Metal
Introduction
metal, chemical element displaying certain properties by which it is normally
distinguished from a non metal, notably its metallic luster, the capacity to lose
electrons and form a positive ion, and the ability to conduct heat and electricity. The
metals comprise about two thirds of the known elements (see periodic table). Some
metals, including copper, tin, iron, lead, gold, silver, and mercury, were known to the
ancients; copper is probably the oldest known metal.
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a. Physical Properties
Metals differ so widely in hardness, ductility (the potentiality of being drawn into
wire), malleability, tensile strength, density, and melting point that a definite line of
distinction between them and the non metals cannot be drawn. The hardest
elemental metal is chromium; the softest, cesium. Copper, gold, platinum, and silver
are especially ductile. Most metals are malleable; gold, silver, copper, tin, and
aluminum are extremely so. Some metals exhibiting great tensile strength are
copper, iron, and platinum. Three metals (lithium, potassium, and sodium) have
densities of less than one gram per cubic centimeter at ordinary temperatures and
are therefore lighter than water. Some heavy metals, beginning with the most
dense, are osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, tungsten, uranium, tantalum, mercury,
hafnium, lead, and silver.
For many industrial uses, the melting points of the metals are important. Tungsten
fuses, or melts, only at extremely high temperatures (3,370°C.), while cesium has a
melting point of 28.5°C. The best metallic conductor of electricity is silver. Copper,
gold, and aluminum follow in the order named. All metals are relatively good
conductors of heat; silver, copper, and aluminum are especially conductive. The
radioactive metal uranium is used in reactor piles to generate steam and electric
power. Plutonium, another radioactive element, is used in nuclear weapons and
nuclear reactors as well as in pacemakers. Some of the radioactive metals not found
in nature, e.g., fermium and sea borgium, are produced by nuclear bombardment.
Some elements, e.g., arsenic and antimony, exhibit both metallic and non metallic
properties and are called metalloids. Furthermore, although all metals form crystals,
this is also characteristic of certain nonmetals, e.g., carbon and sulfur.
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b. Chemical Properties
Chemically, the metals differ from the non metals in that they form positive ions and
basic oxides and hydroxides. Upon exposure to moist air, a great many undergo
corrosion, i.e., enter into a chemical reaction; e.g., iron rusts when exposed to moist
air, the oxygen of the atmosphere uniting with the metal to form the oxide of the
metal. Aluminum and zinc do not appear to be affected, but in fact a thin coating of
the oxide is formed almost at once, stopping further action and appearing
unnoticeable because of its close resemblance to the metal. Tin, lead, and copper
react slowly under ordinary conditions. Silver is affected by compounds such as
sulfur dioxide and becomes tarnished when exposed to air containing them. The
metals are combined with non metals in their salts, as in carbides, carbonates,
chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, silicates, sulfides, and sulfates.
c. The Electromotive Series
On the basis of their ability to be oxidized, i.e., lose electrons, metals can be
arranged in a list called the electromotive series, or replacement series. Metals
toward the beginning of the series, like cesium and lithium, are more readily oxidized
than those toward the end, like silver and gold. In general, a metal will replace any
other metal, or hydrogen, in a compound that it precedes in the series, and under
ordinary circumstances it will be replaced by any metal, or hydrogen, that it follows.
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d. Sources and Uses
Although a few metals occur un combined in nature, the great majority are found
combined in their ores. The separation of metals from their ores is called extractive
metallurgy. Metals are mixed with each other in definite amounts to form alloys; a
mixture of mercury and another metal is called an amalgam. Bronze is an alloy of
copper and tin, and brass contains copper and zinc. Metal is an alloy of iron and
other metals with carbon added for hardness.
Since metals form positive ions readily, i.e., they donate their orbital electrons, they
are used in chemistry as reducing agents (see oxidation and reduction). Finely
divided metals or their oxides are often used as surface catalysts. Iron and iron
oxides catalyze the conversion of hydrogen and nitrogen to ammonia in the Haber
process. Finely divided catalytic platinum or nickel is used in the hydrogenation of
unsaturated oils. Metal ions orient electron-rich groups called ligands around
themselves, forming complex ions. Metal ions are important in many biological
functions, including enzyme and coenzyme action, nucleic acid synthesis, and
transport across membranes.
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A Short History of Metals
Process Metallurgy is one of the oldest applied sciences. Its history can be traced
back to 6000 BC. Admittedly, its form at that time was rudimentary, but, to gain a
perspective in Process Metallurgy, it is worthwhile to spend a little time studying the
initiation of mankind's association with metals. Currently there are 86 known metals.
Before the 19th century only 24 of these metals had been discovered and, of these
24 metals, 12 were discovered in the 18th century. Therefore, from the discovery of
the first metals - gold and copper until the end of the 17th century, some 7700 years,
only 12 metals were known. Four of these metals, arsenic, antimony , zinc and
bismuth , were discovered in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, while
platinum was discovered in the 16th century. The other seven metals, known as the
Metals of Antiquity, were the metals upon which civilisation was based. These seven
metals were:
o Gold (ca) 6000BC
o Copper,(ca) 4200BC
o Silver,(ca) 4000BC
o Lead, (ca) 3500BC
o Tin, (ca) 1750BC
o Iron,smelted, (ca) 1500BC
o Mercury, (ca) 750BC
These metals were known to the Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks and the
Romans. Of the seven metals, five can be found in their native states, e.g., gold,
silver, copper, iron (from meteors) and mercury. However, the occurrence of these
metals was not abundant and the first two metals to be used widely were gold and
copper. And, of course, the history of metals is closely linked to that of coins and
gemstones
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a. Gold
Gold articles are found extensively in antiquity mainly as jewelry e.g. Bracelets, rings
etc. Early gold artifacts are rarely pure and most contain significant silver contents.
