirgovernmentallowedU.S.orBritishDSRVstobedeployedearlierduringthesearch-and-rescueoperations.
TherehavebeensomechangesinthefieldofsubmarinerescuesincethefirsteditionofSubmarinewenttopress,andthisseemslikeagoodplacetocoverthem.ThefirstisthattheAmericanDSRVsarerapidlycomingtotheendoftheirusefulservicelivesandrequirereplacementorupgrade.Also,thededicatedrescueshipsthatcouldoperatetheoldMcCannrescuechambershavebeenretired,meaningthattheDSRVsdeliveredonthebacksofsubmarinesarenowtheonly
deep-waterrescuesystemintheU.S.inventory.Ontheplusside,though,newrescuetechnologiesarebeingdesignedandtested,andmaybebackfittedontoexistingDSRVs.
Thearrangementofperiscopes,sensors,andcommunicationsmastsontheconningtower/sailofUSSSeawolf(SSN-21).RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO
Oneofthemostpromisingoftheseisanewkindofmatingcollar,composedofangularslipringsthatallowdockingevenifthedownedboatisrestingatasevereangle.WhetherthisnewsystemwillberetrofittedtotheexistingDSRVsaspartofacomprehensiveoverhaulortoacompletelynewvehicleremainstobeseen.Fornow,though,submarinerescuestillremainsan"iffy"propositionatbest.
Fartherforwardisthesail,whichis,frankly,oneoftheslickestsuchstructureseverbuiltontoaU.S.submarine.UnliketraditionalAmericannuclearsubs,Seawolfhasacurvedfaringblendingthefrontofhersailintothehulltohelpreduceresistanceandflownoise.ItisjustoneofmanylittletouchesdesignedtokeeptheSeawolf-classboatsthequietestevertoroamtheworld'soceans.AsinpreviousAmericanSSNs,thesailcontainsallofthesensormasts,aswellasthecontrolstationforconningtheboatonthesurface.Themast-
mountedsensorsinclude:
*Periscopes:AsinpreviousU.S.submarinedesigns,theSeawolfisequippedwithapairofopticalperiscopemasts.TheseincludebothType8Mod3andType18scopes,ofthesamevarietyasthosedescribedearlieronMiami.*Radar:Toprovidesurfaceandsomelimitedairsearchcapabilities,aBPS-16setisinstalledforoperationsinpoorvisibilityandatnight.*RadioMasts:ApairofAN/BRA-34communicationsmastsareprovidedtosupportthegrowingbandwidthrequirementsforlittoraloperations.*Electronic/SignalsCollectionMasts:Tosupportintelligencecollectionandtacticalsituationalawareness,SeawolfhasanAN/BRD-7/BLD-1mastwiththecollectionheadsfortheWLQ-4(V)1andBLD-1D/Fradarandsignalsreceptionssystems.*TrailingAntenna:Toprovidecommandcueingwhilesubmerged,theSeawolfhasanOE-315trailingwireantennathatcanreceivetransmissionfromtheNavy'sExtremelyLowFrequency(ELF)communicationssystem.
Allthis,alongwiththeimprovedprocessinganddisplaytechnologyoftheBSY-2combatsystem,makesSeawolfatrulyrevolutionarydesign--andjustthink,we'venoteventouchedontheweaponsloadyet!That,too,isamajorimprovementoverthatoftheolder688Is.
Aswecontinuewithour"hullwalk,"you'llprobablynoticealargehatchdirectlyaftofthesailstructure.Thisistheoddlyshapedweaponsshippinghatchandisusedintheslow,monotonousprocessofloadingtorpedoes,weapons,andotherstoresinsidetheboat.Onebyone,eachofthetorpedoes(uptoamaximumloadoffifty)and
otherweaponsmustbebroughtdownintothesubandlaidinthetorpedoroomforstorageintheeventofcombat.TheweaponsloadoftheSeawolf,twicethatoftheFlightILosAngeles-classboats,wasmandatedbythedesiretohaveenoughwarshotstosustainmultipleengagementsduringprolongedwartimeoperations.Togettheseweaponsofftheboatquickly,Seawolfisequippedwitheight26.5-inch/673mmtorpedotubes,thebiggesteverfittedtoanAmericansubmarine.Utilizinganewairturbinepumpsystemtoexpeltheweaponsmorequietlythanearlierwater-rammethods,thenewtubesarealsocapableoflaunchingunmannedsurveillancevehiclesandevendivers,shouldthatbenecessary.Onethingthe688IshadthathasbeendeletedfromtheSeawolfisthebankofVerticalLaunchSystem(VLS)missilelaunchersinthebow.Withherhugeinternalweaponsstowageandeighttorpedotubes,theSeawolfwasconsideredwellenougharmedtoeliminatetheVLStubes.
Aswitheveryotherelementofsubmarinetechnology,tenyearsmakesabigdifferenceinweapons.Sincetheearly1990s,therehavebeensignificantchangesandimprovementstotheweaponscarriedbytheSeawolf-classboats.Firstoff,alloftheUGM-84sub-HarpoonantishipmissileshavenowbeenwithdrawnfromserviceintheU.S.submarinefleet.ThisismostlyduetothefactthateachHarpoontakesupspacethatmightbeusedtoholdamorefrequentlyusedtorpedoorTomahawkcruisemissile,somethingthathasmadethesub-launchedversionoftheseformidableweaponsgothewayofthedodobird.
Whilenotcompletelymakingupforthemid-rangesurfaceshipattackcapabilityaffordedbytheHarpoon,theNavyhasbeenhardatworkimprovingtheirsupplyofMk48ADCAPtorpedoes.ThesenewestmodificationstothealreadyadvancedtorpedoareknownastheADCAPMods5and6.TheMod5changesincludeaguidanceandcontrolmodificationthatimprovestheacousticreceiver,addsmemorytotheinternalcomputer,andallowsthetorpedotohandleincreasedsoftwaredemands.Thesecondmodification,knownasMod
6,includestheTPUorTorpedoPropulsionUnitupgradeandwillprovidetheADCAPwithgreaterspeed,range,anddepth.TheseimprovementstotheMk48swillenabletheweapontobetterconductoperationsinthecoastalzoneswheretheSeawolf-classboatswillbelurkingandworking.
AsailoraboardtheSeawolfoperatesthefirecontroltrackingsystem,whichusesthelatestinruggedtouchscreencontrols.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Asmentionedearlier,oneofthemajormissionsofSSNsinthe1990shasbeenthatoflaunchingBGM-109Tomahawkcruise
missilesagainstenemytargets.Thepreferredversion,knownasBlockIII,hasaGPS-basedguidancesystemaswellasanewwarheadandsatellitetelemetrysystem.TheproblemisthatmanyoftheTomahawksmodifiedtotheBlockIIIstandardwerefiredduringthe1990sinplacesliketheBalkansandSouthwestAsia,andearliervariantslacktheeasymission-planningcapabilitiesofthenewermissiles.Severalplanswereputforthtomodifymoreoftheearlymodelmissilestoaso-calledBlockIVconfiguration,butwouldhavecosttoomuch(over$700,000permissile).
ToprovidebothsurfaceshipsandsubmarineswithenoughofthepreciousTomahawksintothetwenty-firstcentury,abrand-newversion,knownasTacticalTomahawk(TACTOM),isbeingdevelopedbyRaytheon.TACTOMwillincorporateanumberofnewfeatures,includinganewinjectionmoldedplasticairframe,satellitedatalink,andturbojetengine,toreducecosts.Ataround$500,000acopy,thenewmissileswillbeabargaincomparedwithreworkingolderairframes.However,theBlockIIIswillbetheprimaryvariantuntilthemiddleofthedecade,whenTACTOMsshouldbegintoarriveinseriousquantitiesoutinthefleet.
Ifyouduckdowninsidethehatchaftofthesail,atfirstyouwillfeeljustlikeyouhavesteppedintoanyotheradvancedsubmarine.However,movingforwardintothecontrolroom,yourapidlycanseethedifferencesbetweenSeawolfandtheLosAngeles-classboats.Whereolderboatsstillhavealotofconventionaldials,gauges,andotherreadouts,mostofthecriticalcontrolpositionsonSeawolfhavebeenequippedwithredplasmacomputerdisplayswithtouchscreens.Theseallowamuchwiderrangeofcontrolsandgraphicstobefedtooperatorsinthecontrolroomandotherpartsoftheboat,andstandupquitewelltoerrantelbowsandspilledcoffee!
Otherwise,thebasiclayoutofSeawolfisverysimilartothatofMiami,withperhapsabitmoreelbowroomthantheolderboat.Nevertheless,Seawolfstilldoesnothaveallthecreaturecomfortsyou
mightexpectonasubmarinewithover25percentmoreinternalvolumethana688I.TheproblemisthatwhilethereismoreroominsideofSeawolf,therealsoismore"stuff"insideherhull.TheS6Wreactor,whilethesamebasicunitastheoneonthe688Is,nowfeedstwosteamturbinesputtingoutanadditional10,000horsepower.Thisprovidesatotalof40,000shafthorsepower,givingSeawolfatopspeedofaround35knots,ifyoubelievereportsfromtheinitialseatrials.
ThediningareaontheSeawolfduringchowcall.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Theseenginesinturnhavemorequietingmountsandequipment
thanthoseontheLosAngeles-classboats,allofwhichtakeuplotsofspace.VirtuallyeveryotherpieceofmachineryonSeawolfhassimilarquietinggear,whicheatsupalotofvolume.Theresultisthatanumberofthejuniorenlistedpersonnelstillhaveto"hotbunk,"duetoashortageofberthingspace.Thisisashortcoming,whichwillprobablyhaveadownsideinthelongrun,intermsofhabitabilityandpersonnelretention.However,itisthepricethatmustbepaidtomakeSeawolfthequietest,mostdeadlysubmarineintheworld.
TherestofSeawolfismuchlikethatofMiami,thoughputtogetherverydifferently.ElectricBoat,theprimeSeawolfcontractor,designedhertobebuiltwithamodularconstructiontechnique,muchlikethatofNewportNewsinVirginiaandLitton-IngallsinMississippi.16Thismeansthatmoreoftheboatcanbe"stuffed"andfinishedbeforethehullisweldedandfloatedintothewater.ItwouldhavebeeninterestingtoseewhatthiswouldhavedonetoproductioncostsifevenasecondflightofthreeSSN-21shadbeenorderedbyCongress,insteadofproceedingtotheVirginia(SSN-774)classboatsdirectly.Asitis,thesailorsassignedtotheSeawolfandConnecticutconsiderthemselvesveryluckysailorsindeed.BothareinthewaterandassignedtotheAtlanticfleet,startingtomakepatrolsandbeingtestedinexercises.
AcomparisonoftheUSSSeawolf(SSN-21)(top)andtheUSSJimmyCarter(SSN-23)(bottom).Theroughly100foot/30.5metergreaterlengthoftheJimmyCarterwillaccommodatea"plug"toconduct"SpecialProjects"and"Research"missions.RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO
TheJimmyCarter--thethirdandfinalSeawolf--will,however,besomethingverydifferent:atrue"SpecialProjects"boatfromthekeelup.ThebasicSeawolfhullishavinganapproximately100-foot/30.5-meter"plug"addedaftofhersail,withallkindsofroomforberthingofextrapersonnel,stowageofspecialequipmentandsensors,aswellasalargelockoutchamber.ThiswillbebigenoughtoallowthelaunchingofthenewgenerationofUnmannedUnderwaterVehicles(UUVs)beingdevelopedforusebythefleet.Theplanistohaveherinthewaterby2004,whenshewilljoinParche(herselfscheduledforretirementin2006)attheTrident-missilesubmarinebaseinBangor,Washington.JimmyCarterwillbetheultimateexpressionofAmericansubmarineintelligencegathering,thoughjustwhatthatwillmeaninthetwenty-firstcenturyisstillunknown.However,givenwhattheNavy'ssmallforceofspecialprojectsboatsdidduringtheColdWar,theJimmyCarterwillbedoingthingsthatwillsomedaybe
asubjectfornovelists.
TheVirginia(SSN-774)ClassBoats:TheNewGeneration
Inthemid-1990s,whenonlythethreeSeawolf-classboatswereauthorizedforconstruction,theNavyrealizeditclearlyhadaproblemonitshands.Howwasthesubmarineservicetomeetitsquantitativerequirementsforkeepingapproximatelyfiftysubmarinesinthefleet?AttheendoftheColdWar,theU.S.Navyhadagoalof100SSNs(excludingthestrategicmissileboatforce)aspartofa600-shipNavy.Whileneitherofthesegoalswaseverreached,bythelate1980sthesubmarineforcewasvery,veryclosetoachievingitsforcestructuregoals.In1987,forexample,theU.S.Navyattacksubmarineforceconsistedofninety-ninenuclearattackboats.
Allthischangedin1993whenDoDreleasedtheresultsoftheBottom-upReview(BUR),which,attemptingtoalterthemilitarytoapost-ColdWarforce,cutalittletooclosetotheboneforthecomfortofthoseinthesubmarinecommunity.Callingfornewsubmarine-forcelevelsaslowasforty-fivesubmarines,theBURdrasticallychangedthegoaloftheNavy'ssubmarineforceawayfromacquisitionandforceenhancementtowarddrasticcutsandgettingridofoldboats.Theresultingdearthofsubmarineconstructioninthemid-1990smeantthatonlyahandfulofnewboatswerefinished.However,2004promisestobethebestyearinalongwhilefortheU.S.submarineforce.ThatwillbetheyearthefirstVirginia-classSSNsentertheNavyandtheyeartheJimmyCarteriscommissioned.However,ithastakenaveryroughdozenyearseventoseethepromiseof2004forthesubmarinecommunity.
ThecurtailingofSeawolfproductiontojustthreeunitsmeantthattheNavywouldinevitablyhavetodevelopasmaller,morecost-effectivedesignthatwouldbetterfittherolesandmissionssetoutinFromtheSea.Fortunately,aseriesofdesignstudieswasalreadyunderwayatthetime,themostpromisingknownasCenturion.Fromthebeginning,Centurion,whosenamewaschangedseveraltimesbeforeshewasofficiallynamedtheVirginia(SSN-774)class,wasaneasiersellthanwastheSeawolf.TheconceptbehindtheVirginiawastobuildasubmarineasgoodastheSeawolfintheblue-waterenvironment,yetabletoconductoperationsinthelittoralregionsoftheworld.Additionally,VirginianeededtocounterthebiggestdrawbacksofSeawolf--itscostlinesstoproduceandthefactthatitwasbuiltbyasingleyard.ThemonopolyonconstructionoftheSeawolfclassbyElectricBoatrankledthefolksatNewportNewsShipbuilding,andalsotheirpowerfulcongressionaldelegation.
TheinteriorandexteriorlayoutsoftheUSSVirginia(SSN-774)RUBICON,INC.BYLAURADENINNO
CostsdroveVirginia'sdesigntoafargreaterdegreethananysubmarinedesignedfortheU.S.Navy.WhileitpossessedroughlythesamecapabilitiesandquietingasSeawolfinamoreaffordableandmultimissionconfiguration,initialplanscalledfortheclasstobebuiltatanoptimisticrateoftwoorthreeperyear.Originalcostprojectionsaimedforaboatdisplacingroughly6,000tons,costingaroundone-halfthatofSeawolf.
Thehopewas--andstillis--thatthisdesignwilldoforsubmarineswhattherelativelymoderatelypriced,multiroleF/A-18Hornetsdidfornavalaviation.CurrentplanscallfortheVirginiaclasstoconsistofthirtyunits,whichwillbeconstructedatvaryingratesforstaggereddelivery.Thefirstoftheclass,Virginia(SSN-774),willenterservicearound2004;thesecond,namedUSSTexas(SSN-775),willfollowayearlater.Afteraone-yearbreak,thecurrentschedulecallsforUSSHawaii(SSN-776)tojointhefleetin2007,followedbyUSSNorthCarolina(SSN-777)in2008.Whileplansinevitablyfallbythewaysideandarecontinuouslyaltered,thisseemstobeagreatstart.
Atfirst,theideawasthattheNavywouldbuytheVirginiastocomplementratherthansucceedtheSeawolfs.TheresultingbudgetcutsandcostoverrunsontheSSN-21programturnedouttobesosevere,however,thattheNavysawnochoicebuttomoveaheadwithVirginiaafterSeawolfproductionended.TheDoDdirectedin1992thattheNavyshouldholdthecostsofthenewsubmarinedesigntoamaximumof$1billionperboat.TheDoDalsochargedtheNavywithexaminingalternativestothisentirelynewclassofwarship.Thesestartedoffwithabaseline(forcomparisonpurposes)ofcontinuedSSN-21productionatarateofoneperyear.Thealternativesincluded:
*AlowercostvariantoftheSeawolf.*FurtherimprovedversionsoftheLosAngeles(688I)
class.*Thepossibleprocurementofnon-nuclear(i.e.,conventional)submarinesintothefleet.
HymanRickovermusthavebeenturningoverinhisgraveatsuchthoughts,butthenheneverlivedtoseethepost-ColdWarworldofthe1990s!Intheend,theNavystayedcommittedtotheCenturiondesign,thoughnotwithoutalotofpressurefromcriticsandCongress.
In1993,thenameCenturionwasofficiallychangedto"NewAttackSubmarine"andgiventheabbreviationNAS,whichwaslaterchangedtoNSSN(forNewSSN).Thefollowingyear,theNavybegantoprovidethefirstrealcostestimatesontheclass.Theseindicatedthattheleadsubmarine,whichwouldbeauthorizedintheFY98budget,wouldcost$3.4billion,includingnonrecurringresearchanddesigncosts.ThiswasasmuchasSeawolfherself,andsomepeoplewonderediftheNavyshouldhavebuiltmoreoftheSSN-21sinstead.However,theNavystudyindicatedthatadditionalNSSN-classboats,startingwithnumberfive,wouldcostaround$1.54billioninFY98dollars.Whilethiswasstillslightlyhigherthantheprojectedgoal,itwasfarbelowthe$2.8billionforaproductionSeawolf,hadsuchathingeverbeenbuilt.Withtheplannedproductioncostsnowundercontrol,itappearedasifNSSNmightactuallybecomeareality.
Aswithanymultibillion-dollardecision,theconstructionissuesoftheVirginiaclasswerenowbeginningtopointawayfromtheoperationalsideandtowardthefinancialandpoliticalones.Shipbuilding,especiallysubmarinemanufacturing(andparticularlythatofnuclearsubmarines),isafieldthatisespeciallydifficultforanationtomaster.SeveralgenerationsofAmericanshipbuildershavebeentoilingonnuclearsubmarinessinceworkbeganontheprogramundertheleadershipofAdmiralHymanRickover.Ifproductionweretosuddenlyendorshrinktolessthanoneboatperyear,oneofthetwoAmericansubmarinemanufacturers,ElectricBoatorNewport
NewsShipbuilding,wouldinevitablybeforcedtoleavethebusiness.Withtheirpowerfulpoliticalsupporters,bothcontractorsbeganaspiritedcompetitionfortherighttoproducetheNSSNboats.
Longago,Congresshaddeterminedthatitwasinournation'sinteresttomaintainaminimumoftwoshipyardscapableofbuildingnuclearsubmarines.Thisindustrial-base-preservationargumentwasanimportantkeytokeepingSeawolfaliveforthreeboatsandbecameequallyimportanttotheideaofa"teaming"arrangementbetweenthetwoAmericansubmarinemanufacturers.Asaresultofthe1993BUR,DoDconcludedthatitwouldbeill-advisedtoconsolidateallsubmarineconstructionatjustoneshipyard.ThiswasprobablyagooddecisionfortheNavybecauseitpreservedatleastasemblanceofcompetitionbetweenElectricBoatandNNS.Additionally,becausenuclearsubmarinedesignandproductionissocomplicated,itisextremelymanpower-intensive.Therefore,anylossofproductionorastrikeatayardmeantinevitablelayoffsofhighlyskilledworkersatsubcontractors.Ashipyardmightevenbeforcedtocloseitsdoorsforeverifproductionlevelscontinuedtodrop.Thishashappeneddozensoftimestosomeofthebiggestshipyardsinthenation.OneonlyneedrememberthedemiseofgreatnameslikeToddandKaiserontheWestCoasttorealizethatAmericanshipbuildinghangsbyaslenderthreadthesedays.
Howthen,wastheNavytokeepbothsubmarineyardsalivewithsofewsubmarinestobuild?Notsurprisingly,theNavydidn'thavetolooktoofarforhelp.Itcamedirectlyfromthetwoshipbuildersthemselves--ElectricBoatandNewportNews.Thesetwocompaniesknewthatitwasinthenation'sinterests--andtheirown--tosolvethisdilemma.WhichisexactlywhattheydidinDecemberof1996whenElectricBoatandNewportNewsShipbuildingofferedtheNavyadeal.Howwouldthegovernmentlikeitifthetwocompanies"teamedup"andproducedtheVirginiaclasstogether?
ItwasaremarkableofferandonethattheNavycouldnotrefuse.
BothshipbuilderswouldtakeadvantageoftheDigitalDesignDatabaseElectricBoathadusedinconstructingtheSeawolfclass,tohelpkeepdowncostsandkeepqualityup.Additionally,eachyardwouldbuildspecificpartsorsectionsoftheboats,whileeachcompanywouldbuildand"stuff"theirownreactorplantmodules.Thebow,stern,andsailsectionsofallthenewsubswouldbebuiltbyNNS,alongwiththehabitabilityandmachineryspacesandthetorpedoroom.ElectricBoat,astheprimecontractor,would,inturn,constructnearlyallremainingportions,includingtheengineroomandcontrolspaces.Finally,ElectricBoatwouldassemblethefirstandthirdboatswhileNNSwouldhandlethesecondandfourth.
Thecurrentplancallsforteamingononlythefirstfourboats.TheNavy,Congress,andthetworemainingsubmarinebuilderswilleventuallyhavetoexaminewheretheygofromthere.Suchconstructiondecisionsaremomentousindeed.EspeciallywhenyoulookathowlargearoletheVirginiaswillplayintheAmericansubmarineforceofthetwenty-firstcentury.
USSVirginia(SSN-774):AVirtualTour
NowthatyouhaveseenthefutureproductionplansforthisnewclassofSSN,let'stakealookatwhatnewthingstheywillbecapableofaccomplishing.Wehavetodothisinavirtualfashion,astheVirginiasarestillmostly"paper"submarines.Theofficial"keellaying"ofVirginia(SSN-774)onlyoccurredonSeptember2,1999,andshewillnotbedeliveredtothefleetuntil2004.Officially,though,thePentagonhasprovideduswithagreatstartingpointinitsnewpubliccampaignofopennessaboutsubmarineoperationsandweapons.Goneforeverarethedayswhenthe"SilentService"wastrulymutetotheworldoutsideoftheirpressurehulls.
Asonemighthaveguessedforamultimissionboat,theNavyhasbestowedupontheVirginiasnearlyeverypossiblesubmarinemissionunderthesun,whichspeaksvolumesabouttheirversatility.Thesemissions,accordingtothePentagon,includetakingtheenemybycompletesurprisewhileconducting:
*CovertStrikeWarfare:HittinginlandtargetswithTacticalTomahawksandpossiblyfuturebattlefieldsupportmissiles.*AntisubmarineWarfare(ASW):Destroyingenemysubmarineswhileconductingareaunderwatersurveillance.*CovertIntelligenceGatheringandSurveillance:KeepingAmericaneyesonpotentialhotspotsandenemyoperations.*AntisurfaceWarfare(ASUW):Clearingthesea-lanesofenemysurfaceships.*CovertMineWarfare:Laying,detecting,andpossiblyclearingfriendlyandenemynavalminefields.*BattleGroup/AmphibiousGroupSupport:ProtectionandsupportforCarrierBattleGroupsandAmphibiousReadyGroups.*SpecialWarfareSupport:Awholevarietyofclandestinemissions,includingdirectactionraids,reconnaissance,combatsearchandrescue,directingairstrikes,andtacticalintelligencegathering.
WhilethisisjustabrieflistofmissionsVirginiacan"officially"carryout,imaginethepotentialforaclasssuchasthis.ThereareevendiscussionsaboutmakingtheVirginiadesignthebasisforanewclassofSSBNstoreplacetheOhio-classboats,shouldthisberequired.
ThegenerallayoutoftheVirginia-classboatswillnotbeunfamiliartothosewhohavebeenaboardpreviousnuclearattacksubmarines.Inmanyways,sheisaLosAngeles-sizedhullpackedwithsystems
pioneeredbytheSeawolf-classboats.ThebiggestdifferencewithVirginiaisthatflexibilityisthekeyinherdesign.Inaddition,theuseofCommercialOff-The-Shelf(COTS)technologyhasbeenmaximizedinordertoreduceoverallproductioncostsandallowforrapidintegrationofnewsystemsandsoftware.AnotherkeyelementtoreducingproductioncostshasbeentheuseofComputerAidedDesign(CAD)forthisclassofsubmarine.Infact,theVirginiawillbethefirstAmericanwarshipdesignedsolelybycomputer.Inherownway,sheisasmuchofarevolutioninconstructionandsystemsasSeawolfwas,withcontrolledcostmanagementthrownintotighteneveryone'sbeltabit!
We'llstartourbrieflookaroundtheVirginiaattheheartoftheboat'spower.ThenewS9GpressurizedwaterreactorproducessufficientshafthorsepowerforatopspeedonlyslightlylessthanthatofSeawolf.ThisisoneofthefewareaswheredecreasedcosthasbeenallowedtoreduceVirginia'scapability.Thereactorrunstwosteamturbinesgearedtoasingleshaft.Inturn,thisshaftwillconnecttoaveryquietpumpjetpropulsor,similartothosefoundintheBritishTrafalgarsandtheSeawolfs.
Equallyimportantlyfromamaintenancepointofview,Virginia'sreactorwillhavea"lifeoftheship"reactorcore,meaningthereshouldneverbeaneedtoreplacethereactorcore!Thenewreactordesignhasbeensimplifiedand,amazingly,itshouldmatchSSN-21'simpressivequietinglevelswithina25percentsmallervolume.Becausetheoveralldesignhasbeensimplified,fewercomponentsarerequiredandtheVirginiahasfewerpumpsandvalvesthananyofherpredecessors.Thissmallersizeisoneofmanyimprovementsthatallowheroverallsubmergeddisplacementtoremainbelow8,000tons--a1,000-plustonreductionfromthatoftheSeawolfs.
ThehulloftheVirginiaismadefromsimilar-strengthsteelasSeawolf,althoughbecauseofVirginia'slittoral-operationsemphasis,thesteeldoesneedtobeasthickasSeawolf's--providingadditional
costandweightsavings.Thesub'smaneuveringperformancewillalsobeunprecedentedforaboathersize.TheVirginia'scontrolsurfaceswillbepartofadigital"fly-by-wire"shipcontrolcapabilitysimilartothoseusedsoeffectivelyonfighterssuchastheF-16FightingFalconandF/A-18Hornet.ThiseliminatesmuchoftheheavycablingandhydraulicpipingthatrunsthroughoutolderclassesofSSN.
ThoughVirginiaisnotfasterthanSeawolfanddoesnotdivedeeperorevencarryasmanyweapons(onlythirty-eightversusfiftyfortheSSN-21boats),thesefactscanbemisleading.TherealdifferencebetweenthetwosubsliesintheirabilitytoconductoperationsandfightintheNavy'snewhomeofthelittorals.WhilestillabletofightwithmuchofSeawolf'sprowessintheopenoceans,Virginiahasincorporatedspecialweapons,sensors,andothernewequipmentparticularlywellsuitedtohercoastalmissions.
ThesonarsuiteonboardtheVirginiawillincludespecialhigh-frequencyacousticsensorsdesignedtohuntandclassifybothdiesel-electricboatsandthosewithadvancedairindependentpropulsion(AIP)systems.AswithotherSSNs,Virginiawillcarryasphericalactive/passivesonararrayalongwiththeTB-29Thin-LineTowedArrayandtheTB-16Fat-LineTowedArray.VirginiawillalsocarryanewlightweightWAAsystem,specificallyoptimizedtolocatesuper-quietdiesel-electricandAIPsubmarines.Inthelittoralregions,specialattentionwillneedtobedevotedtonavalmines,soVirginiawillhaveahigh-frequencysonarsuitetodetectthedeadly"weaponsthatwait."Thesensorswillincludesail-andchin-(beneaththesonarsphere)mountedarraystoprovidethenewboatswiththeirbest-evermine-detectionand-avoidancecapability.Alongwithhersonarsuite,Virginiawillalsohaveanarrayofsail-mountedsensors,almostidenticaltothatoftheSeawolf-classboats.
Ifthereisonepieceofequipmentmanysubmarinersthoughtwouldneverchange,itwastheold-fashionedperiscope.Well,theNavyhasgotnewsforusperiscopelovers--eventhisinstrumentisinfora
drasticoverallintheVirginiaclass.ForthefirsttimeanentireclassofU.S.submarinesisbeingfittedwithoutalltheprisms,mirrors,andlensesfoundintheoldopticalperiscopes.Intheirplacewillbetwonon-hull-penetrating"photonicsmasts,"whichwillconsistofanumberofhigh-resolutionvisualsensorsthattransmitvisualimagesbacktolargedisplayscreensfittedwithintheboat.Inadditiontoacolortelevisionpickup,thereisalsoanadvancedthermalandlow-lightimagingsystem.Thephotonicssystemwillalsocontainalaserrangefinder,somethingthatwillcomeinhandywhileworkingintheclose-incoastalregions.Bestofall,astheirnameindicates,thesemastsdonotpenetratethemainpressurehull,makingonelessweakspotforwatertoleakthroughintheeventofbattledamageorapackingfailure.
Thearrangementofsensorandcommunicationsmastsontheconningtower/sailofUSSVirginia(SSN-774).RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO
Inaddition,whentheVirginiafirstentersservicein2004,shewilllikelybefittedwiththenewAN/BLQ-11ALong-termMineReconnaissanceSystem(LMRS).TheLMRSsystemisbasicallyateamofUUVs(UnmannedUnderwaterVehicles),with21-inch/553mmdiameter(sotheyfitinthetorpedotubes),thatswimout
andhuntfreelyformines.TheseUUVswillnotbeconnectedtoVirginiabyafiber-opticcable,aswereearliermodels.Instead,theywilluseatwo-wayacousticdatalink.TheUUVscanbelaunchedandrecovered(viaaroboticarminoneofthetorpedotubes)fromVirginia'storpedotubesandwilldetectandclassifyminesprimarilyofthebottomandmooredvariety.AstheLMRSprogramcontinuestomature,additionalimprovements,suchasunderwatermappingandbeachreconnaissance,willprobablybeaddedtothisrevolutionaryUUVsystem.
Overall,theVirginiaswillhaveaweapons-storagecapacityremarkablysimilartothatoftheSeawolf-classboats.WhileVirginialackstheSeawolf'sabilitytocarryfiftyweaponsinternally(Virginiawillonlyhavefour21-inch/533mmtorpedotubes),shemakesupforitbyhavingtwelveVLStubeslikethoseonthe688Is.ThismeansthatVirginiawillhavetheabilitytocarryatotalofthirty-eightweapons(twenty-sixinternally),includingTomahawkcruisemissiles,Mk48ADCAPtorpedoes,UUVs,andmines,tonamejustafewpossibilities.
OneotherkeyelementoftheVirginia'swar-fightingsuiteisgoingtobeherabilitytooperateinthespecialoperationsrole.Similartomanyofthenewersubmarinescomingoutoftheyardsinthenextseveralyears(mostnotablytheJimmyCarter[SSN-23])theVirginiaswillbecapableofcarryingaDryDockShelterandthenewAdvancedSEALDeliverySystem(ASDS).TheASDSisasmallmini-submarine65feet/21.7meterslongand9feet/2.75meterswide.Thistinysubisfittedwithaforward-lookingandside-lookingsonartodetectnaturalandman-madeobjectsandconductmine-detectionandbottom-mappingoperations.Inaddition,theASDShastwomasts--oneaperiscopeandtheotherforcommunicationsandGPSnavigation.TomakelifeeasierfortheSEALsandotherspecialoperationsunitsthatmightbecarried,thetorpedoroomonboardtheVirginiaswillbeeasytoreconfigure.Ifneedbe,thecenterweapons-
stowagestructurescanberemovedinordertomakeroomforspecialmissionpersonnel,whethertheybetechnicians,SEALs,ortroops.Thesepersonnelwillhaveaccesstoanunusualnine-manlock-in/lockoutchamberinadditiontotheuseoftheASDSand/ordrydockshelter.