This led to the ancients naming another metal - electrum, which was an alloy of gold
and silver, pale yellow and similar in color to amber. Therefore, early gold varied
from pure through electrum to white gold. The symbol for gold is Au from the
latinaurum meaning shining dawn.
Stone age man learned to fashion gold into jewelry and ornaments, learning that it
could be formed into sheets and wires easily. However, its malleability, which allows
it to be formed into very thin sheet (0.000005 inches), ensures that it has no
utilitarian value and early uses were only decorative. As gold is a noble metal, being
virtually noncorrosive and tarnish free, it served this purpose admirably.
Gold is widely dispersed through the earth's crust and is found in two types of
deposits : lode deposits, which are found in solid rock and are mined using
conventional mining techniques, and placer deposits which are gravelly deposits
found in stream beds and are the products of eroding lode deposits. Since gold is
found uncombined in nature, early goldsmiths would collect small nuggets of gold
from stream beds etc., and then weld them together by hammering.
Thus we find the first problem in process metallurgy : The metal deposit must be
identified. In the case of the first metals color was the most important factor as it
allowed the metal to be recognized in surrounding rock, stones, gravel and dirt
(gangue) and separated. Clearly, after recognition, separation is next problem
followed by concentration. These three steps are very important and the economics
of these steps usually define whether it is viable to produce the metal from a set
deposit. In the early days all three steps were carried out simultaneously. Gold is
widely dispersed throughout the earths crust (0.005 ppm) at a very small level,
therefore, it is very important to find naturally occurring concentrations. The scarcity
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of gold and its value, due to mankinds fascination with its color, have lead to gold
being the one of the more important metals in daily life.
b. Copper
The use of copper in antiquity is of more significance than gold as the first tools,
implements and weapons were made from copper. From 4,000 to 6,000 BC was the
Chalcolithic period which was when copper came into common use. The symbol for
copper is Cu and comes from the latin cuprum meaning from the island of Cyprus.
Initially copper was chipped into small pieces from the main mass. The small pieces
were hammered and ground in a manner similar to the techniques used for bones
and stones. However, when copper was hammered it became brittle and would
easily break. The solution to this problem was to anneal the copper. This discovery
was probably made when pieces were dropped in camp fires and then hammered.
By 5,000 BC copper sheet was being made.
By 3600 BC the first copper smelted artifacts were found in the Nile valley and
copper rings, bracelets, chisels were found. By 3000 BC weapons, tools etc. were
widely found. Tools and weapons of utilitarian value were now within society,
however, only kings and royalty had such tools; it would take another 500 years
before they reached the peasants.
Malachite, a green friable stone, was the source of copper in the early smelters.
Originally it was thought that the smelting of copper was by chance dropping of
malachite into campfires. However, campfire temperatures are normally in the
region of 600-650 C, whereas, 700-800 C is necessary for reduction. It is more
probable that early copper smelting was discovered by ancient potters whose clay
firing furnaces could reach temperatures of 1100-1200 C. If Malachite was added to
these furnaces copper nodules would easily be found. Although the first smelted
copper was found in the Nile valley, it is thought that this copper was brought to
Egypt by the Gerzeans and copper smelting was produced first in Western Asia
between 4000 and 4300 BC.
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Although copper can be found free in nature the most important sources are the
minerals cuprite, malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite and bornite. Copper is reddish
colored, malleable, ductile and a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Approximately 90% 0f the worlds primary copper originates in sulfide ores.
c. Lead
Lead is not found free in nature but Galena (lead sulfide) was used as an eye paint by
the ancient Egyptians. Galena has a very metallic looking appearance and was,
therefore, likely to attract the attention of early metalworkers. The production of
metallic lead from its ore is relatively easy and could have been produced by
reduction of Galena in a camp fire. The melting point of lead is 327 C, therefore, it
would easily flow to the lowest point in the fireplace and collect. At first lead was not
used widely because it was too ductile and the first uses of lead were around 3500
B.C.. Lead's use as a container and conduit was important and lead pipes bearing the
insignia of Roman emperors can still be found. Lead is highly malleable, ductile and
noncorrosive making it an excellent piping material. Its symbol is Pb from the latin
plumbum.
The ability of lead to flow and collect at the bottom of the campfire is an important
concept in process metallurgy as reduction reactions to be useful must cause a phase
separation between the metal and the gangue. Also, the phase separation should
also enable the metal to be cast into a desired shape once concentrated.
d. Silver
Although silver was found freely in nature, its occurrence was rare. Silver is the most
chemically active of the noble metals, is harder than gold but softer than copper. It
ranks second in ductility and malleability to gold. It is normally stable in pure air and
water but tarnishes when exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide or sulfur. Due to its
softness, pure silver was used for ornaments, jewelry and as a measure of wealth. In
a manner similar to gold, native silver can easily be formed. Silver's symbol is Ag
from the latin argentum.
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Galena always contains a small amount of silver and it was found that if the lead was
oxidized into a powdery ash a droplet of silver was left behind. Another development
in this process was the discovery that if bone ash was added to the lead oxide, the
lead oxide would be adsorbed and a large amount of material could be processed. By
2500 BC the cupellation process was the normal mode of silver manufacture.
e. Tin
Smelted copper was rarely pure, in fact, it is clear that by 2500 BC the Sumerians had
recognized that if different ores were blended together in the smelting process, a
different type of copper, which flowed more easily, was stronger after forming and
was easy to cast, could be made. An axe head from 2500 BC revealed that it
contained 11% tin and 89% copper. This was of course the discovery of @b(Bronze).
However, by 2000 BC copper implements contained very little tin as local reserves of
tin had been exhausted. The Sumerians were forced to travel to find the necessary
ores. Bronze was a much more useful alloy than copper as farm implements and
weapons could be made from it, however, it needed the discovery of tin to become
the alloy of choice.