Withalltheseextrabodiesonboard,onebeginstoaskthenextquestion:hassubmarinehabitabilityimprovedinthepasttenyears?Unfortunately,advancesintechnologynotwithstanding,theanswerislikelytobeno.Submarineshavealwaysbeensocrammedwithequipmentthatitappearsattimesasifthedesignersforgottoincludethesailors!Fortunately,numerousspace-savingfeatureshavebeenincludedintheVirginiaclass.ThecurrentmanningfiguresappeartobeinthesameneighborhoodastheLosAngelesandSeawolfclasses--around120enlistedandchiefs,alongwith14officers.WiththesignificantlysmallersizeoftheVirginias,thislargecomplementcouldposeaproblem.However,themanningnumbersmayendupdroppingsignificantlyasaresultoftheuseoftheNavy'snew"Smart-Ship"technology.17
AlreadytheNavyisplanningonusingthismanpower-savingtechnologytoreducefifteencrewwatchstandersfromthecontrolroomofVirginia.Thistechnologywillallowtheboat'sadvancedcontrolsystemtobeoperatedbyapilot,copilot,andreliefpilot,therebyreplacingthedivingofficer,chiefofthewatch,helmsman,planesman,andmessengerofprevioussubmarineclasses.Itistechnologiessuchasthesethatwillinevitablybringdownthenumberofsailorstoamore"comfortable"level.Alas,asanysubmarinerknows,assoonastheygetmoreroominasub,designerswilladdmoregadgets,notmoreracks!
Well,nowthatwe'vetakenalookattheVirginia,it'sprettyapparentthataboatlikethiscanbeusedforvirtuallyanymissiontheNavymightrequire.Whetherit'sCVBGsupportintheAegean,monitoringanembargoorcommunicationsinthePersianGulf,deliveringSOF
unitsinAfrica,orhuntingenemysubmarinesandshipsanywhereelse,Virginiaisoneclassofsubmarinethatshouldbeabletodoitall!NowAmericajustneedstobuildthem,whichmaybethebiggestchallengeofall.
TheBritishA-Class(Astute)Boats
WhiletheUnitedStatesNavywasgoingthroughitspost-ColdWar"shrinkingpains,"whatwashappeningtotheRoyalNavy(RN)ofourclosestmilitaryally,theUnitedKingdom?Well,youcanrestassuredthattheRNsubmarineforcewasgoingthroughsomeequallypainfulexperiencesofitsown!LiketheUnitedStates,theBritishwereinthemiddleofplanningforthefutureoftheColdWarwhentheSovietUnionthrewinthetowelattheendof1991.YouwouldhavethoughtthatwhentheBerlinWallfell,itlandedrightontopoftheAdmiraltyinLondon.Aslateas1987,theBritishhadbeendiscussinganewclassofattackboattobeginreplacingtheSwiftsure-class(S-126)SSNs.In1987,VickersShipbuildingandEngineering(VSEL),LTD,wonacontracttobegindesigninganew"W"class,alsoknownasSSN-20,andwastostartconstructioninthemid-1990s.ThisnewsubmarinewassimilarindesignandconcepttotheAmericanSeawolf,largeandoptimizedforblue-water/open-oceanoperations.
The1990sweretohavebeenoneofthebusiestandmostaggressivedecadesforBritishsubmarinedevelopment.However,whiledesignworkontheSwiftsure'sreplacementcontinuedatVSEL,theRNwasalsointhemidstofreplacingitsResolution-class(S-22)ballisticmissilesubmarineswithavauntednewgroupofSSBNsknownastheVanguard(S-28)class.Whilethesetrulyawesomeboatswereinproduction,readyingfortheircommissioning,theUpholder-class(S-40)SSKswerealsoscheduledtocomeintoserviceduringwhatwould
turnouttobeoneoftheworstpossibletimesimaginable.Thisclass,consistingofUpholder(S-40),Unseen(S-41),Ursula(S-42),andUnicorn(S-43),werecommissionedintoservicebetween1990and1993,butby1992thedecisionwasmadetodecommissionallfourofthebrand-newSSKsasacost-cuttingmeasure.
TheUpholderboatswereeventuallyleasedtoCanada,but1992wasaparticularlydarktimefortheRoyalsubmarinefleet.Alsointhatyear,theentireSSN-20/W-classprojecttoreplacetheSwiftsurewascanceledwithVSEL.Withinmonths,however,aseedofhopewasplantedwhentheRNandMinistryofDefense(MoD)realized(asdidtheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates)thatcostandnotadvancedblue-wateroperationalcapabilitieswasgoingtobethedrivingfactorforgettinganewclassofSSNsordered.Oncethisfactbecameapparent,priorityswitchedfromanewclassofsubmarinestoanimprovedversionofthealreadyprovenTrafalgar(S-107)classSSNs.
Britishsubmarinedesignerswereaskedtosubmitaplanforalessexpensivegenerationofsubmarinesthanhadoriginallybeenenvisioned.ThisnewsubmarinewastovaryonlyminimallyfromthepreviousTrafalgar-classSSNs.Theboats,whichsoontookonthenameBatch2TrafalgarclassorB2TC,begantolooklikearealitywhenarequestforbidswasissuedtobothVSELandcompetitorGEC-MARCONIinJulyof1994.GECendedupwinningthiscontract,whichcalledforconstructionofthreeboatswiththeoptionformoreasdeemednecessaryandaffordablebytheMoD.
Initialprogresswasnotexactlyrapid,ascomplexdefenseconsolidationissuesstalledeffortstofinalizethecontract.ThefirstactualordersfortheB2TCboatswereplacedinMarchof1997.ThePS2billioncontractcalledforthreenewboats,HMSAstute,Ambush,andArtful.Finally,theB2TCshadarealname--the"A"orAstuteclassofnuclear-poweredattacksubmarines.ThecurrentoutlookfortheAstuteclassisexcellent,basedonboththeneedsoftheRoyalNavyandthedesignexpertiseofthemanufacturer.Thekeelofthe
AstuteherselfwasofficiallylaiddowninJanuary2001.Thankfully,MoDsupporthascontinuedunabatedforAstute.Infact,itwasannouncedinJuly1998thattheRoyalNavywouldgettwomoreAstutes,foraclasstotaloffiveboats.Thoughthesetwomostrecentboatshaveyettobenamed,youcanbetthattheirfutureswillbefullofadventure.
WhilethebusyprocessoffindingasuitablereplacementfortheSwiftsureswasunderway,anequallycomplexdanceofconsolidationwasgoingonwithintheBritishdefenseandshipbuildingindustries.In1994,GEC-MarconimadeanoffertobuyVSEL,whichhadbeenworkingontheoriginalW-class/Swiftsurereplacementdesigns.Thefollowingyear,BritishAerospacealsomadeanofferforVSEL,butintheendVSELacceptedtheGEC-Marconioffer--thoughonlyaftertheyhadsuccessfullyraisedtheaskingpriceseveralhundredmillionpounds!Asyoumightimagine,thiscausedconsiderableconsternation,asVSELhadbeenindirectcompetitionagainstGEC-MarconitobuildthenewAstutes.Theseissueswerefinallyresolved,however,andallwasquietonthesubmarineindustrialfrontforseveralmoreyears.Thislasteduntil1999,whenitwasannouncedthatBritishAerospacewasmergingwithGEC-Marconi.ThismeantthatBritishAerospacenowtookoverconstructionofthenewAstutes.Indoingso,andasaresultofitsmergerwithGEC-Marconi,BritishAerospaceofficiallychangeditsnametoBAESystemsandcontinuedwithAstute'sconstruction.Becauseofthis,HMSAstute'sprimecontractorhasbeenreferredtoasVSEL,GEC-Marconi,BritishAerospace,andBAESystems.Thefreemarketofthe"NewWorldOrder"--whatacrazyworldwelivein!
Nowlet'swalkdownthegangplankandtakeavirtuallookinsidethisnewwarship.TheA-classboatswillbebasedonadesignconceptsimilartothatoftheVirginiaclass.Thatistosay,theAstuteswillneedtomaintainthecapabilitytofightinnearlyeveryunderwaterenvironment,fromtheopenoceanoftheAtlantictothelittoralzones
offthePersianGulf,allwhilekeepingcostsdownandweaponsloadsandcapabilitiesup.FromprotectionoftheBritishhomelandtofar-offTLAMattacks,themissionsofAstuterequirethatshecontainonlythebestelectronicsandweaponsavailable.
OneofthebiggestdifferencesbetweenTrafalgarandAstuteisthesizeoftheboats'hulls.Astutewilldisplacearound7,000tonssubmergedand6,390tonssurfacedcomparedwith5,208tonsand4,740tonsfortheTrafalgar-classSSNs.Muchofthistonnage,alongwithAstute'slongerlength(318feet/97meterscomparedwith279feet/85metersoftheT-classboats--anincreaseofmorethan36feet/10meters!),canbeattributedtothenewerboat'slargerweaponsloadout.WheretheTrafalgar-classboatscarriedatotaloftwenty-fiveweapons,thenewwarshipswillbeabletoholdthirty-six(atleastthat'sthenumberofficiallybeingclaimed).Theywillbefiredbysixtorpedotubesversusthefiveintheearlierclass.SomeconsiderationwasgiventoprovidingtheAstute-classSSNswithaVLSsystem,butinlightofcostconstraints,thenewboats'warloadwasdeemedsufficient.
AnotherkeyupdateincludedinAstutehasbeenherreactorplant.Astute'spowerplantwasoriginallydevelopedfortheVanguard-classSSBN.DesignatedPWR2,itwillbebuiltbyRolls-Royceandisratedat15,000shafthorsepower.However,theAstuteversionissignificantlymoreadvancedthantheearliervariants,andsomepressreportsspeculatethatthenewpowerplantiscapableofcirclingtheglobeliterallyscoresoftimeswithoutasinglerefueling.Reportedlythereisalifetimereactorcoredesign(knownasan"H"core)thatwillgiveittwenty-five-tothirty-yearservicelife.AccordingtotheRoyalNavysubmarinefleet'scurrentplan,bythetimerefuelingisneeded,thefirstAstutewillhopefullyberestingherkeelonthefrontporchofasubmarineretirementcommunity!
Lastbutcertainlynotleast,Astute'spropulsionsystemswouldnotbecompletewithoutthetwoturbineswithasingleshaftconnectedto
thenowstandard(andveryquiet)pumpjetpropulsor.Ofcourse,quietingisthemostimportantcharacteristicforsubmarinesurvivalinahostileenvironmentthesedays,andAstute'simprovedreactorwillbesignificantlyquieterthanTrafalgar's.Asawhole,Astutewillbecapableofoperatingnotjustinlittoralandblue-waterregions,butalsoinsuchvariedclimatesasthosethatarefoundunderthearcticiceorinthewarmwatersofthetropics.
Inthecontrolroomofsubmarineseverywhere,processingandcomputerpowerhasalsobeenincreasingatanastoundingratefordecadesnow.Thusanynewclassofboats,evenimprovedmodelssuchasAstute,willhaveitsshareofbothupdatedlegacysystemsalongwithnewgadgetsandsensors.RadarandsonarsystemsfortheAstuteswillbeessentiallythesameunitsaswerefoundintheTrafalgars,albeitwithsomeimprovements.ItnowappearsthattheAstuteswillbefittedwiththesameType2076sonarsystem,whichhasalreadybeensuccessfullyintegratedintothemostrecentTrafalgar-classboats.ItisalsoallbutcertainthattheAstutewillbefittedwithtowedarraysonar,ashaveherpredecessors,althoughthespecificvariantandconfigurationhaveyettobeannounced.Finally,currentplanscallfortheAstuteclasstocontainherownnon-hull-penetrating"optronics"mastswithall-electronicdisplays,minusthelenses,mirrors,andprismsoftraditionalperiscopes.ThesearesimilartothosethatwillbecarriedonVirginiaandwilllikelyprovidesomebrand-newcapabilitiesandchallengesforthePerisher-trainedskippersoftheRN.
Whatisasubmarinewithoutitsweapons?RNattacksubmarineshavenowbeenfittedwithBlockIIITomahawkcruisemissiles,andastheworldlearnedduringNATO'sOperationAlliedForcein1999,RoyalNavysubmarinescanshootalotofthem,too!HMSSplendidlaunchedmorethantwodozenagainstheavilydefendedSerbiantargets,asizableportionofthelimitedsupplypurchasedfromtheU.S.WhenAstuteentersserviceinJune2005,shewillbeequipped
withasizablecomplementofTLAMs,andtheRoyalNavyisalsolookingatdevelopmentofatube-launchedversionoftheTACTOMmissilecurrentlyunderdevelopmentfortheU.S.Navy.Landattackmissilesaside,Astutealsohastherequirementtoengagesurfaceshipsandothersubmarines.Forthismission,Astute'ssixtorpedotubeswillbecompatiblewithboththeRNversionofthesea-skimmingUGM-84Block1CHarpoonmissile(forattacksagainstsurfacevessels)andthefast,albeitexpensive,wire-guidedSpearfishtorpedo(foruseagainstbothsubmarinesandsurfaceships).Minescanalsobecarriedandmayhaveaparticularuseinthelittoralregions.
Habitabilityandsustainabilityarealwayskeyissuesonanuclearsubmarine.Whenjudgingasubmarinewiththecapabilityofspendingextendedperiodsoftimeawayfromportandbeneaththesurface,habitabilitymustalwaysbetakenintoconsideration.Currentplanscallforacrewoftwelveofficersandninety-sevenenlistedsailorsaboardAstute.WhileincreasedsizehasledtotheimprovementofsomeaccommodationscomparedwiththeTrafalgars,someAstutesailorswillstillprobablyhavetohotbunkwiththeirshipmates.Thispracticewillberequiredforonlythemostjuniorofhersailors,sincecurrentestimatescallforthesharingofaroundeighteenofthecrewbunks.
AlloftheimprovementsandmodernizationsbuiltintotheAstuteswillbecomearealitywhenthefirstoftheclassiscommissionedintoservicein2006,followedbyAmbushin2007andArtfulin2008.Asmentionedearlier,itnowappearsthatatleasttwoadditionalA-classboatswillbebuilt,andpossiblyevenmore,thoughthesehaveyettobenamedorofficiallyordered.
WhatcomesnextfortheRoyalNavy'ssubmarineforce?WorkhasalreadybegunonasubmarinetoreplacetheinitialsevenTrafalgarboats.Theboatsaresofarunnamed,butwhatisknownisthattheywillbenuclearpoweredandhaveasubmergeddisplacementofbetween5,000and8,000tons.Theywillalsobefittedwitha"lifeof
theboat"nuclearreactor,similartothosefoundintheAstutesandVirginias.Inaddition,VLStubesmaybefittedtothisnextclasstoallowforanincreasedloadoutofTomahawkBlockIIIorTACTOMlandattackmissiles.AswiththeVirginias,anynewattacksubmarinetheRoyalNavybuildswilllikelyhaveprovisionsforUUVs.ThereiseventalkthattheAstuteswillbethelastmannedsubmarinetoenterservicewiththeRoyalNavy,somethingthatrequiresmorethanaminorleapoffaithandvisioninthefutureoftechnology.Intheend,though,therealstrengthoftheRNSSNforcewillbewhatitalwayshasbeen--superblytrainedcrewsandPerisher-qualifiedskippers,abletooutguessandoutguntheirenemies.
Conclusions:TowardtheUnknown
Yes,adecadereallydoesmakeadifference.Tenyearsagoweaskedwhatthenextdecadeofsubmarinedevelopmentwouldbelike.Well,afterreadingthislastchapter,youcanseethatquestionhasclearlybeenanswered.Fortunately,theworldhasalsolearnedsomelessonsaboutthenatureofnavalwarfarealongtheway.Mostimportantly,we'velearnedthatifthere'sonethingwecan'tpredict,it'sthefuture!NoonecouldhaveaccuratelypredictedtheendoftheColdWar,andlikewisenoonewilleverbeabletoaccuratelypredictexactlywhatthenextgenerationofsubmarineoperationsandmissionswillbelike.
Wedoknowthatthepasttenyearsofsubmarineoperationshaveconsistedoftheunexpected.FromOperationDesertStormtoourNavy'sinvolvementintherecentNATOactionsintheBalkans,theonethemethathasremainedthesamethroughoutthe1990shasbeendoingmorewithless.ThesubmarinecommunitiesoftheU.S.andRoyalnavies,alongwiththoseofourotherallies,havehadtheirbudgetscut,theirsubmarinesretiredfromservice,andtheircrews
downsized,allwhilebeingaskedtoconductmoreactivitiesandoperationsthanatanytimeinrecentmemory.AllthishasbeenhappeningwhilehighlycapablesubmarinessuchastheProject877/Kilo-classboatshavebeenenteringthenaviesof"rogue"nationsatafargreaterpacethannewclassessuchasSeawolf,Virginia,andAstutewillbeenteringours.
What'sthesolutiontothisproblem?Intoday'shigh-threatenvironment,wherewedon'thavethebenefitoflookinginaspecificdirectiontowatchforflyingbullets,wemustbepreparedforeverycontingency.Andweare.AquicklookatAmerica'smodernsubmarineforceshowsthat.They'reoutthereonpatrolforthenation,inthebackyardsofourenemiesandcompetitors--literallyontheirdoorstepdayinanddayout--alreadypreparedforanycontingency.Whetherit'saTLAMstrikeagainstafutureenemynationoraspecialoperationsrescuemissionlaunchedfromthedepthsofasubmarinedrydockshelter,thesailorsoftoday'ssubmarinefleetaredoingtheirbesttostaypreparedforanyemergency.Andforthatweowethemourrespect.
Gettingbacktoourfirstquestion,whatexactlydoesthefutureholdforthesubmarineforce?Thetruthis,wedon'tknow.MaybetheVirginiasandtheAstuteswillbethelastmannedsubmarinestheU.S.andBritainwilleverbuild,eventuallytobereplacedbyadvancedunmannedsubmersibles.Orperhapsourfleetswillbecomemoreandmoresubsurface-centricasthesurfaceshipbecomesincreasinglyvulnerabletoantishipmissilesandotherweapons.Wejustdon'tknowyetwhatthefutureholds.However,whateveritmaybe,ournation'ssubmariners(hopefullyalongwiththoseofourallies)willbeonpatrol,readytodefendournationalinterestintimesoftroubleandthreat.Canweaskforanythingmore?
OtherPeople'sSubmarines
Itissomethingofanodditythatinaworldwherethenumbersandsizesofmilitaryforcesaredecreasing,submarinescontinuetobebuilt.Infact,whileitisnotquiteagrowthindustry,productionofdiesel-electricsubmarinesiscontinuinginanumberofcountriesandyardsworldwide.Inaddition,thosecountriesthathavethecapabilitytobuildnuclearsubmarinesarefightingdesperatelytomaintaintheindustrialbasetodoso.Whilethenationsoftheworldhavebeendownsizingtheirownsubmarineforces,theyhavealsobeentryingtomarkettheproductsoftheirbuildingyardstodevelopingcountriesthatdesireanentryintotheworldofsubmarinecapabilities.
Italsoisratherironicthatwhilethenumberofsubmarinesintheworldhasdecreasedradically,theoverallqualityandageoftheremainingboatshasimproved--ratherastrangesituationforthosewhosuggestthatpeacehasbrokenoutaroundtheworld.Thus,anyonechoosingtohuntothersubmarinesisfacingtherealitythatthetaskisprobablygettingtougher.Inaddition,nationsthataregenerallyconsideredasoutlaws(likeIranandAlgeria)areobtaininganumberofnewproductiondiesel-electricboats.ThisproliferationmeansthattheUnitedStatesandouralliesmayhavetohuntenemysubsinplaceswehavenevergonebefore.TherecentdeploymentoftheUSSTopeka(SSN-754)tothePersianGulf,atthesametimethefirstoftheIranianKilo-classboatswasbeingdelivered,isprobablynotacoincidence.Evenmoreinteresting,though,wouldhavebeentoseeifanotherU.S.boat,perhapsevenanother688I,wasinvisiblytrailingtheKiloonitsdeliverytrip.
Thesectionthatfollowsisacompendiumofthemoremodernsubmarines,bothnuclearandconventionallypowered,thatmightface
theU.S.subforce.Someofthem,likethoseoftheUnitedKingdomandFrance,areoperatedbynationsthatareconsideredallies.Others,likethoseoftheRussianNavyandtheclientsoftheGermansandtheFrench,mightstillposeathreattotheforcesalliedwiththeUnitedStates.Thisshouldnotbeconsideredalistofeverysingleboatintheworld,however.Forthat,IdefertoA.D.Baker'sincomparablebiannualwork,CombatFleetsoftheWorld(NavalInstitutePress,Annapolis,Md.).
Forthebenefitofthereader,thefollowingexplanationsofthetermsusedisprovided:
Classname:Nameofthefirstboatoftheclassorbuildingprogram
Producer(country/manufacturer):Countryoforiginandproductionsite
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):Surfacedandsubmergedinlongtons(2,240lbsper)
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:Bowtostern;Beam:Sidetoside;Draft:Tokeel
Armament:Numberoftubes/launchersandweapons
Machinery:Powerplant(s),numberofscrews,propellerblades,andshafthorsepower(SHP)
Speed(knots):Maximum
Numberinclass:Inservice+building+planned
Users:AllcountriescurrentlyusingComments:Somethoughtsandfeaturesoftheclass
Russia/CommonwealthofIndependentStates
Whilethe"evilempire"oftheSovietUnionmaybedead,thenavybuiltbytheUSSRisaliveandstilluseful.Despitehavingsufferedthebreakupofthenationitwasdesignedtoserve,andhavingscrappedoverhalfofallitswarships,theRussianNavyisstilloneofthemostpowerfulfightingforcesafloat.Theystilldeploysomethinglike240submarinesofvarioustypes,aswellasalargearrayofsurfaceships.AndwhiletheRussianNavyanditsCISbrotherservicesaresufferingfromashortageofalmosteverything,themissileboatsarestillmakingtheirdeployments,withtheattackboatsstillsupportingtheminthebastions.
ThebigchallengefortheRussiansubmarineforce,likeeveryoneelse,issurvivingthepresenttomoveontothefuture.Theirfirstproblemis,ofcourse,howtomaintaintheirexistingforceofattack,guidedmissile,andballisticmissilesubmarines.ThisproblemhasbeenmadeextremelydifficultbythefinancialtroublesoftheRussianRepublic,thoughtheyhavemanagedtoholdthingstogetheruntilnow.Anotherproblemisthefleetofagedsubmarines(manyofthemnuclearpowered)thattheyhave.TherecentnewsphotographofanabandonedRussiansubmarinepokingitsbowthroughthewinterpackiceinVladivostokisachillingstatementontheinabilityoftheRussianstodealwiththisproblem.Clearly,justhowtodisposeofover150obsoletenuclearsubmarinesisaproblemthatwillrequirethehelpoftheUnitedStatesandherallies.
Asforthefuture,onlyeventswilltellusthat.TheonethingthatdoesseemcertainisthattheRussianswillcontinuedevelopmentofsubmarinesandtheirrelatedtechnology.Whilemanyofthedesignbureausforaircraftandtanksareindesperatetrouble,therearecontinuingreportsthattheyarestillfunnelingtheirlimitedmilitaryR&Dfundsintodesignsfornewerandquietersubmarines.Themost
likelyprojectsforsuchresearchwillprobablybeareplacementfortheDeltaIVSSBNs,anewSSNderivedfromthehighlysuccessfulAkula-classboats,andpossiblyanewdiesel-electricdesigntoreplacetheKiloandsupportexportsales.ThereplacementSSBNmakessenseinlightofthenewSTARTarmsagreements,whichhavetheRussiansplacingoverhalftheirdeliverablenuclearwarheadsonsubmarine-launchedmissiles.Andjustasobviously,theAkulaandKiloreplacementswillbeneededtoprotectthoseSSBNsandmaintainthecredibilityoftheCISnucleardeterrent.
Overall,thisisamajorreductionfromseveralyearsago,whentheR&Deffortwasprobablytwotothreetimesthissize.RumorhadtheRussiansworkingonreplacementsfortheOscar-classSSGNs,theTyphoonSSBNs,theSSNsoftheSierraclass,andevenaRubis-sizedSSNforexporttotheIndianNavy.Allofthisthoughisbasedonwhatweseehappeningtoday.AndasanyhonestwatcherofRussianmilitarytrendswilltellyou,thecrystalballiscloudyandthetealeavesunreliablewheretheyareconcerned.Intheend,itwillprobablycomedowntowhetherBorisYeltsincanholdthingstogetherlongenoughforanactualtrendtodevelop.Sohereitisasoftoday.
VictorIII.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
RussianVictorIIInuclear-poweredattacksubmarineunderway.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Classname:VictorIII(Project671RTM)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/RussianAdmiralty;Komsomolsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,900/6,000
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:341.1/104Beam:32.8/10Draft:23/7Armament:Four650mmandtwo533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingonetandem8-bladedscrew;30,000SHP
Speed(knots):30(submerged)Numberinclass:26
Users:Russia
Comments:WhileitsoonwillbetheoldestclassofSSNintheRussianinventory,theVictorIIIisstilladangerousandcapableopponent.Wellarmedandrelativelyquiet(roughlysimilartotheSturgeonclass),thisboatwasthefirstSovietSSNcapableofmatchingWesternboats.Thesternpod,firstfoundonVictorIIIs,isnowafeatureofeverymodernRussianSSN;itcontainsapassivetowedarraysonarsystem.
Akula.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
RussianAkula-classnuclear-poweredattacksubmarineunderway.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Classname:Akula(Russian:Barsclass)(Project971)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk,Komsomolsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):7,500/10,000
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:370.6/113Beam:42.6/13Draft:32.8/10
Armament:Four650mmandfour533mmtorpedotubeswith30+weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;45,000SHP
Speed(knots):35(submerged)
Numberinclass:7+?Users:Russia
Comments:Whenwesternsubmarinershavenightmares,theyusuallyrevolvearoundthisclassofSSN.AkulaisthequietestSSNyetproducedbyRussiaandrepresentsaboatintheclassofaFlightILosAngeles.Probablyutilizesaraftsoundisolationsystemtokeepnoisedown.ReportedlythelastremainingRussianSSNclassstillinproduction.PresidentYeltsinhasannouncedthattheKomsomolskshipyard,locatedinthefareast,isgoingtobeconvertedtocivilianproductionby1995or'96.Afterthat,onlytheSeverodvinskshipyard,locatedintheKolaPeninsula,willproducesubmarinesfortheRussianNavy.
Sierra.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Aerialview,RussianSierra-classnuclear-poweredattacksubmarineunderway.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Classname:SierraI/II(Russian:Barrakudaclass)(Project945Aand945B)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/KrasnayaSormova
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):SierraI--6,050/7,600;SierraII--6,350/7,900
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:351/107or367.4/112Beam:41/12.5Draft:24.3/7.4
Armament:Four650mmandtwo533mmtorpedotubeswithanestimated30weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;45,000SHP
Speed(knots):35(submerged)
Numberinclass:2/1+1Users:Russia
Comments:TheevolutionarydescendantoftheAlfa,theSierraisatitanium-hulledfollow-ontothepreviousclassesofSovietSSNs.Veryquietandwellarmed,ithasbeenovershadowedbythehighlysuccessfulsteel-hulledAkula-classboats.Reportedly,oncethelastSierraIIiscompleted,KrasnayaSormovawillconverttocivilianshipproduction.
CharlieII.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
RussianCharlie-classnuclear-poweredcruisemissilesubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Classname:CharlieII(Project670M)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/KrasnayaSormova
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,300/5,500
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:337.8/103Beam:32.8/10Draft:26.2/8
Armament:EightSS-N-9sinexternaltubes;six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone5-bladedscrew;15,000SHP
Speed(knots):24(submerged)
Numberinclass:6Users:Russia
Comments:TheseboatsmaypossiblybetheoldestguidedmissilesubmarinesthatwillberetainedbyRussia.Relativelynoisy,buttheycanstillpackapowerfulpunchwiththeirbatteryofSS-N-9Sirenantishipmissiles.
Oscar.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:OscarI/II(Russian:Granite/Anteyclasses)(Project949&949A)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):OscarI--13,900/16,700;Oscar;II--15,000/18,000
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:478.9/146or505.1/154Beam:59/18Draft:32.8/10
Armament:Twenty-fourSS-N-19sinexternaltubes;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo7-bladedscrews;90,000SHP
Speed(knots):33(submerged)
Numberinclass:2/7+Users:Russia
Comments:Oscarcarriesthenicknameof"Mango"forhersizeandfirepower.ShealsoisasquietasSierraandcarriesthesamesonarsystem,includingatowedarrayfromthetubeontopoftherudder,astheSierra-classboats.With24SS-N-19Shipwreckheavyantishipmissilesandafullarrayoftorpedoes,thisisthelargestandmostheavilyarmedattacksubmarineintheworld.Probablycapableoftakingoneormoretorpedohitsandstillsurviving.
Classname:FourthgenerationSSN(Akulafollow-on)(Project:?)
Producer(country/manufacturer):
Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]10,000(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)
Armament:Sixtoeight650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswith30+weapons
Machinery:PWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;?SHP
Speed(knots):[?]30-35(submerged)
Numberinclass:?
Users:RussiaComments:IftheRussianschoosetocontinueSSNproduction,theywillprobablybasethefourth-generationdesignontheirformidableAkulaclass.Intermsofcapability,thisboatwillprobablybetheequalofa688Iintermsofquieting,andwillhaveimprovementsinsonar,computers,andweapons.Shouldadecisionbemadetoproduceit,thefirstboatwillprobablybecommissionedsomewhereinthe2003-2005timeframe.
Typhoon.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Typhoon-classballisticmissilesubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO
Classname:Typhoon(Russian:Akulaclass)(Project941)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):18,500/25,000
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:560.9/171Beam:78.7/24Draft:41/12.5
Armament:TwentySS-N-20SLBMs;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswithanestimated24weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwoshrouded7-bladedscrews;90,000SHP
Speed(knots):25(submerged)
Numberinclass:6Users:Russian-operatedbutunderCIScontrol
Comments:Theworld'sbiggestsubmarine,pureandsimple.TheTyphoonseemstohavebeendesignedasadirectcountertotheOhio-classSSBNs.Shecarries20equallyhugeSS-N-20(RSM-52)Sturgeonsubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.EssentiallytwoDeltaIVpressurehullsslappedtogether,withadditionalspacesfortorpedotubesandstorageandshipcontrol,thismonsterofthedeepisequippedforlong-termoperations,particularlyintheArcticareas.Becauseofitsdoublehullandmassivebulk,tosinkitwithjustasingleheavytorpedohitwouldbenearlyimpossible.TheRussianscallthisbeastAkula.
DeltaIV.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:DeltaIV(Russian:Del'finclass)(Project667BRDM)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):10,800/13,500
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:537.9/164Beam:39.4/12Draft:28.5/8.7Armament:SixteenSS-N-23SLBMs;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo7-bladedscrews;50,000SHP
Speed(knots):24(submerged)Numberinclass:7
Users:Russian-operatedbutunderCIScontrol
Comments:AdirectdescendantofthehighlysuccessfulDeltaIIISSBNs,theDeltaIVwasoriginallyseenasa"justincase"programshouldtheTyphoonsnotperformasdesired.UnveiledinthelightoftheSTARTIIworld,thisformidabledesignhasbeenseenforwhatitis,averycapableandquiet
SSBNabletosustainlongoperations,evenintheArcticregions.DeltaIVscarry16liquid-fueledSS-N-23(RSM-54)Skiffsubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.
DeltaIII.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:DeltaIII(Russian:Kal'marclass)(Project667BDR)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):10,600/13,250
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:510/155.5Beam:39.4/12.0Draft:28.2/8.6Armament:SixteenSS-N-18SLBMs;six533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons
Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo5-bladedscrews;50,000SHP
Speed(knots):24(submerged)Numberinclass:14
Users:Russian-operatedbutunderCIScontrol
Comments:Firstappearinginthemid-1970s,theDeltaIIIswerethefirstSovietSSBNstotrulyrival
theAmericanSSBNsinweapons.Specifically,herlong-rangeSS-N-18(RSM-50)StingraymissileswithmultiplereentryvehiclesgavehertheabilitytohitnumeroustargetsinNorthAmericafrompiersideateitherPetropavlovskorMurmanskbases.DeltaIIIswillprobablybetheoldestSSBNsretainedbytheRussianNavyunderSTARTII,andsomewillprobablyserveuntilthebeginningofthetwenty-firstcentury.