Native Tin is not found in nature. The first tin artifacts date back to 2000 B.C.,
however, it was not until 1800 B.C. that tin smelting became common in western
Asia. Tin was reduced by charcoal and at first was thought to be a form of lead. The
Romans referred to both tin and lead as plumbum where lead was plumbumnigrum
and tin was plumbumcandidum. Tin was rarely used on its own and was most
commonly alloyed to copper to form bronze. The most common form of tin ore is
the oxide casserite. By 1400 BC.bronze was the predominant metal alloy. Tin's
symbol is Sn from the stannum.
Tin is highly malleable and ductile and has two allotropic forms which lead to tin
initially having its own disease (tin pest or blight) which was actually formation of
alpha-tin below 13 C. As alpha-tin is a highly friable cubic structure with a greater
specific volume than beta-tin, during the phase change, which is kinetically limited,
nodules of alpha-tin become visible on the surface of beta-tin giving rise to early
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belief of sickness and the first true doctors of metallurgy. Tin is highly crystalline and
during deformation is subject to mechanical twinning and an audible tin cry. Tin is
also quite resistant to corrosion.
Tin is found as vein tin or stream tin. The tin ore is stannic oxide and is generally
found with quartz, feldspar or mica. The ore is a hard , heavy and inert substance
and is generally found as outcroppings as softer impurities are washed away.
f. Mercury
Mercury was also known to the ancients and has been found in tombs dating back to
1500 and 1600 BC. Pliny, the Roman chronicler, outlined purification techniques by
squeezing it through leather and also noted that it was poisonous. Mercury, also
known as quicksilver, is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature.
Although it can be found in its native state, it is more commonly found in such ores
as calomel, livingstonite, corderite and its sulfide cinnabar. Extraction is most simply
carried out by distillation as mercury compounds decompose at moderate
temperatures and volatilize.
Mercury was widely used because of its ability to dissolve silver and gold
(amalgamation) and was the basis of many plating technologies. There is also
indications that it was prized and perhaps worshipped by the Egyptians. In 315 B.C.,
Dioscorides mentions recovery of quicksilver (which he called hydrargyros, liquid
silver) by distillation, stating " An iron bowl containing cinnabar is put into an
earthenware container and sealed with clay. It is then set on a fire and the soot
which sticks to the cover is quicksilver". Methods changed little until the 18th
century. Mercury's symbol is Hg from hydragyrum, liquid silver.
g. Iron
Iron was available to the ancients in small amounts from meteors. This native iron is
easily distinguishable because it contains 6-8% nickel. There is some indication that
man-made iron was available as early as 2500 B.C., however, ironmaking did not
become an everyday process until 1200 BC. Hematite, an oxide of iron, was widely
used by the ancients for beads and ornaments. It is also readily reduced by carbon.
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However, if reduced at temperatures below 700-800 C it is not suitable for forging
and must be produced at temperatures above 1100 C. Wrought iron was the first
form of iron known to man. The product of reaction was a spongy mass of iron
intermixed with slag. This was then reheated and hammered to expel the slag and
then forged into the desired shape. In the early days iron was 5 times more
expensive then gold and its first uses were as ornaments.
Iron weapons revolutionized warfare and iron implements did the same for farming.
Iron and Metal was the building block for civilization. Interestingly, an iron pillar
dating to 400 A.D., remains standing today in Delhi, India. Corrosion to the pillar has
been minimal a skill lost to current ironworkers. Iron is rarely found in its native state
the only known sources being Greenland where the iron occurs as nodules in basalt
that erupted through beds of coal and two very rare nickel-iron alloys. Iron's symbol
is Fe from the latinferrum.
These seven metals: gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, mercury and iron, and the alloys
bronze and electrum were the starting point of metallurgy and even in this simple,
historic account we find some of the basic problems of process metallurgy. The
problems are:
o The ores must be found, separated and sized before use.
o The ores must be reacted under a controlled temperature and gas
atmosphere.
o The liquid metal must be collected and cast into a desired shape.
o The metal must be worked to achieve desired final properties and shape.
Paraguay:
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History
Indians speaking Guaraní—the most common language in Paraguay today, after
Spanish—were the country's first inhabitants. In 1526 and again in 1529, Sebastian
Cabot explored Paraguay when he sailed up the Paraná and Paraguay rivers. From
1608 until their expulsion from the Spanish dominions in 1767, the Jesuits
maintained an extensive establishment in the south and east of Paraguay. In 1811,
Paraguay revolted against Spanish rule and became a nominal republic under two
consuls.
Paraguay was governed by three dictators during the first 60 years of independence.
The third, Francisco López, waged war against Uruguay, Brazil, and Argentina in
1865–1870, a conflict in which half the male population was killed. A new
constitution in 1870, designed to prevent dictatorships and internal strife, failed to
do so, and not until 1912 did a period of comparative economic and political stability
begin. The Chaco War (1932–1935) with Bolivia won Paraguay more western
territory.
After World War II, politics became particularly unstable. Alfredo Stroessner was
dictator from 1954 until 1989, during which he was accused of the torture and
murder of thousands of political opponents. Despite Paraguay's human rights record,
the U.S. continuously supported Stroessner.
Stroessner was overthrown by army leader Gen. Andres Rodriguez in 1989.
Rodriguez went on to win Paraguay's first multicandidate election in decades.
Paraguay's new constitution went into effect in 1992. In 1993, Juan Carlos Wasmosy,
a wealthy businessman and the candidate of the governing Colorado Party, won a
five-year term in free elections.
Raúl Cubas Grau was elected president in May 1998. In 1999, Cubas was forced from
office for his alleged involvement in the assassination of Vice President Luis María
Argaña. The vice president had criticized Cubas for refusing to jail his mentor, Gen.
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Lino Oviedo, who had been convicted of leading a failed 1996 coup against
Wasmosy. Oviedo was finally arrested in 2004 and jailed.