ARussianNavyDeltaIII-classnuclear-poweredballisticmissilesubmarine,
shortlyaftercompletingatransitoftheArctictojointheRussianPacificFleet.OFFICIALU.S.NAVY
PHOTO
Classname:Fourth-generationSSBN(DeltaIVfollow-on)(Project:?)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]13,000-15,000(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)
Armament:est.sixteenSS-N-?SLBMs;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswithabout20weapons
Machinery:PWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo7-bladedscrews;?SHP
Speed(knots):[?]25-30(submerged)
Numberinclass:?
Users:RussiaComments:ShouldtheRussianschoosetobuildafourth-generationSSBN,itwillprobablybebaseduponthehighlysuccessfulDeltaIVboat.Improvementswillprobablybelimitedtofurtherquietingandsomerefinementtoweapons(improvedtargetingandaccuracy),aswellassensors.
Kilo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Kilo(Russian:Varshavyankaclass)
(Project877)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Komsomolsk,KrasnayaSormova,UnitedAdmiralty
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,325/3,076
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:243.7/74.3Beam:32.8/10Draft:21.6/6.6
Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone6-bladedscrew;5,900SHP
Speed(knots):17(submerged)
Numberinclass:20+Users:Russia,Poland,Algeria,Romania,India,Iran
Comments:Currentlytheonlydiesel-electricsubmarineknowntobeinproductioninRussia.TheKiloisamedium-sized,inexpensiveSSKwithexcellentquietingandweapons,althoughthelackofatowedarraylimitsitintheareaofsensors.Somethingofabestseller,theKilohasbecomeanimportantsourceofhardcurrencyforthestrugglingRussiansubbuilders,thoughnewer,moreadvancedWesterndesignsmayintrudeonsales.
Tango.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Tango(Project641B)Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/KrasnayaSormova
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):3,100/3,900
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:300.1/91.5Beam:29.5/9Draft:23/7Armament:Ten533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewiththree5-bladedscrews;6,000SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:18
Users:Russia
Comments:OneofthelastbigclassesofdieselboattobeconstructedbytheSovietUnion,theTangoswereoriginallydesignedtobeopenoceanSSKswiththeprimarymissionsofattackingaircraftcarriersandinterdictingmerchantships.Extremelyquietandcapable,theyhaveexcellentrangeandweapons.AnumberoftheTangoswillcontinuetoserveuntiltheturnofthecentury.
Classname:Fourth-generationSS(Kilofollow-on)(Project:?)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]2,500-3,000(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)
Armament:six533mmtorpedotubeswithabout20weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;probableAIPsystem;?SHP
Speed(knots):[?]25-30(submerged)
Numberinclass:?Users:Russiaand?
Comments:IfRussiachoosestokeepbuildingconventionallypoweredsubmarines,theywillprobablybasethenextdesignonaprototypeboatknownasBelugathathasbeenundergoingtestingintheBlackSea.ThenewdesignSSmayutilizeanovelAirIndependentPropulsion(AIP)systemtoextendslow-speedsubmergedendurance,whichreducesthetimethesubmarinewouldhavetospendsnorkeling.Inaddition,withahullformbasedontheAlfa-classSSNsthefourth-generationSSmaybecapableofhighSSN-likespeedsforshortperiods.
People'sRepublicofChina
WhiletheRussiansranheadlongintothebusinessofbuildingnuclearsubmarines,thePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC)tookaslow,steadypace.TheirfirstSSN,theHanclass,isasimpleboatwithverylittleofthehightechnologythatwouldbeconsideredstandardonanAmericanorBritishboat.FromtheHanshavecometheXiaclass,thePRC'sfirstSSBN.ItappearsthatboththeHanandtheXiahave
finishedtheirproductionruns.Withonlysixfirst-generationunits,theChineseappeartohavemixedfeelingsaboutthesuccessoftheHanandXia.Nevertheless,itislikelythatwithintheforeseeablefuture,theChinesewillbeginproductionoftheHanandXiafollow-ons.
Classname:HanProducer(country/manufacturer):PRC/Huludao
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,500(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:295.2/90Beam:32.8/10Draft:?Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubes
Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one-bladedscrew;15,000SHP
Speed(knots):30(submerged)Numberinclass:5
Users:PRC
Comments:ThisisthefirstclassofSSNproducedbythePRC,anditshows.Rathernoisyandlimitedinitsweaponsloadandsensors,itisstillrelativelyfastandbetterthannothing.RoughlyequaltoaSkipjackorVictorIinperformance.
Classname:Xia
Producer(country/manufacturer):PRC/Huludao
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):7,000(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:393.6/120Beam:32.8/10Draft:?
Armament:TwelveCSS-N-3SLBMs;six533mmtorpedotubes
Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one-bladedscrew;15,000SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)
Numberinclass:1
Users:PRCComments:ThefirstclassofSSBNsbuiltbythePRC,theXiasareroughlysimilartotheSovietYankeeII-classboatinperformanceandweaponsloadout.AderivativeoftheHanclass(thehullandreactorarevirtuallyidentical),theXiasgivethePRCleadershipaminorandsomewhatcredibleFBMcapabilityintheirpartoftheworld.
France
TheFrencharesomewhatunusualbecausetheychosetodevelopnuclearsubmarinestocarryballisticmissiles(SSBNs)beforetheydevelopednuclearattacksubmarines(SSNs).ThiswasduetothedesireofGeneralCharlesdeGaulleinthe1960stohaveanucleardeterrentindependentofNATO.Consequently,theydevelopedaforceoffourSSBNs,theLeRedoubtableclass,first,andonlyrecentlydevelopedaforceofSSNs.CurrentlytheyarefinishingtheconstructionoftheAmethyst-classSSNs,aswellasworkingonanewclassofSSBNs,thefourunitsoftheLeTriomphantclass.Inaddition,theFrenchmaintainasmallforceofdiesel-electricsubmarines,thoughthenumberofthesewillsurelydecrease.Asforthefuture,the
FrenchplansarenotclearbeyondtheattemptsofcommercialyardstomarketconventionalversionsoftheAmethyst-classboats.
Classname:AmethystProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,400/2,660
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:241.4/73.6Beam:24.9/7.6Draft:21/6.4Armament:Four533mmtorpedotubeswith14weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one7-bladedscrew;9,500SHP
Speed(knots):28(submerged)Numberinclass:1+2
Users:France
Comments:BasicallyanimprovedRubiswitharoundedbow,theseboatsaresuperiorinbothradiatednoiseandsensors.CurrentlytherearenoplansbytheFrenchNavyforalargerSSNforce,andthesewillbethelastonesbuiltintheforeseeablefuture.
Amethyst(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Rubis(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:RubisProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,385/2,670
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:236.5/72.1Beam:24.9/7.6Draft:21/6.4Armament:Four533mmtorpedotubeswith14weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one7-bladedscrew;9,500SHP
Speed(knots):25(submerged)Numberinclass:4
Users:France
Comments:ThefirstoftheFrenchSSNs,theRubis
classappearedonlyinthelastdecadeorso.ThesecompactlittleboatsarethesmallestSSNseverbuilt,andthisisreflectedinthesmallcrewsize(8officersand57men)andtheweaponsloadout(14weapons).Theearlyunitsoftheclasswerereportedtoberelativelynoisy,requiringamajorrefit.AllunitsarecurrentlybeingbroughtuptothestandardoftheAmethyst-classboats.
Classname:LeTriomphantProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):12,640/14,120
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:452.6/138Beam:41/12.5Draft:?Armament:SixteenM45SLBMs;four533mmtorpedotubeswith?weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;41,500SHP
Speed(knots):25+(submerged)Numberinclass:1+3
Users:France
Comments:NewgenerationofFrenchSSBN.Considerableattentionpaidtoquietingmeasuresincludingmainpropulsionmachineryraftandapumpjetpropulsor.MorestreamlinedhullformoverL'InflexibleandearlierSSBNs.Willbeequippedwiththelatestinsubmarinesonarsystemsincludingalargeflankarray,andnewcombatsystem.
L'Inflexible(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:L'InflexibleProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):8,080/8,920
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:422.1/128.7Beam:34.8/10.6Draft:32.8/10Armament:SixteenM4SLBMs;four533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;16,000SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:1
Users:France
Comments:EssentiallyaLeRedoubtableclasswithsomeimprovementsinquieting,hullsteel,andsensors.
LeRedoubtable(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:LeRedoubtableProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):8,000/9,000
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:419.8/128Beam:34.8/10.6Draft:32.8/10Armament:SixteenM4SLBMs;four533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;16,000SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:4
Users:France
Comments:ThefirstclassofSSBNsconstructedbytheFrenchNavyand,infact,thefirstnuclearshipbuiltindigenouslyinEurope.LeRedoubtablewasdecommissionedinDecember1991;allothersintheclassundergoingmodernizationtoL'Inflexiblestandard.
Agosta(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:AgostaProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,490/1,740
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:221.7/67.6Beam:22.3/6.8Draft:17.7/5.4Armament:Four550mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4,600SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:4
Users:France,Pakistan,Spain
Comments:Thelastgeneralpurposediesel-electricsubsbuiltbytheFrench.Anexcellentdesign,theyarebeingupgradedtothestandardsoftheAmethystclass.
Dauphne(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:DauphneProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg
Displacement:(surfaced/submerged):869/1,043
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:188.9/57.6Beam:22.2/6.8Draft:17.4/5.3Armament:Twelve550mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithtwo3-bladedscrews;2,000SHP
Speed(knots):16(submerged)Numberinclass:19
Users:France,Pakistan,Portugal,Spain,SouthAfrica
Comments:OlderSSK(diesel-electricsubmarine)design,thoughquitesuccessful.Extensivelyupgraded,theclasscontinuesinservicetoday.
UnitedKingdom
Ofallthenationsthatoperatesubmarines,noneholdscloserinstitutionalandengineeringtiestotheUnitedStatesthantheUnitedKingdom.CurrentlytheU.K.subforceisundergoingitsowndownsizingafterseveraldecadesofsteadygrowth.Partofthisisduetofinancialconstraints,thoughtheentire"V"classofSSNsisbeingretiredratherprematurelybecauseofhydrogenembrittlementofvalvesandotherplumbingfixturesintheirpropulsionplants.Asthisbookisbeingwritten,theBritishareheadedforaforceoftwelveSSNs(SwiftsureandTrafalgarclasses),fourSSBNs(theVanguardclass),andfourSSKs(diesel-electricsubmarines)(theUpholderclass).Eventhisforcemaybewhittleddown,withtheUpholdersreportedlybeingconsideredforsaletoexportclients.Astofuturesubconstruction,theBritishwouldliketobuildasecondbatchofTrafalgarspoweredbytheBritish-builtPWR-2powerplant,thoughonlytheBritishParliamentandtheMinisterofDefenceareabletodeterminewhetherthiswillhappen.
Trafalagar(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:TrafalgarProducer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,700/5,208
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:280.1/85.4Beam:32.2/9.8Draft:27.2/8.3
Armament:Five533mmtorpedotubeswith25weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;15,000SHP
Speed(knots):30(submerged)
Numberinclass:7Users:UnitedKingdom
Comments:Quitesimply,thebestSSNeverbuiltbytheBritish.Thisclassisquick,quiet,andcarriesasubstantialpunch.IftheTrafalgarshaveaweakness,itisthelackofanintegratedcombatsystemliketheU.S.AN/BSY-1.AfutureupgradeknownasType2076maycurethis.Theyhandlewellandarequitegoodboatsforthemoney.
Swiftsure(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:SwiftsureProducer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,200/4,500
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:271.9/82.9Beam:32.2/9.8Draft:27.2/8.3Armament:Five533mmtorpedotubeswith25weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;15,000SHP
Speed(knots):30(submerged)Numberinclass:5
Users:UnitedKingdom
Comments:TheoldestSSNsintheRoyalNavy,theSwiftsuresarefineboatsthathavebeenupgradedinrefitstoalmostthesamestandardastheTrafalgars.
Classname:TrafalgarBatchII(?)
Producer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]5,200(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)
Armament:Five533mmtorpedotubeswith30weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;15,000SHP
Speed(knots):[?]30(submerged)
Numberinclass:?
Users:UnitedKingdom
Comments:Thebig"If"inthefutureoftheRoyalNavy.Theseboats,iftheyareeverbuilt,willbepoweredbytheBritishPWR-2reactor,andmaybeequippedwithcruisemissiles.
Upholder(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
HMSUnseen,oneofthenewgenerationofdiesel-electricsubmarinesoperatedbytheRoyalNavy.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE
Classname:Upholder
Producer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness;CammellLaird,Birkenhead
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,185/2,400
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:230.6/70.3Beam:24.9/7.6Draft:18/5.5
Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;5,400SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)
Numberinclass:4Users:UnitedKingdom
Comments:AreallyniceclassofSSKs,theseboatsareprobablythefinestdiesel-electricsubmarinesintheworld.FullytheequaloftheTrafalgarsinsensorsandarmament,theymaybesoldofftoexportcustomers.
Classname:VanguardProducer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):15,850(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:489.7/149.3Beam:42/12.8Draft:33.1/10.1Armament:SixteenTridentII(D-5)SLBMs;four
533mmtorpedotubeswith[?]18weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;27,500SHP
Speed(knots):25(submerged)
Numberinclass:1+3
Users:UnitedKingdomComments:TheseareprobablygoingtobethelastclassofSSBNseverbuiltfortheRoyalNavy.RepresentingeverythingeverlearnedbytheRoyalNavyinsubmarinedesign,theseelegantlydesignedboatshavesomethingofa"bigshoulders"lookbecauseofthewaythebowplanesaremounted.
Resolution(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Resolution
Producer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):7,600/8,500
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:424.8/129.5Beam:33.1/10.1Draft:30/9.2
Armament:SixteenPolaris(A-3)SLBMs;six
533mmtorpedotubeswith[?]18weapons
Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;27,500SHP
Speed(knots):25(submerged)
Numberinclass:3
Users:UnitedKingdomComments:TheoldwarhorsesoftheBritishsubmarineforce,theunits(threeremainincommissionasofthiswriting)ofthe"R"classhavebeenkeepingthepeaceforoveraquartercenturynow.Beingretiredasthenew"V"classboatscomeonline,theyareroughlyequivalenttotheU.S.Lafayette-classSSBNs.
Sweden
Ofallthenationsthatoperatesubmarines,noneisprobablylessunderstoodandmoreunderestimatedthanSweden.TheSwedeshavealwayshadanindependentstreakwhenitcomestodefenseissues,andthisiscertainlytrueoftheirsubmarineforce.Atthemoment,theyproducesomeofthemostadvancedconventionallypoweredsubmarinesintheworld.Theirboatshaveadecidedlyinshoredesignphilosophy,consistentwiththeSwedishrequirementsofoperatingintheBaltic.Inaddition,theSwedesareleadersinnon-nuclearAirIndependentPropulsion(AIP)systems.CurrentlytheyarefinishingdevelopmentoftheGotland(A-19class)boats,equippedwithaSterlingAIPsystemtokeepthebatterieschargedforlongersubmergedendurance.Likeallothernations,theSwedesare
aggressivelymarketingtheirboatsforexport.Theyhavehadaparticularsuccesswiththesaleofsixboats(theCollinsclass)toAustralia.
Gotland(A-19)(Swedish).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Gotland(A-19class)Producer(country/manufacturer):Sweden/Kockums,Malmo
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,300(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:172.2/52.5Beam:19.9/6.1Draft:18.4/5.6Armament:Six533mmandthree400mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;[?]4,500SHP;SterlingengineAIPsystemtobeinstalled
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:0+3
Users:Sweden
Comments:EssentiallyanupdatedA-17class,withimprovedsensorsandcombatsystemsandthe
incorporationoftwoSterlingengine-drivengeneratorsforimprovedslow-speedsubmergedendurance.
Vastergotland(A-17)(Swedish).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Vastergotland(A-17class)Producer(country/manufacturer):Sweden/Kockums,Malmo,andKarlskronaVarvet
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,070/1,140
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:159.1/48.5Beam:19.9/6.1Draft:18.4/5.6Armament:Six533mmandthree400mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;[?]4,000SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:4
Users:Sweden
Comments:EssentiallyimprovedNackens,theseboatsarequitecapableforBalticoperations.
Nacken(A-14)(Swedish).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Nacken(A-14class)Producer(country/manufacturer):Sweden/Kockums,Malmo,andKarlskronaVarvet
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,030/1,125
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:162.4/49.5Beam:18.7/5.7Draft:13.4/4.1Armament:Six533mmandtwo400mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;[?]4,000SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:3
Users:Sweden
Comments:TheoldestSSKsintheSwedishNavy.NackenwasthetrialsubmarinefortheSterlingengineAIPsystem,whichwillbeincorporatedintheGotlandclass.
Netherlands
TheDutchenjoyanoutstandingsubmarinetradition,withparticularprideinthenumerousenemysinkingstotheircreditduringWorldWarII.Infact,duringtheearlydaysof1942inthePacific,thetinyDutchforceactuallysankmoreshipsthantheentireU.S.subforce.TodaytheDutchhaveanexcellentfleetofSSKsandareaggressivelytryingtomarketthemoverseas.
Classname:Walrus
Producer(country/manufacturer):Netherlands/RotterdamseDroogdokMaatschaooij
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,450/2,800
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:222.2/67.7Beam:27.6/8.4Draft:23/7Armament:Four533mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;5,430SHP
Speed(knots):21(submerged)Numberinclass:1+3
Users:Netherlands
Comments:AreallynicelittleclassofSSK,theWalrus-classboatshaveagoodbalanceofweapons,sensors,andendurance.Theleadboatoftheclasssufferedafireduringbuildingandwasdelayedindelivery.
Germany
Ofallthenationsonearth,nonehasastrongersubmarinecombattraditionthanGermany.TwiceinthiscenturytheGermanU-boatfleetshavedrivenEnglandtothebrinkofstarvationanddefeat.Today,though,theU-boatsofthemodernGermanNavyareamuchmoremodestforce,thoughtheyprobablyreflectthemissionstheywouldberequiredtoexecutebetterthantheircounterpartsfromthetwoworldwars.ThenewgenerationofU-boatsaretailoredtothecoastalwatersoftheBaltic,withenduranceandweaponsloadstomatch.TheGermanboatshaveproventobeagreatsuccess,particularlyinexportsales.InfacttheType209hasactuallyoutsoldtheRussianKiloclassinexports,makingittheVolkswagenofconventionalsubmarines.Theirnewestboats,theType212s,arecapableofbeingequippedwithaliquidoxygen/hydrogenfuelcellAIPsystem.
Type212(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Type212Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft,ThysseenNordseewerke
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,200/1,800
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:167.8/51Beam:22.6/6.9Draft:21/6.4Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith[?]18
weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;?SHP;fuelcellAIPsystemtobeinstalled
Speed(knots):[?]20(submerged)
Numberinclass:0+12
Users:GermanyComments:ThenewestoftheGermanU-boats.TheseboatswillbeequippedwithafuelcellAIPsystem,thoughdefensecutscouldseverelyaffectconstruction.
Type206(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Type206/206A
Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft,RheinstahlNordseewerke
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):450/520
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:159.4/48.6Beam:15.4/4.7Draft:14.1/4.3
Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith16weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladed
screw;2,300SHP
Speed(knots):17(submerged)Numberinclass:18
Users:Germany
Comments:Type206AsaremodifiedwiththeAtlasElectronicCSU83integratedsonarsuiteandtheaccompanyingSLW83integratedcombatsystem.Propulsionplant,navigation,andaccommodationshavealsobeenupgraded.
Type205(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Type205
Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):419/455Dimensions(ft/m):Length:142.7/43.5Beam:15.1/4.6Draft:12.5/3.8
Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith8weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;2,300SHP
Speed(knots):17(submerged)
Numberinclass:5Users:Germany,Denmark
Comments:AnearlierversionoftheType206,theseunitswillprobablybesoldorretiredinthecurrentroundofGermandefensecuts.
Type209(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Type209(1100,1200,1300,1400variants)
Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany,Turkey,Brazil,SouthKorea/variousshipyards
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,207-1,586(submerged)
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:177.4/54.1-200.7/61.2Beam:20.5/6.3Draft:18/5.5Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith14weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;5,000SHP
Speed(knots):22(submerged)
Numberinclass:34+15Users:Argentina,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Greece,Indonesia,SouthKorea,Peru,Turkey,Venezuela
Comments:TheType209variantsdifferpredominantlyinlengthanddisplacement,althoughthesensor,combat,andotherelectronicsfitswillalsovarydependingonwhentheparticularunitwasbuilt.Eventhoughthedesignisovertwentyyearsold,theType209isstillbeingbuiltforcustomerstoday,andisthemostsuccessfulsubmarinedesignoutsideofRussiaandtheUnitedStates.
IKLType1500(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:IKLType1500Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany;India/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft;Mazagon
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,655/1,810
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:211.2/64.4Beam:21.3/6.5Draft:20.3/6.2Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith14
weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;6,100SHP
Speed(knots):23(submerged)
Numberinclass:3+1
Users:IndiaComments:TheType1500isnormallylistedasaType209variant;however,the1500hasalargerpressurehullandinternalcompartmentation,whichmakesitadifferentdesign.TheinternalarrangementofequipmentisforallintentsandpurposesthesameasonaType209.TheType1500istheonlyWestern-designedsubmarinewithanemergencyescapesphereincasetheboatsinks.
Japan
Japanstartedbuildingitssubmarineforceearly;itsnavywasthefirsttousesubsincombat,duringtheRusso-Japanesewarintheearly1900s.ThoughJapanproducedsomeofthemostadvancedboatsofWorldWarII,theyneverreallyusedthemtobestadvantage.TodaytheyoperatealargeforceofSSKsbasedontheAmericanBarbelclassofdieselsubmarine.
Harushio(Japanese).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:Harushio
Producer(country/manufacturer):Japan/Mitsubishi
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,400/2,750
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:262.4/80Beam:32.8/10Draft:25.2/7.7
Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;7,220SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)
Numberinclass:2+8Users:Japan
Comments:BasicallyenlargedYushios,theseboatsarehighlyautomated,withanexcellentweaponsloadandsensorsuite.
Yushio(Japanese).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:YushioProducer(country/manufacturer):Japan/MitsubishiandKawasaki
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,200/2,450
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:249.9/76.2Beam:32.5/9.9Draft:24.3/7.4Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;7,220SHP
Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:10
Users:Japan
Comments:VeryquietboatsarmedwithbothtorpedoesandAmericanUGM-84sub-Harpoonantishipmissiles.Capableofverydeepoperations,theYushiosareupdatesoftheearlierUzushioclass.
Italy
WhiletheuninformedmightnotthinkofItalyasapowerinthesubmarineworld,thiswouldbeasevereunderestimation.Italyhasalongandproudhistoryofsubmarinedesign,construction,andoperations.InWorldWarII,ItaliansubsdidalotofdamagetoAlliedshipping,particularlyinthetightwatersoftheMediterranean.Followingthewar,Italybegantobuildupasubstantialforceofdiesel-electricboatswithunitsconstructedintheirownyards.Todayitisanextremelycapableforce,whichcontinuestobeupgradedwiththefinestweaponsandsensorsproducedinItaly.
Classname:PrimoLongobardoProducer(country/manufacturer):Italy/Italcantieri
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,653/1,862
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:217.6/66.4Beam:22.4/6.8Draft:19.7/6Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4.270SHP
Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:0+2
Users:Italy
Comments:ThePrimoLongobardoclassisthesecondmodificationtotheNazarioSauroclass.Thebiggestdifferencesareintheimprovedhullformand
combatsystem.
SalvatorePelosi(Italian).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:SalvatorePelosiProducer(country/manufacturer):Italy/Fincantiere
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,476/1,662
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:211.1/64.36Beam:22.4/6.8Draft:18.6/5.7Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4,270SHP
Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:2
Users:Italy
Comments:SlighthullmodificationsovertheNazarioSauroclass.TheSalvatorePelosiclassalsohasanimprovedcombatsystemtoallowthelaunchofsub-Harpoonmissiles.
NazarioSauro(Italian).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.
Classname:NazarioSauroProducer(country/manufacturer):Italy/C.R.D.AandItalcantiere
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,450/1,637
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:209.4/63.9Beam:22.4/6.8Draft:18.7/5.7Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4,270SHP
Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:4
Users:Italy
Comments:BasicallyimprovedversionsoftheEnricoTotiboatsthatprecededthem.NicelittleboatsdesignedforoperationsinthenarrowsoftheseassurroundingItaly.
Classname:S90
Producer(country/manufacturer):Italy/Fincantiere
Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,500/2,780
Dimensions(ft/m):Length:228.6/69.7Beam:26.7/8.2Draft:20.7/6.3Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons
Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;?SHP
Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:0+2
Users:Italy
Comments:Follow-ontothePrimoLongobardoclass.Designdifferencesincludegreaterenduranceanddepthcapability.Designnotfinalized,andchangescouldoccur.
Glossary
1MCMainshipwideannouncingcircuitonU.S.submarines.
ADCAPADvancedCAPability.NewestversionoftheMark48torpedoonboardU.S.submarines.
AFFFAqueousFireFightingFoam.
AkulaSSNAthird-generationRussiandesigncompetingwiththeSierraIandIIclasses,theAkulaappearstobetheoverallwinner.Thisboatisveryquiet,equivalenttoaU.S.FlightI688,andisequippedwithacousticandnonacousticsensors.LargestSSNclassinproduction.Howlargetheclasssizewillbeisunknown,butatpresenttherearesevenAkulasintheRussianinventory.
AN/BPS-15ANavigationradaronmanyU.S.SSNs.
AN/BQQ-5(A-E)IntegratedsonarsuiteonmostU.S.SSNs.Thedifferentvariantsincludeimprovementsinsignalprocessand/ordifferentsonararrays.
AN/BSY-1IntegratedsonarandfirecontrolsystemonImprovedLosAngeles-classSSNs.
AN/WLR-8(V)2Radarwarningreceiveron688I-classSSNs.
AN/WLR-9AcousticinterceptreceiverfoundonU.S.Navy
submarines.
AN/WLR-10Radarwarningreceiverwithrecordingcapabilityon688-classSSNs.
AnechoiccoatingRubbercoatingappliedtotheexteriorhullsurfacesofasubmarinetoabsorbactivesonarpulses.Reducesthedetectabilitybyactivesonars.Somecoatingsalsoreducetheamountofnoiseasubmarineputsintothewater;thesearecalleddecouplingcoatings.
AnglesanddanglesTestconductedbyasubmarinetoensurethateverythingisstowedproperlybeforebeginningitsmission.Theprocedurecallsformakinglargeup-and-downmovementswiththesubmarineaswellasusinglargerudderanglesatmoderatespeeds.
ASDICAlliedSubmarineDetectionInvestigationCommittee.FormedduringWorldWarI(1914-18)toconductresearchandexperimentsonsubmarinedetection.
ASWAntiSubmarineWarfare.
AUTECAtlanticUnderseaTestandEvaluationCenter.AnacoustictestrangelocatedoffAndrosIslandintheBahamas.
BastionsHighlydefendedSSBNpatrolareas.EstablishedbytheformerSovietUnion,nowusedbyRussiatoprotecttheirSSBNsfromattackbyWesternSSNs.
Blue/goldcrewThepolicyofhavingtwoalternatingcrewsaboardstrategicmissilesubmarines.
BOL(BearingOnlyLaunch)LaunchmodeforHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilesthatdoesn'trequirerangeinformation.Essentiallythemissileseekerisactivatedoncecruisingaltitudeisreached.
BombshopRoyalNavytermforthetorpedoroomonsubmarines.
BombersRoyalNavynicknameforstrategicmissilesubmarines.
BoomersU.S.Navynicknameforstrategicmissilesubmarines.
BottombounceTermusedtodescribetheroutetakenbysoundwavesastheybounceofftheoceanbottomtravelingfromthenoisesourcetothesonarreceiver.Forexample,thenoisesourcecouldbeanactivesonarpulsethatbouncesoffthebottomandhitsthetargetship;thentheechobouncesoffthebottomagainandisreceivedbythesonar.
BreechdoorInnerdoorofatorpedotube.
BridgeSmallobservationareaontopofthefairwater.TheOODstandshiswatchherewhenthesubmarineisonthesurface.
ButtercupU.S.Navytermforthe"wet"orfloodingtrainer.
CavitationTheformationoftinyvapor(air)bubblesonthesurfaceofapropellerwhenthepropellermovesthroughthewaterrapidly.Cavitationisasourceofveryloudnoise.
CENTCOMU.S.CENTralCOMmand.
CH084MultifunctionattackperiscopeonRoyalNavySSNs.
ChokepointGeographicalrestrictionthatlimitsthemaneuverabilityofashiporsubmarine.
CISCommonwealthofIndependentStates(formerlytheSovietUnion).
CK034MultifunctionsearchperiscopeonRoyalNavySSNs.
ClydeU.S.Navynicknamefortheauxiliarydieselengine.
COCommandingOfficer.Titlegiventoanofficerincommandofaship.Oftencalled"Captain"or"Skipper."
COBChiefoftheBoat.Seniorenlistedmaninthesubmarine'screw.Usuallyaseniorormasterchiefpettyofficer.InterfacesdirectlywiththeXOonissuesthataffecttheenlistedpersonnel.TheRoyalNavyequivalentisthecoxswain.
COMINTCOMmunicationsINTelligence.
COMSUBLANTCOMmander,SUBmarineForceAtLANTic.
COMSUBPACCOMmander,SUBmarineForcePACific.
ConformNameofaNavsea-designedSSNincompetitionwithAdmiralRickover's688design.
ControlroomAreaonaU.S.Navysubmarinewherethesubmarine's
shipcontrol,firecontrol,andperiscopesarelocated.Allmajorsubmarinefunctionsarecontrolledfromthislocation.TheOODstandshiswatchherewhenthesubmarineissubmerged.Incommunicationstheareaisreferredtoastheconn.
ConvergenceZone(CZ)Phenomenonwhereby,ifthewaterisdeepenough,waterpressureturnssoundwavesuptowardthesurface.Thisoccursatintervalsofroughly30nauticalmiles.MultipleCZcontactsarepossiblewhenthesoundbouncesoffthesurfaceandheadsbackdown,eventuallytobeturnedbackupwardagainbythepressure.
COWChiefoftheWatch.Leadingenlistedmanincontrolduringawatch.Operatestheballastcontrolpaneltodiveandsurfacethesubmarineandmakestrimcorrectionswhendirectedbythedivingofficer.
CVBGAircraftCarrierBattleGroup.
DeltaItoIVSSBNsTheRussianDeltaseriesofSSBNsisanongoingvariantofthebasicYankee-classSSBNdesign.AlmostallvariationsaredeterminedbythetypeofSLBMbeingcarried.Thelatestvariant,theDeltaIV,alsoincorporatesquietingandsensorenhancements.Atotalofforty-threeDeltashavebeenbuilt.
DirectpathTermusedtodescribetheroutethatsoundwavestakefromnoisesourcetosonarsystemwithoutinteractingwiththesurfaceortheoceanfloor.Roughlyspeaking,itisconsideredtobethestraight-linedistancebetweenthetwovessels.
DNRDirector,NavalReactors
DolphinsSymbolofthesubmarineforceinjustabouteverynation.Also,thebadgeorpinthatdesignatesasailorasqualifiedinsubmarines.
Dreadnought(S-98)FirstRoyalNavySSN.EssentiallyaU.S.Skipjack-classbackendmatedtoaRoyalNavyfrontend.
DSMACDigitalScene-MatchingAreaCorrelation.AsecondTomahawklandattackmissilenavigationsystemusedtoimprovetheaccuracyoftheconventionalvariants.Usesacameralikesystemtomakedetaileddigitalpicturesoftheterrainandcomparesthemwithstoredimagesintheguidancecomputer.