Luis Ángel González Macchi, appointed caretaker president after Cubas stepped
down, was accused of mishandling $16 million in state funds, and in 2006 he was
sentenced to six years in prison. Former journalist Nicanor Duarte Frutos became
president on Aug. 15, 2003. He has pledged to clean up the pervasive corruption in
his nearly bankrupt country. Paraguay has been in a protracted recession since the
late 1990s.
On April 22, 2008, Fernando Lugo, a former Roman Catholic Bishop, was elected
president of Paraguay beating the Colorado Party's candidate, Blanca Ovelar de
Duarte, by 10 percentage points. Lugo's victory ended the Colorado Party's 61 years
in power—a system of bureaucracy and patronage founded in 1887. Fernando Lugo
was sworn in as president on Aug. 15, 2008.
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Economy Of Paraguay
Paraguay has a market economy characterized by a large informal sector. Agriculture
dominates the economy, but unequal land distribution has resulted in a large class
of peasant farm laborers. A large portion of the population is uninvolved in the
formal economy, instead existing as subsistence farmers. In recent years, the
economy has grown as a result of increased agricultural exports, especially soybeans.
Reforms in fiscal and monetary policy also have improved Paraguay’s
economy. Inflation has dropped, and the currency has appreciated gradually.
Nevertheless, urban unemployment and underemployment have been problems
throughout Paraguay’s history. Paraguay has the economic advantages of a young
population and vast hydroelectric power but has few very bad mineral resources,
and political instability has undercut some of the economic advantages present. The
government welcomes foreign investment.[6] Paraguay is a middle-income country
that changed rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s as a result of hydroelectric
development, agricultural colonization, construction, and cash crop exports.
Nevertheless, the country's gross domestic product (GDP) in 1986 was approximately
US$3.4 billion, or roughly US$1,000 per capita, ranking Paraguay only ahead
of Bolivia among the Spanish-speaking countries of South America. Paraguay was the
most agricultural economy of South America, and that sector influenced the
performance of virtually every other sector of the economy.
Traditionally isolated and under populated, Paraguay was one of the last countries in
Latin America to enjoy the region's rapid growth in the post-World War II period.
Paraguay entered a phase of sustained economic growth in the late 1950s. Its
economy grew at the fastest pace of all the Latin American countries during most of
the 1970s as the Paraguayan-Brazilian project, the Itaipu Dam, the world's largest
hydroelectric plant, was constructed. During that decade, cotton and soybeans came
to dominate agriculture, mostly as a result of high export prices and agricultural
colonization. Paraguay's economy also was characterized by a large underground
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sector, in which smuggling and contraband had become normal features by the
1970s.
The Paraguayan economic miracle of the 1970s came to a halt in 1982 because of
the completion of construction at Itaipú, lower commodity prices for cotton and
soybeans, and world recession. The economy recovered in 1984 and
1985, stagnated in 1986, and continued to expand in 1987 and 1988. Despite its
rapid growth, the Paraguayan economy became increasingly dependent on soybeans
and cotton for exports and overall economic dynamism. These two crops, however,
remained subject to external price fluctuations and local weather conditions, both of
which varied considerably.
Economic growth in the post-World War II period occurred in the context of political
stability characterized by authoritarian rule and patronage politics. Government
economic policies deviated little from 1954 to the late 1980s, consistently favoring a
strong private-enterprise economy with a large role for foreign investment. Unlike
most Latin American economies, in Paraguay import tariffs were generally low, fiscal
deficits manageable, and exchange rates not overvalued. These trends faltered in the
1980s as the government took a more active part in industry, deficits rose, and the
national currency was generally overvalued and devalued numerous times.
Throughout the post-World War II era, Paraguay had no personal income tax, and
government revenues as a percentage of GDP were among the lowest in the world.
Despite the sustained economic growth that marked the post war period, the
distribution of economic benefits was highly inequitable. Although GDP expanded
rapidly in the 1970s, most economists estimated that income distribution worsened
during the decade. Government spending on social services was particularly lacking.
Paraguay's poverty was mostly a rural phenomenon, which increasingly involved
competition for land in the eastern region near the Brazilian border, especially in the
departments (administrative divisions) of Alto Paraná, Can endiyú, and Caaguazú.
Nonetheless, land tenure was not generally the acute social problem it was in many
developing countries.
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Although Paraguay faced significant obstacles to future economic development, it
displayed extraordinary potential. Paraguay contained little oil and no precious
metals or sea coasts, but the country was self-sufficient in many areas and was
endowed with fertile land, dense forests, and swift rivers. The process of opening up
the eastern border region to economic activity and continued agricultural expansion
was expected to effect rapid changes in once-isolated Paraguay. Likewise, the
development of a series of hydroelectric plants along the Río Paraná linked Paraguay
to its neigh bors and provided it access to cherished energy resources and badly
needed export revenues. Finally, road construction united different departments of
Paraguay and provided the country its first access to the Atlantic Ocean via Brazil.
These processes of infrastructure development, hydroelectric expansion, agricultural
colonization, and a cash crop explosion allowed Paraguay by the late 1980s to begin
to tap its potential.
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METAL INDUSTRY IN PARAGUAY
The Mineral Industry
The mineral industry Paraguay includes the production of cement, iron and steel,
and petroleum derivatives. Paraguay has no known natural gas or oil reserves. To
meet its crude oil and petroleum products demand, Paraguay relies completely on
imports of approximately 25,400 barrels per day (4,040 m3/d) (bbl/d) (2006 est.). The
mining sector contributes little to the country’s economy, accounting for only 0.1%
of its gross domestic production (GDP).
Paraguay’s tax exemptions on imports of equipment for natural gas and petroleum
exploration, development, and production are expected to continue in the medium
and long terms. Cement, natural gas, and petroleum investors have shown interest
in the country, which could support continued economic growth and foreign direct
investment (FDI) in new technologies well into the next decade.