DSRVDeep-SubmergenceRescueVehicle.Asmallrescuesubmersibledesignedtodockwithasunkensubmarineandretrievethecrew.
EABEmergencyAirBreathingsystem.Alow-pressureairsystemthatcrewmencanplugintoandobtainbreathable--althoughdry--air.Thissystemistoprovideasourceofairwhileasubmarineventilatestogetridofthesmokefromafire.
EchoSSNAfirst-generationSovietnuclear-poweredsubmarine,itoriginallywasdesignedasanSSGN(EchoIclass),butthetubeswereremovedandtheunitsconvertedtoSSNs.Thesesubmarineswerenoisyandhadextremelyunsaferadiationproblems.Allhavebeenretiredbecauseoftheirpoorsafetyrecord.Atotalofsixunitswerebuilt.
ElectricBoatCompanyThecompanystartedbyJohnHollandtoproducesubmarinesfortheU.S.Navy.PresentlyownedbyGeneral
DynamicsCorporation.
ELFExtremelyLowFrequencyradioband.
EmergencyblowProcessbywhichhigh-pressureairisrapidlyintroduceddirectlyintothesubmarine'smainballasttanks.Anemergencyblowmakesthesubmarinepositivelybuoyant,anditwillrisetothesurfacequitequickly.ThissystemwasinstitutedaspartoftheSubsafeprogramfollowingthelossoftheUSSThresher.
EnigmaWorldWarIIGermancommunicationcipher(encryption)system.
EOOWEngineeringOfficeroftheWatch.Officerinchargeoftheteamthatismonitoringandmanipulatingthesubmarine'sreactorandpropulsionsystem.Keyresponsibilityistomaintainpropulsioninasafemanner.
ESMElectronicSupportMeasures.Apassivereceiversystemdesignedtodetectradaremissionsfromaircraftandsurfaceships.
EthanAllen(SSBN608)FirstU.S.NavySSBNclassdesignedtocarryPolarismissiles.LargerthantheGeorgeWashingtonclass,theEthanAllenclasshasmorequietingmeasurestoimprovestealth.Atotaloffiveunitswerebuilt.
ExocetAntishipcruisemissilemadebytheFrenchfirmAerospatiale.SlightlysmallerthanaHarpoonbutjustasdeadly.
FairwaterU.S.Navytermforthesailonasubmarine.TheRoyalNavyusesthetermFin.
FamilygramsShort(fortytofiftywords)messagesthatU.S.Navysubmarinersreceivefromfamilymembersaboutonceaweekwhileonpatrol.
FBMFleetBallisticMissilesubmarine.
FirstlieutenantTheRoyalNavyequivalentofaU.S.Navyexecutiveofficer.Oftenreferredtoas"NumberOne."
"Flamingdatum"Ashipthathasbeenhitbyatorpedofiredfromasubmarine.Itistheplacetobeginsearchingforasubmarine,becauseoneisknowntobeinthearea.
GeorgeWashington(SSBN-598)FirstU.S.NavySSBNclass.EssentiallySkipjack-classSSNswithahullinsertcontainingsixteenmissiletubesforPolarismissiles.Atotaloffiveunitswerebuilt.
GertrudeOldWWIIphraseusedtodescribeanyequipmentwhosefunctionisunderwatercommunications.
GlenardP.Lipscomb(SSN-685)One-of-a-kindexperimentalU.S.submarine,basicallyaSturgeon-classhullwithasecond-generationturboelectricdrive.Fullycombatcapable.
GoatlockerU.S.Navytermforthechief'squartersonasubmarine.
GPSGlobalPositioningSystem.AconstellationofNavstarsatellitesthatcanveryaccuratelydeterminethesubmarine'slocation.
Halibut(SSN-587)OriginallydesignedasanSSGNcarryingReguluslandattackmissiles,shewasreconfiguredasanSSNwhenthePolarisprogramprovedtobesuccessful.
Harpoon(UGM-84)U.S.Navyantishipmissile,firedfromanSSN'storpedotube.
HEHighExplosive.
HeadU.S.Navytermforawashroomandtoilet.
HFHighFrequency.
HMSDolphinRoyalNavySubmarineSchool.
Holland(SS-1)FirstU.S.Navysubmarine,designedandbuiltbyJohnHolland.
HotbunkingRotationsystemwherebytwomenshareasinglebunk.Whileonemanisonwatchtheotherissleeping.Whenitistimeforwatchrotationthemancomingoffwatchclimbsintoabunkthatwasjustrecentlyvacatedandisusuallystillwarm.
HotelII&IIISSBNFirst-generationSovietSSBN.Thesesubmarineswerenoisyandextremelyunsafefromaradiologicalstandpoint.AllhavebeenretiredbecauseoftheirpoorsafetyrecordandtomeetSALTSSBNtubelimitations.TheHotelIIISSBNwasatrialsubmarinefortheSS-N-8SawflySLBM.Approximatelynineunitswerebuilt.
HunleyAConfederateNavyvesselthatmadehistorybybeingthe
firstsubmarinetosinkasurfaceshipinbattle(USSHousatonic).Unfortunately,theHunleyherselfalsosankintheattack.
HY-80High-Yieldsteel,withayieldstrengthof80,000poundspersquareinch.
HY-100High-Yieldsteel,withayieldstrengthof100,000poundspersquareinch.
KiloSSLatestRussiandiesel-electricsubmarine.TheKiloisamedium-rangecoastaldefensesubmarinethatisbeingofferedontheexportmarket.Usingstate-of-the-artRussiansensorsandtorpedoes,theKiloclasscomparesfavorablyagainstolderWesterndesigns.RussiahastwentyKilosintheirnavalorderofbattle,andapproximatelyfourteenhavebeensoldtovariouscountries.
Lafayette(SSBN-616)ThirdgenerationofU.S.NavySSBNs.LargerandquieterthantheEthanAllenclass,theLafayetteclasscarriesthePoseidonC-3missile.However,twelveunitsoftheLafayetteclasswerebackfittedwiththeTridentIC-4systemduringthe1980s.Atotalofthirty-oneunitswerebuilt.
LFLowFrequency.
LOFARLOw-FrequencyAnalyzingandRecording.Termusedtodescribetheprocessbywhichnarrowband"tonals"aredisplayedonamodernsonarsystem.
LosAngeles(SSN-688)AdmiralRickover'shigh-speedsubmarinedesign.Mostnumeroussubmarineclassintheworldwithatotalofsixty-twounitstobebuilt.Therearethreeflightswithvarious
improvements:
*Flight1:SSNs688-718.BasicLosAngelesclass.*Flight2:SSNs719-750.VLS,morepowerfulreactorcore.*Flight3:SSNs751-773.AN/BSY-1,bowplanes,improvedquieting,under-icecapability.
ManeuveringThereactorandpropulsioncontrolarealocatedintheengineroom.TheEOOWstandshiswatchhere.
MEOMarineEngineeringOfficer.RoyalNavyequivalentofthechiefengineer;however,anMEOisnoteligibleforcommand.
MFMediumFrequency.
MGUMidcourseGuidanceUnit.TheinertialnavigationsystemusedtoguideHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilestotheirtargets.
MIDASMIneDetectionandAvoidanceSonar.Newmine-huntingsonaronImprovedLosAngeles-classSSNs.
Mk8(Mark8)WWII-erastraight-running(nonhoming)torpedousedbytheRoyalNavyupuntilaboutthemid-1980s.TwoMk8swereresponsibleforthesinkingoftheArgentineanlightcruiserGeneralBelgrano.
Mk48(Mods1-4)DesignationoftheactivehomingtorpedousedbyU.S.SSNs.Thevariousmodificationshaveimprovementsinwire-guidancecapabilityandallowfordeeperdepths.
Mk57U.S.Navymooredinfluencemine.
Mk60CaptorEnCAPsulatedTORpedomine.Adeep-watermooredacousticinfluenceminecontainingaMark46lightweighttorpedoasthepayload.
Mk67SLMMSubmarine-LaunchedMobileMine.AnobsoleteMk37electrictorpedothathasbeenconvertedintoamobilebottominfluencemine.
Narwhal(SSN-671)BasicSturgeon-classhullwithanaturalcirculationreactor.One-of-a-kindexperimentalsubmarine.Fullycombatcapable.
NATONorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization
Nautilus(SSN-571)Firstnuclear-poweredsubmarineintheworld.CommissionedSeptember30,1954.
NavseaNavalSeaSystemsCommand.
NIFTINavyInFraredThermalImager.
NovemberSSNFirst-generationSovietSSN.Fast,noisy,andextremelyunsafebecauseofradiation.TheseSSNshaveallbeenretiredbecauseoftheirpoorsafetyrecord.Atotaloffourteenwerebuilt.OnewaslostoffCapeFinisterreinApril1970.
OBAOxygenBreathingApparatus.Aportablesystemthatchemicallygeneratesoxygenforabout30minutes.Usedbydamagecontrolteamstofightfires.
Ohio(SSBN-726)FourthgenerationofU.S.NavySSBNs.Largestsubmarinesinthefleet;eachcarriestwenty-fourTridentIC-4orTridentIID-5missiles.Extremelyquietsubmarines.Essentially688swithtwenty-fourmissiletubes.Atotaloftwentyweretobebuilt,butbecauseofSTARTandthecollapseoftheUSSRonlyeighteenunitswillbecompleted.
OODOfficerOftheDeck.U.S.Navyofficerinchargeofdirectingthesubmarine'smovementandensuringthatessentialactionsareconducted.Primaryresponsibilityistokeepthesubmarineoutofdangeroussituationsandtokeepthecaptaininformed.
OPNAVOfficeoftheChiefofNAValOPerations.
ORSEOperationalReactorSafeguardsExamination.
OscarI&IISSGNThird-generationSovietSSGN,theOscaristhelargestattacksubmarineeverbuilt.Fast,quiet,andextremelywellarmed,theOscarI&IIclassesareathreattoanysurfaceship.Todatenineunitshavebeenbuilt,andproductionappearstobecontinuing.
OttoFuelThemonopropellant(oxidizerandfuelcombined)usedinMk48andSpearfishtorpedoes.
PerisherRoyalNavySubmarineCommandCourse.
Permit(SSN-594)FirstU.S.NavyproductionSSNwithaprimaryASWfunction.ClasswasrenamedfollowingthelossofUSSThresherinApril1963.Fourteenunitsofthisclasswereeventually
built.
PlankownersTheoriginalcrewofaboatatthetimeofitscommissioning.
Polaris(A1-A3)FirstgenerationofU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.Thedifferentvariantseachhaveimprovementsinrange.TheRoyalNavyusesPolarisA-3missilesintheirResolution-classSSBNs.
"Polishingthecannonball"Anattempttogenerateanear-perfectfirecontrolsolutionthatmaybetotallyunnecessary.Polishingthecannonballtakestoomuchtime,andthesubmarinemayloseitsinitiativetotheintendedtarget.
Poseidon(C-3)Second-generationU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissile.
PSAPostShakedownAvailability.Maintenanceperiodafteranewsubmarine'sinitialseatrialsarecompleted.
PWR-1PressurizedWaterReactor-1.ThetypeofreactorfoundonallcurrentRoyalNavynuclear-poweredsubmarinesexcepttheVanguard-classSSBNs.PWR-1isessentiallytheU.S.S5Wreactordesign,whichwassoldtotheRoyalNavyin1958.
PWR-2PressurizedWaterReactor-2.AnindigenousreactordesignforfutureRoyalNavynuclear-poweredsubmarines.PresentlybeinginstalledinthenewVanguard-classSSBNs.
RadarRAdioDetectionAndRanging.
RaftAlargemetalframethatsupportsvariousrotatingpartsofmachinerysuchasmainenginesorturbinegenerators.Throughinertialdampingitreducesmachineryvibrationsthatcouldreachthehull.
Inotherwords,it'sheavy,andthevibrationsareabsorbedastheytrytomovetheraft.
RAMRadar-AbsorbingMaterial.Acoatingdesignedtoabsorbradarenergyandreduceatarget'sabilitytobedetected.
RBL-LRangeBearingLaunch--Large.AlaunchmodeofHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilesthatusesbothbearingandrangeinformation.The"Large"referstothesizeoftheareawherethemissileistoconductitssearch.
RBL-SRangeBearingLaunch--Small.AlaunchmodeofHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilesthatusesbothbearingandrangeinformation.The"Small"referstothesizeoftheareawherethemissileistoconductitssearch.
Resolution(S-22)FirstRoyalNavySSBN.VerysimilartotheU.S.Lafayette-classSSBN,theResolutionclasscarriessixteenU.S.PolarisA-3missilesarmedwithBritishreentryvehicles.Atotaloffourunitswerebuilt.
RNSHRoyalNavySubHarpoon.
RORSATRussianRadarOceanReconnaissanceSATellite.
S6GThedesignationofthepressurizedwaterreactorinstalledin688-classSSNs.
SAMSurface-to-AirMissile.
SBSSpecialBoatService.TheRoyalNavyequivalentoftheU.S.NavySEALs.
Scorpion(SSN-589)SecondU.S.NavySSN(Skipjackclass)tobelostatsea,sometimeinMay1968.Mostlikelycauseappearstobeanexplosion.
SCRAMSafetyControlReactorAxeMan.TermgiventothemanattheUniversityofChicago,wherethefirstnuclearcorewastested,whowasresponsibleforcuttingtheropeholdingthecontrolrodsshouldsomethinggowrong.Themethodofinsertingcontrolrodshaschangedconsiderably,butthetermhasbeenretained.Witharapidinsertionofcontrolrodsthereactorwillbemadesubcriticalandwillnolongersupportasustainednuclearfissionreaction.
SEALSEa-Air-Land.U.S.Navyspecialforces/commandounits.
SeawolfSecondU.S.NavySSN(SSN575).ItisalsotheclassnameforthenewSSN21submarinepresentlyunderconstructionatElectricBoatCompanyinGroton,Connecticut.
SHFSuperHighFrequency.
SHPShaftHorsePower.
ShutterdoorTheouterdoorofatorpedotube.
SierraI&IISSNThirdgenerationofSovietSSNs.TheSierrasarequiet,deep-divingsubmarines.Thepressurehullismadeoftitanium,whichmakesSierraexpensivetobuild.Thisisreflectedinthefactthatonlyfourhavebeenbuilttodate.TheshipyardthatproducesSierrasisreportedlygoingoutofthesubmarineconstructionbusiness,sofourunitsmaybethetotalclasssize.
SignalejectorAsmall(usually3-inch)torpedotube-likesystemforlaunchingflares,noisemakers,andtorpedodecoys.
SINSShip'sInertialNavigationSystem.Asetofgyroscopesthatmonitorthesubmarine'spositionfromanestablishedreferencepointinspace.
Skate(SSN-578)FirstU.S.NavyproductionSSNclass;fourunitstotal.
Skipjack(SSN-585)FirstU.S.NavySSNclasstousetheteardrophullshape.FastestSSNinthefleetuntiltheLosAngelesclass.Totalofsixunitsbuilt.
SLBMSubmarine-LaunchedBallisticMissile.
SLOTSubmarine-LaunchedOne-WayTransmitter.
SNAPSSmithNavigationAndPlottingSystem.ThenavigationandplottingtablesusedonRoyalNavyshipsandsubmarines.
SnapshotTermusedtodescribetheprocedureforlaunchingatorpedoinanemergencysituation.Inasnapshotthesubmarinecrew
doesn'thavetimetoconductTMAbutsimplyshootsatorpedodownthebearingofanincomingweaponoraclosecontact.Rapidreactionisthebasisofthesnapshotmode.
SOACU.S.NavySubmarineOfficersAdvancedCourse.
SOBCU.S.NavySubmarineOfficersBasicCourse.
SonarSOundNavigationAndRanging.
SOSUSSOundSUrveillanceSystem.AseriesoffixedpassivesonararraysusedbyNATOtoprovideearlywarningofdeploymentsintotheopenoceanofformerSovietsubmarines.
SoundisolationmountSpringlikemountthatabsorbsmachineryvibrationbybeingstretchedandrelaxed.Thevibrationenergyneededtomovethemountdoesn'treachthehullandthereforecan'tbetransmittedintotheocean.Thesemountsareusuallymadeofmetalandrubber,althoughtheRoyalNavyprefersapolymer-typespringmount.