Columbia Metal Casting Co., Inc.
Founded in 1901, Columbia Metal is a worldwide leading manufacturer of Metal
alloy and iron alloy impact, wear and heat resistant replacement parts for basic
industry. Industries served include: aggregate, hard rock mining, dragline mining,
metal recycling (shredding), cement manufacturing, coal-fired power, and more.
Columbia Metal employees work closely with customers to provide optimized parts
through improved designs and superior materials. Columbia Metal manufactures
parts in a broad variety of wear and heat resistant alloys, fully heat treated and
machined to the most exacting specifications. Every step from engineering and
pattern making to casting, machining, heat treating and quality assurance all take
place in one integrated manufacturing facility. All parts are made at Columbia
Metal`s 86-acre Portland, Oregon USA facility.
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Trade and Commerce in Paraguay
a. Background
Paraguay achieved its independence from Spain in 1811. In the disastrous War of the
Triple Alliance (1865-70) - between Paraguay and Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay -
Paraguay lost two-thirds of its adult males and much of its territory. The country
stagnated economically for the next half century. Following the Chaco War of 1932-
35 with Bolivia, Paraguay gained a large part of the Chaco lowland region. The 35-
year military dictatorship of Alfredo STROESSNER ended in 1989, and, despite a
marked increase in political infighting in recent years, Paraguay has held relatively
free and regular presidential elections since the country's return to democracy.
b. System of government
Paraguay is a constitutional republic headed by a directly elected president, with a
bicameral legislature. Paraguay's National Constitution, enacted in 1992, radically
decentralised and democratised the country's system of government, establishing a
clear division of executive, legislative and judicial responsibilities, and vastly
improved protection of civil rights. The executive branch is headed by the President,
elected by popular vote for a five-year term, who appoints a Cabinet of ministers.
The legislative branch consists of a bicameral Congress, with an 80-member
Chamber of Deputies and a 45-member Senate. Members of both houses of
Congress are popularly elected for a five-year term under a system of proportional
representation, based on local electoral districts ("departments") for the Chamber of
Deputies and on nationwide results for the Senate.
c. Recent developments
On 15 August 2008, the successful leftist candidate (and former Catholic priest)
Fernando Lugo was sworn in as President of Paraguay. Prior to President Lugo's
appointment, Paraguay had been ruled by the Colorado party for 61 years, of which
15 years were democratic. Following his impeachment by the Paraguayan Congress
in June 2012, Lugo was replaced by Vice-President Federico Franco. Lugo's removal
was condemned by neighbouring states. Paraguay was subsequently suspended by
regional organisations Mercosur and Unasur. Colorado Party candidate
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HoracioCartes won the April 2013 presidential elections with approximately 46 per
cent of the vote, compared with 40 per cent for the runner up, EfraínAlegre of the
centrist Partido Liberal Radical Autentico (PLRA). President-elect Cartes will be
inaugurated on 15 August 2013. The election paves the way for Paraguay’s possible
return to Mercosur and Unasur.
d. International relations
Paraguay's most important political and economic partners are its immediate
neighbours and fellow members of Mercosur, Argentina and Brazil. Mercosur, the
Southern Cone Common Market, is comprised of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay,
Uruguay and Venezuela as well as associate members Chile, Colombia, Ecuador,
Guyana, Peru and Suriname. Mexico is an Observer and Bolivia is in the process of
becoming a full member. Membership provides Paraguay, a landlocked country, with
preferential trade access to the markets of Mercosur members and associates.
Paraguay is also a member of several regional organisations, including the Union of
South American Nations (UNASUR), the Community of Latin American and Caribbean
States (CELAC) and the Organization of American States (OAS), which seek to
advance a variety of regional political and economic interests. In June 2013,
Paraguay became an observer to the Pacific Alliance.
Paraguay and the US maintain close ties through areas of mutual interest, including
efforts to combat the trafficking of people and drugs, engagement on sustainable
development and through economic ties. An increasing number of US multinational
companies have established a presence in Paraguay.
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e. Economic Outlook
Landlocked Paraguay has a market economy distinguished by a large informal sector,
eaturing re-export of imported consumer goods to neighbouring countries, as well as
the activities of thousands of microenterprises and urban street vendors. A large
percentage of the population, especially in rural areas, derives its living from
agricultural activity, often on a subsistence basis. Because of the importance of the
informal sector, accurate economic measures are difficult to obtain. On a per capita
basis, real income has stagnated at 1980 levels. The economy grew rapidly between
2003 and 2008 as growing world demand for commodities combined with high
prices and favourable weather to support Paraguay's commodity-based export
expansion. Paraguay is the sixth largest soy producer in the world. Drought hit in
2008, reducing agricultural exports and slowing the economy even before the onset
of the global recession. The economy fell 3.8% in 2009, as lower world demand and
commodity prices caused exports to contract. The government reacted by
introducing fiscal and monetary stimulus packages. Growth resumed at a 13% level
in 2010, the highest in South America, but slowed to about 4% in 2011 as the
stimulus subsided. In 2012, severe drought and outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease
led to a drop in beef and other agricultural exports and the economy contracted
about 0.5%. Political uncertainty, corruption, limited progress on structural reform,
and deficient infrastructure are the main obstacles to long-term growth.
Paraguay is predominantly an agricultural economy. The country's main export is
soybeans (Paraguay is the world’s 4th largest exporter), which makes it highly
susceptible to climate and world price changes. Paraguay's other main exports
include electricity (from the Itaipú dam) cereals, beef, timber, leather and apparel.
Paraguay's economic outlook is strongly influenced by the economic performance of
its neighbours, particularly Brazil and Argentina. Paraguay, together with Brazil, runs
one of the largest hydroelectric facilities in the world, located in the Paraná River,
the border between Brazil and Paraguay. Hydroelectricity exports are a major
income source for Paraguay.
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China and Brazil are Paraguay’s largest trading partners. In 2012, Brazil was
Paraguay’s principal export destination (39.2 per cent) and China was Paraguay’s
main source of imports (27.6 per cent).
Paraguay's real GDP growth rates have varied widely in recent years, from growth of
6.4 per cent in 2008 to minus 4.0 per cent in 2009, a rebound to 13 per cent in 2010,
4.3 per cent in 2011 and minus 1.2 per cent in 2012. The robust performance of
Paraguay's agricultural sector in 2010, as well as strong performances in construction
and manufacturing drove a positive rebound from the recession in 2009. The
banking system also weathered the recession relatively well. However, there was an
unexpected fall in export volumes in 2011, due to a prolonged drought, a decrease in
construction (owing to cement shortages), difficulties in exporting meat (owing to an
outbreak of foot and mouth disease), and a weaker global economy. A record
harvest in 2013 is expected to provide real GDP growth of 11 per cent for the year.
Foreign direct investment in Paraguay has increased substantially in recent years,
resulting from investments by multinational firms in Paraguay and secondary effects
from capital flows into the region.
Table No: 1
Table Name: Economic analysis of Paraguay
GDP (purchasing power parity) $41.55 billion (2012 est.) $42.05 billion (2011 est.) $40.3 billion (2010 est.) note: data are in 2012 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate) $26 billion (2012 est.)GDP - real growth rate -1.2% (2012 est.)
4.3% (2011 est.) 13.1% (2010 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP) $6,200 (2012 est.) $6,400 (2011 est.) $6,300 (2010 est.) note: data are in 2012 US dollars
GDP - composition, by end use Household consumption: 72.8% government consumption: 12.2% investment in fixed capital: 14.6% investment in inventories: 0.3% exports of goods and services: 46.8%
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imports of goods and services: -46.7% (2012 est.)
GDP - composition by sector agriculture: 15.9% industry: 17.3% services: 66.8% (2012 est.)
Population below poverty line 34.7% (2010 est.)Labor force 3.137 million (2012 est.)Labor force - by occupation agriculture: 26.5%
industry: 18.5% services: 55% (2008)
Unemployment rate 6.9% (2012 est.) 6.6% (2011 est.)
Unemployment, youth ages 15-24 total: 17.8% male: 9.7% female: 13% (2011)
Household income or consumption by percentage share
lowest 10%: 1% highest 10%: 41.1% (2010 est.)
Distribution of family income - Gini index
53.2 (2009) 57.7 (1998)
Investment (gross fixed) 14.6% of GDP (2012 est.)Budget revenues: $4.665 billion
expenditures: $5.109 billion (2012 est.)Taxes and other revenues 17.9% of GDP (2012 est.)Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-) -1.7% of GDP (2012 est.)Public debt 14.1% of GDP (2012 est.)
12.37% of GDP (2011 est.)Inflation rate (consumer prices) 3.7% (2012 est.)
8.3% (2011 est.)Central bank discount rate 5.5% (31 December 2012 est.)
6% (31 December 2011 est.)Commercial bank prime lending rate
29.1% (31 December 2012 est.) 28.94% (31 December 2011 est.)
Agriculture - products cotton, sugarcane, soybeans, corn, wheat, tobacco, cassava (tapioca), fruits, vegetables; beef, pork, eggs, milk; timber
Industries sugar, cement, textiles, beverages, wood products, steel, metallurgic, electric power
Industrial production growth rate 4.4% (2012 est.)Current Account Balance -$1.17 billion (2012 est.)
-$549.9 million (2011 est.)Exports $9.743 billion (2012 est.)
$10.39 billion (2011 est.)Exports - commodities soybeans, feed, cotton, meat, edible oils,
wood, leatherExports - partners Uruguay 18.3%, Argentina 16.3%, Brazil
16.2%, Russia 11.8% (2012)
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Imports $11.24 billion (2012 est.) $12.07 billion (2011 est.)
Imports - commodities road vehicles, consumer goods, tobacco, petroleum products, electrical machinery, tractors, chemicals, vehicle parts
Imports - partners Brazil 24.1%, China 19.4%, Argentina 19.2%, US 11.4% (2012)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold
$4.995 billion (31 December 2012 est.) $4.983 billion (31 December 2011 est.)
Debt - external $5.957 billion (31 December 2012 est.) $6.013 billion (31 December 2011 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home
$4.425 million (31 December 2012) $3.86 million (31 December 2011)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad
$NA
Exchange rates guarani (PYG) per US dollar - 4,424.9 (2012 est.) 4,191.4 (2011 est.) 4,735.5 (2010 est.) 4,965.4 (2009) 4,337.7 (2008)
Fiscal year calendar year
f. Paraguay - Balance of TradeParaguay recorded a trade deficit of 261.67 USD Million in November of 2013. Balance
of Trade in Paraguay is reported by the Banco Central del Paraguay. Balance of Trade in
Paraguay averaged -191.24 USD Million from 1994 until 2013, reaching an all-time high
of 91.21 USD Million in June of 2013 and a record low of -635.35 USD Million in October
of 2011. In recent years, the exports of agricultural commodities have surged in
Paraguay. Shipments of cereals, soy and meat account for 66 percent of total exports.
Main imports are: machinery, appliances and motors (27 percent of total imports); fuels
and lubricants (13 percent) and cargo vehicles and accessories (8 percent). Main trading
partners are: Brazil (14 percent of total exports and 27 percent of imports) and
Argentina (18 percent of exports and 14 percent of imports). Others include: Uruguay,
China and United States.