SpearfishRoyalNavy'storpedoequivalenttotheMk48ADCAP.AlthoughnoisierthantheTigerfish,theSpearfishisfaster,withgreaterenduranceandimprovedhominglogic.
SRAShortRangeAttack.AmodeoffiringtheMk48torpedotoaccommodateatargetthatisveryclosetotheattackingship.
SSDiesel-electricattacksubmarine.
SSBNStrategicballisticmissilesubmarine,nuclearpowered.
SSGNNuclear-guided(cruise)missilesubmarine.
SSMSurface-to-SurfaceMissile.Alsousedinreferencetoantishipcruisemissiles.
SSNAttacksubmarine,nuclearpowered.
SSKDiesel-electricsubmarine,hunter-killer.
SS-N-9SirenAntishipcruisemissileonRussianCharlieII-classSSGNs.Rangeisabout60nauticalmiles.
SS-N-14SilexRussianASWmissilethatdeploysatorpedoornucleardepthbomb.Itsrangeisabout30nauticalmiles.
SS-N-18StingraySubmarine-launchedballisticmissileonRussianDeltaIIISSBNs.
SS-N-19ShipwreckAntishipcruisemissileonRussianOscar-classSSGNs.Rangeisabout300nauticalmiles.
SS-N-20SturgeonSubmarine-launchedballisticmissileonRussianTyphoonSSBNs.
SS-N-23SkiffSubmarine-launchedballisticmissileonRussianDeltaIVSSBNs.
STARTSTrategicArmsReductionTreaty.
SteinkehoodCombinationbreathingdeviceandlifepreserverusedduringfreeascentsfromasunkenU.S.submarine.
Sturgeon(SSN-637)Follow-ontotheU.S.Permitclass.TheSturgeonclassisalittlelargerandincorporatesadditionalquietingmeasures.Atotalofthirty-sevenunitsbuilt.
SUBGRUSUBmarineGRoUp.
SUBROCSUBmarineROCket.Asubmarine-launchedballisticrocketwithanucleardepthbombpayload.
SUBRONU.S.SUBmarineSquadRON.
SubsafeProceduralandsystemchangesinstitutedtoincreasethesafetyofU.S.submarinesfollowingthelossoftheUSSThresher(SSN-593)inApril1963.
SURTASSSURveillanceTowedArraySensorSystem(AN/UQQ-2).EssentiallyamobileSOSUSarraytowedbysmallOceanSurveillanceShips(T-AGOS).
Swiftsure(S-104)ThirdgenerationofRoyalNavySSNs.ImprovedquietingandsensorsovertheValiantclass.IntheredesignedlocationofthemainconformalarraytheSwiftsureslostatorpedotube(fiveinsteadofsix).Atotalofsixunitswerebuilt.
TASOTorpedoandAntiSubmarinewarfareOfficer.RoyalNavytermforthejuniorseamanofficerinchargeofthesubmarine'storpedolaunchingsystem.
TB-16(A-D)StandardU.S.NavySSN"fatline"towedarray.Thevariousmodifications(mods)allowthesubmarinetosearchathigherspeedswithoutdegradingperformance.Thearrayisstoredinasheaththatrunsalongthehull.
TB-23FirstU.S.Navy"thinline"arrayfoundonSSNsequippedwithAN/BSY-1andAN/BQQ-5E.ThisarrayisaboutfourtimeslongerthantheTB-16seriesandisstoredentirelyonareellocatedintheaftballasttankarea.
TDUTrashDisposalUnit.AtubethatejectsweightedtrashcylindersfromthebottomofaU.S.submarine.
TeakettleRoyalNavytermforthereactoronnuclear-poweredsubmarines.
TERCOMTERrain-COntourMatching.AnavigationsystemonTomahawklandattackmissiles.ThesystemusestheTomahawk'sradaraltimetertomaketerrainprofilesatpreselectedpointsalongthemissile'sroute.Theseprofilesarecomparedtoaradarreferencemaptodetermineifflightcorrectionsareneeded.
TEZTotalExclusionZone.
Thresher(SSN-593)LostApril4,1963,duringdeep-divingtrialsfollowinganoverhaulperiod.ThelosscausedtheU.S.NavytoinstitutetheSubsafeprogram.
Tigerfish(Mk24,Mods0-3)Aquiet,electric-powereddual-purposetorpedoinservicewiththeRoyalNavy.
TMATargetMotionAnalysis.Theprocessbywhichcomputersormendetermineatarget'scourse,speed,andrangesothatatorpedoormissilecanbefiredaccurately.
TMPSTheaterMissionPlanningSystem.U.S.TMPScentersplanTomahawklandattackmissionroutestovarioustargetsaroundtheglobeusingmapsandnavigationinformationprovidedbytheDefenseMappingAgency.
Tomahawk(UGM-109)FamilyofcruisemissilesthatarelaunchedfromstandardtorpedotubesorspecialverticallaunchtubesonSSNs.Thedifferentvariantsare:
*Tomahawkantishipmissile(TASM)*Tomahawklandattackmissile--nuclear(TLAM-N)*Tomahawklandattackmissile--conventional,HEwarhead(TLAM-C)*Tomahawklandattackmissile--conventional,bomblets(TLAM-D)
TorpedoTheself-propelledtorpedowasinventedbyRobertWhite-head,anEnglishman,in1866.Sincethen,thetorpedohasundergonesignificantimprovementsinspeed,range,anddepth.Present-daytorpedoesareallhomingweaponsusingeitheractive/passiveacousticsorwakesensors.
TowedarrayStringofpassivehydrophonestowedatsomedistancebehindtheship.Byseparatingthehydrophonesfromtheship,thearraywasnolongerlimitedbyplatformnoise,therebyincreasingdetectionrange.Thetowedarraycanalsobemadeaslongasnecessarytodetectsoundswithlongwavelengths(verylowfrequency).
Trafalgar(S-107)Fourth-generationRoyalNavySSN.BasicallyaslightlylargerSwiftsuretoaccommodateadditionalquietingmeasures.Productionhasjustended,withatotalofsevenunitsbeingbuilt.AmodifiedTrafalgardesign,calledTrafalgarBatchII,isbeingworkedonwiththecancellationoftheSSN20("W"class).
TridentI(C-4)ThirdgenerationofU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.
TridentII(D-5)FourthgenerationofU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.
Triton(SSN-586)OnlyU.S.NavySSNbuiltwithtwonuclearreactors.Originallydesignedasaradarpicketsubmarine,Tritonmadeasubmergedround-the-worldcruisein1960.
TSOTacticalSystemsOfficer.RoyalNavytermforthejuniorseamanofficerinchargeofthesubmarine'sfirecontrolsystem.
Tullibee(SSN-597)FirstU.S.NavySSNwithtorpedotubesplacedamidshipstomakeroomforthelarge15-footsphericalsonararray.ThisdesignisthebasisforalllaterU.S.SSNdesigns.Tullibeewasalsofittedwithatroublesometurboelectricdrive,whichearnedherthereputationofbeingahangarqueen,andshewasoftenreferredtoas"Building597."
TurtleAsemisubmersiblecraftdesignedandbuiltbyDavidBushnellduringtheAmericanRevolutionaryWar.Itwasthefirstsubmarinetoconductanattack,albeitunsuccessful,againstahostilesurfaceship(HMSEagle).
Type18AmultifunctionsearchperiscopefoundonU.S.SSNs.
Type2Anoptics-onlyattackscope,reminiscentofWWIIperiscopes,onU.S.submarines.
Type2019AcousticinterceptreceiveronRoyalNavysubmarines.
Type2020Active/passiveconformalarrayonRoyalNavySSNs.
Type2027AcomputerprocessorhookedtotheType2020todeterminerangebasedonmultiplearrivalpathsofatarget'snoise.Multipathranging.
Type2046RoyalNavytowedarrayforsubmarines.Thisclip-onarrayisattachedtooneofthesternplanes.
Type2072AnewflankarrayforRoyalNavySSNs,toreplacetheolderType2007.
TyphoonSSBNThesizeofasmallWWIIbattlecruiser,theTyphoonisthelargestsubmarineeverbuilt.Veryquiet,andequippedwithmodernsensors.Atotalofsixunitshavebeenbuilt.
U-boatUnterseeboot.TheGermannameforsubmarines.
UAPESMsystemonRoyalNavySSNs.
UHFUltraHighFrequency.
UltraAlliedspecialintelligenceduringWorldWarII,obtainedbythe
interceptionanddecryptionofGermanEnigmacommunications.
Upholder(S-40)Latestdiesel-electricsubmarineintheRoyalNavy.IntendedtoreplacetheagingOberonclassSS,theUpholdershavebeenexperiencinganumberofteethingpainsincludingproblemswiththeirtorpedotubes.WiththecollapseoftheSovietUnion,onlyfouroutofaprojectedclassrunoftwelveunitsaretobebuilt.
Valiant(S-102)Second-generationRoyalNavySSN.BasedontheDreadnought,theentiresubmarinewasproducedintheUnitedKingdom.Atotaloffiveunitsbuilt.
VanguardSecond-generationRoyalNavySSBN.TwiceaslargeastheResolutionclass,theVanguardclasswillcarrysixteenU.S.TridentII(D-5)missiles.Describedasbeingveryquietsubmarines.Atotaloffourunitsareexpectedtobebuilt.
VHFVeryHighFrequency.
VictorI&IISSNsSecond-generationSovietSSNs.Larger,quieter,andbetterequippedthanNovemberclass.VictorIIsdifferfromVictorIsinthattheVictorIIshavefour650mmtorpedotubesandareabout16feetlonger.Atotaloftwenty-twounitswerebuilt.
VictorIIISSNAfurthermodificationofasecond-generationdesign.TheVictorIIIclassisthefirstSovietSSNthatcameclosetoWesternstandardsintermsofquietingandsensors.Theteardrop-shapedpodontherudderisthehousingforatowedsonararray.TheVictorIIIisthemostnumerousclassofSSNintheRussianinventory,withtwenty-sixunitsbuilt.
VLFVeryLowFrequency.
VLSVerticalLaunchSystem.AsetoftwelveexternaltubeslocatedinthenumbertwomainballasttankonSSN719andontheLosAngeles-classSSN.
VSELVickersShipbuildingEnterprises,Limited.TheU.K.equivalentofElectricBoatCompany.
WaterfalldisplayPhraseusedtodescribetheappearancethatamodernpassivesonardisplaymakeswhileshowingbearingversustimeinformation.AcontactwilllooklikeabrightlineonaCRTagainstaspeckledbackgroundofothernoisesources.
WEOWeaponEngineeringOfficer.RoyalNavyequivalentoftheweaponsofficer;however,theWEOisnoteligibleforcommand.
XOExecutiveOfficer.U.S.Navytermforthesecondincommandofaship.
Bibliography
Magazines
InternationalDefenseReview
Jane'sDefenseWeekly
Jane'sIntelligenceReview
MaritimeDefense
MorskoySbornik
NavalForces--InternationalForumforMaritimePower
NavalInstituteProceedings
NavyInternational
TheSubmarineReview
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Polmar,Norman,andJurrienNoot.SubmarinesoftheRussianandSovietNavies1718-1990.NavalInstitutePress,1991.
Preston,Anthony.Submarines:TheHistoryandEvolutionofUnderwaterFightingVessels.OctopusBooks,1975.
Richelson,JeffreyT.America'sSecretEyesinSpace:TheU.S.KeyholeSpySatelliteProgram.HarperandRow,1990.
Ross,Donald.MechanicsofUnderwaterNoise.PeninsulaPublishing,1987.
Sakitt,Mark.SubmarineWarfareintheArctic:OptionorIllusion?StanfordUniversityPress,1988.
Schwab,ErnestLouis.UnderseaWarriors--SubmarinesoftheWorld.CrescentBooks,1991.
Stefanick,Tom.StrategicAntisubmarineWarfareandNavalStrategy.LexingtonBooks,1987.
Terraine,John.BusinessinGreatWaters.LeoCooper,Ltd.,1989.
Time-LifeBooksStaff.HuntersoftheDeep.Time-LifeBooks,1992.
Tyler,Patrick.RunningCritical.HarperandRow,1986.
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U.S.NewsandWorldReportStaff.TriumphWithoutVictory.RandomHouse,1992.
vanderVat,Dan.ThePacificCampaign:WorldWarII,TheU.S./JapaneseNavalWar1941-1945.SimonandSchuster,1991.
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"Harpoon."McDonnellDouglasCorp.
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"SSN,RubisClass,AmethysteBatch."DirectionDesConstructionsNavales.
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"TYPETR1000ModOcean-goingSubmarine."ThyssenNordseewerkeGmbH.
"TYPETR1700Ocean-goingSubmarine."ThyssenNordseewerkeGmbH.
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1
Tothisday,theU.S.NavywillofficiallyonlyadmitthatU.S.nuclear"submarines...operateatspeedsover20knots,anddepthsover400feet..."
2
NormanFriedman,SubmarineDesignandDevelopment,U.S.NavalInstitute,1984.
3
PatrickTaylor,RunningCritical,HarperandRow,1986,p.58.
4
Ibid.,p.259.
5
Ibid.,p.58.
6
Ibid.
7
A.D.Baker,CombatFleetsoftheWorld,U.S.NavalInstitute,1993,pp.809-811.
8
Asthisbookgoestopress,massivecutsinthestructureofthesubmarineforcearebeingplanned.ThesedescriptionsofbasesandorganizationsarecurrentasofMarch1993.
9
ThedescriptionofthedevelopmentoftheLosAngeles-classboatsissuperblytoldinthebookRunningCriticalbyPatrickTaylor(HarperandRow,1986).
10
A.D.Baker,CombatFleetsoftheWorld,U.S.NavalInstitute,1993,pp.809-811.
11
Thefourboatsbeingconsideredforconversiontoguidedmissilesubmarines(SSGNs)includetheOhio(SSBN-726),Michigan(SSBN-727),Florida(SSBN-728),andGeorgia(SSBN-729),allofwhichwerescheduledfordecommissioningundertheSTART-2arms-controlagreement.Whileseveralconfigurationsarebeingconsidered,thebasicideaistofittheTridentmissiletubeswithseven-cellverticallaunchersandstorageforsuppliestosupportspecialoperationsforces(SOF).Between126and154Tomahawkswouldbecarried,alongwithupto66SOFpersonnel.
12
Whileanumberofboatswereconfiguredforelectroniceavesdropping,atleastfourAmericanSSNswereconvertedintocovertoperationsplatformsfordeepoceansearchandrecoveryaswellasinshoretappingofunderseacommunicationscables.Ofthefour,onlyParche(SSN-683)isstillincommissionandwillbereplacedinthenextfewyears.Theotherthree,Seawolf(SSN-575),Halibut(SSGN-587),andRichardB.Russell(SSN-687),werealldecommissionedpriorto,orattheendof,theColdWar.
13
FormoreonspecialwarfareandtheArmySpecialForces,seemybookSpecialForces:AGuidedTourofU.S.ArmySpecialOperations(BerkleyBooks,2001).
14
ThetwoLafayette-class(SSBN-616)ballisticmissileboats,Kamehameha(SSN-642)andJamesK.Polk(SSN-645),havehad
theirmissiletubesconvertedtostorageareasandbeenfittedwithdrydockhangarsforspecializedminiaturesubmarinescalledSEALDeliveryVehicles(SDVs).Eachcancarryandsupportupto67SEALsortroopswitheverythingfromexplosivestorubberboats.
15
Technically,SeawolfshouldhavebeengiventhehullnumberSSN-774.However,theNavy'sdesiretosettheclassapartasthefirstofanewcenturyledtotheSSN-21designation.TheSSN-774designationhasbeennowassignedtotheleadboatofthenewVirginia-classSSNs.
16
Formoreonthesetwoyardsandhowtheybuildships,seemybooksMarine:AGuidedTourofaMarineExpeditionaryUnit(BerkleyBooks,1997)andCarrier:AGuidedTourofaCarrierBattleGroup(BerkleyBooks,1999).
17
FirstdemonstratedaboardtheAegiscruiserYorktown(CG-48),"SmartShip"usesCOTS-basedsystemstoprovideimprovedsituationalawarenesstoareducedwatchofcrewpersonnel.Italsohelpswithmanagementoflogisticsandsystemscontrol,makingthereductionofcrewnumbersarealityforthefirsttimesincetheadventofsteam.