23
Chart No: 1
Chart Name: Paraguay Balance of Trade
g. Paraguay Current Account to GDP
Paraguay recorded a Current Account surplus of 0.20 percent of the country's Gross
Domestic Product in 2012. Current Account to GDP in Paraguay is reported by the
Banco Central del Paraguay. From 1980 until 2012, Paraguay Current Account to GDP
averaged -1.9 Percent reaching an all-time high of 7.8 Percent in December of 1990
and a record low of -11.6 Percent in December of 1987. The Current account balance
as a percent of GDP provides an indication on the level of international
competitiveness of a country. Usually, countries recording a strong current account
surplus have an economy heavily dependent on exports revenues, with high savings
ratings but weak domestic demand. On the other hand, countries recording a
current account deficit have strong imports, a low saving rates and high personal
consumption rates as a percentage of disposable incomes.
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Chart No: 2
Chart Name: Paraguay Current Account to GDP
h. Paraguay Exports
Exports in Paraguay increased to 660.76 USD Million in November of 2013 from 658.11
USD Million in October of 2013. Exports in Paraguay are reported by the Banco Central
del Paraguay. Exports in Paraguay averaged 206.26 USD Million from 1994 until 2013,
reaching an all-time high of 976.22 USD Million in May of 2013 and a record low of 25.29
USD Million in February of 1999. Paraguay has an export oriented economy. Soy
accounts for 42 percent of total shipments and in recent years, the country has become
the fourth largest exporter and the sixth biggest producer of soybeans. Other exports
include: meat (13 percent), cereals (11 percent) and vegetable oils (6 percent). Main
export partners are: Uruguay (19 percent of total exports), Argentina (18 percent), Brazil
(14 percent) and Chile (9 percent). Others include: Switzerland, United States and
Canada.
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Chart No: 3
Chart Name: Paraguay Exports
i. Paraguay ImportsImports in Paraguay decreased to 922.43 USD Million in November of 2013 from
991.43 USD Million in October of 2013. Imports in Paraguay are reported by the
Banco Central del Paraguay. Imports in Paraguay averaged 397.17 USD Million from
1994 until 2013, reaching an all-time high of 1095.48 USD Million in August of 2011
and a record low of 104.17 USD Million in February of 2003. Paraguay main imports
are: machinery, appliances and motors (27 percent of total imports); fuels and
lubricants (13 percent); cargo vehicles and accessories (8 percent) and food,
beverages and tobacco (7 percent). Main import partners are: China (30 percent of
total imports), Brazil (27 percent) and Argentina (14 percent). Others include: United
States, Japan, Venezuela, South Korea and Germany.
26
Chart No: 4
Chart Name: Paraguay Imports
j. Paraguay RemittancesRemittances in Paraguay increased to 804 in December of 2012 from 789 in
December of 2011. From 2004 until 2012, Paraguay Remittances averaged 679.2 USD
Million reaching an all-time high of 804.0 USD Million in December of 2012 and a
record low of 506.0 USD Million in December of 2004.
Chart No: 5
Chart Name: Paraguay Remittances
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Metal Industry in India
The Government of India has introduced several policy initiatives to
give a boost to the metals sector:
Foreign equity holding allowed up to 100 per cent through automatic route for all
non-fuel, non-atomic minerals except diamond and precious stones.
Thirteen minerals that were reserved for the public sector have been opened out for
private sector investment. These include iron ore, manganese ore, chrome ore,
sulphur, gold, diamond, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel and
platinum.
Customs duty on primary and secondary metals has been reduced from 15 per cent
to 10 per cent.
The National Steel Policy (NSP) 2005 lays emphasis on improving productivity,
efficiency, cost, quality and product mix for accelerating growth in the domestic
production and consumption of steel.
Import duties on various steel products have been reduced from 15 per cent to10
per cent. Customs duty on alloy and stainless steel has been reduced to five per cent.
Duty on nickel reduced from five per cent to two per cent to help domestic stainless
steel manufacturers tackle increase in global prices for raw materials.
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The Metals Sector In Quite Competitive, But Presents Attractive Growth Opportunities As Well
Threat of New Entrants Supportive policy regime Growing domestic market as well as exports across segments
Customer Power User industries experiencing strong growth Highly demanding customers Wide range of products, specifications to meet different needs
Supplier Power The country has rich reserves of minerals, ores Growing, skilled manpower base
Competitive Rivalry Number of domestic players Highly competitive in secondary and downstream segments
Threat of Substitutes Plastics and other substitutes being tried out in some user segments No viable substitute in a majority of usage areas HighMediumLowMETALS INDUSTRY IN INDIA September 2009
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Many Indian Players Are Looking At Expanding Capacities…
Sterlite and Hindalco (Birla Copper, the copper division of Hindalco) are looking at
adding significant smelting capacities in the coming years. Birla Copper‘s expansion
plan to double capacity from 250000 tonnes per annum (TPA) to 500000 TPA will
make it one of the top 10 copper producers in the world.
Sterlite Industries has made a higher $2.57B bid for Asarco, topping rival Grupo
Mexico's offer.
Tata Steel, through its acquisition of Corus, became the fifth largest steel maker in
the world.
Essar Steel will invest US $ 213 million in setting up steel processing units in India,
the Middle East and North America.
Hindalco Industries, an integrated producer of aluminum and a leading copper
manufacturer, has drawn up a US $ 3.4 billion capex plan for the next two years.
Tata Steel plans to invest US $ 8.5 billion over the next five years to ramp up its
production capacity to 16 million tonnes.
Attractive states for investment
Raw material supplies for key metals is concentrated in some states:
Copper reserves –Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
Bauxite –Orissa, Chattisgarh, Karnataka
Iron Ore –Orissa
Access to supply of raw materials, labour and energy are key requirements for
setting up operations in this sector.
Based on these factors, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka could be attractive locations for investment in the sector.
30
Profile of key playersTable No: 2
Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) •TISCO has diversified to manufacture welded-steel tubes, cold-rolled
strips, seamless tubes, carbon and alloy steel bearing rings, alloy steel ball bearing rings, bearings, ferromanganese and ferrochrome.•It has become the fifth largest steel producer in the world, after acquiring the Anglo-Dutch steel company, Corus.•It has plants in the states of Jharkhand, Karnataka, Orissa, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) •The Government of India has an 86per cent stake in the company and
it is the world‘s 13th largest producer of steel.•Sales –US$ 11 billion in 2007-08•Manufactures steel for domestic construction, engineering, power, railway, automotive and defenceindustries and also for exports.•It has plants at Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela, Salem, and Bhadravati.
EssarSteel•It is promoted by the Bombay-based Essargroup which has business interests in power, shipping, oil and gas, construction and telecom.•Sales –US$ 2.9 billion in 2007-08•Offers over 300 customisedgrades of steel and is on the approved list of companies as supplier to some of the world's most renowned automotive companies and oil and gas pipeline projects.•It has plants at Haziraand Vishakapatnamin India and at Indonesia.
JindalSteel & Power Limited•It is a leading company for galvanisedsteel products•Sales –US$ 2.1 billion in 2008-09•It is engaged in hot rolling, cold rolling and galvanizing business•It has plants at Vasindand Tarapurin Maharashtra
Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) •It is a public sector enterprise under the Ministry of Mines,
Government of India •Sales –US$ 297 million in 2008-09•The company's major activities include exploration, mining beneficiation, smelting, refining and casting of finished copper.•It has plants at Khetri in Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Malanjkhand in Madhya Pradesh and Taloj in Maharashtra.
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HindalcoIndustries Limited•It is a flagship company of the AdityaBirla Group.•Turnover –US$ 4.8 billion in 2006-07•Structured into two strategic businesses —aluminiumand copper—and is an industry leader in both these segments.•It is the largest integrated aluminiummanufacturer in the country.•It has plants in Renukoot, Muri, Belgaum, Hirakud, Alupuram, Belur, Taloja, Silvassa, Kalwaand Dahej.
National AluminiumCompany Limited (NALCO)
•It is a public sector enterprise of the Government of India.
•Net sales –US$ 1.4 billion in 2007-08 •It has Asia's largest integrated aluminiumcomplex, encompassing bauxite mining, alumina refining, aluminiumsmelting and casting, power generation, rail and port operations.•It has captive power plant and aluminiumsmelter and a rolled products unit at Angul, alumina refinery at Damanjodiand Bauxite mines at Panchpatmali.
SterliteIndustries India Limited •It is a part of Vedanta Resources, a London listed metals and mining
major with aluminium, copper and zinc operations in UK, India and Australia. •Net sales-US$ 4.2 billion in 2008-09•The group's principal activity is to manufacture and market cast copper rods, copper cathodes, aluminiumcold rolled products and conductors.•It is a producer of copper with its own captive mines in Australia, and refineries and smelter in India such as the Silvassarefinery and the Tuticorinsmelter .
Hindustan Zinc Limited•A part of Vedanta resources,the London listed metals and mining major with aluminium, copper and zinc operations in UK, India and Australia .•Net sales –US$ 1100 million in 2008•It is the only manufacturer of integrated zinc in India and owns captive zinc mines that supply complete requirement of zinc concentrate for its smelters.•Its mines and smelters are spread across many locations, for example the RajpuraDaribamine, Zawarmining complex, Chanderiyasmelter, Debarismelter, Vizagsmelter and the RampuraAguchamine.
India and Paraguay Relation.
Political
The bilateral relations between India and Paraguay were established in 1950.
The relations can be described as warm and friendly. The Indian Embassy in Buenos
Aires, Argentina, is concurrently accredited to Paraguay. Paraguay opened its
32
resident Mission in India in March 2006.
Recent Visits
Paraguay to India
2002 Mr. Jose Antonio Moreno Ruffinelli, Foreign Minister
2004 Mrs. Leila Rachid, Foreign Minister
2005 Mrs. Leila Rachid, Foreign Minister
2010 (April) Parliamentary delegation
India to Paraguay
2002 Shri Digvijay Singh, MOS, MEA
2003 Shri Satyabrata Mookherjee, MOS (C&I)
2012 (January) Smt. Meira Kumar, Speaker Lok Sabha
Parliamentary contacts
The first ever- Parliamentary delegation from Paraguay visited India from 10-14
April 2010. The 8 member delegation was led by Mr. Miguel Carrizosa, President of
the Senate (Upper House). The delegation met Hon'ble Speaker and Indian
Parliamentarians and called on MOS (PK). Hon’ble Speaker Lok Sabha Smt. Meira
Kumar led a parliamentary delegation to Paraguay from 15-17 January 2012.
Foreign Office Consultations
An MOU on Foreign Office Consultations was signed in 2002. The first bilateral
Foreign Office Consultation between India and Paraguay was held in Asuncion on 7 th
October, 2010. Shri Vivek Katju, Secretary (West) co-chaired the talks along with Mr.
Jorge Lara Castro Vice-Foreign Minister of Paraguay. Both sides reviewed bilateral
relations.
33
Bilateral Agreements
Agreement between India and Paraguay on Exemption of Visa for holders of
Diplomatic and Official passports – 1996.
Agreement on holding Foreign Office Consultations - 2002
Bilateral Trade (US$ in million)
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
India’s
exports16.83 20.90 24.6 36 59 50.6 65 78
India’s
imports3.47 4.26 2.4 5 38 56.3 72 74
India´s exports to Paraguay:
Chemicals, Metals, tractors, two wheelers, Mahindra vehicles and textiles.
India's imports from Paraguay:
Soya oil (94% of imports) sunflower oil, leather and wood. Indian imports of soya and
sunflower oil are expected to increase in the coming years, given the growing
shortage of edible oil in India.
Business
TATA vehicles (light trucks, pick-ups, TATA Sierra vans) have been introduced in the
Paraguayan market by a local company.
Mahindra and the Indian two-wheeler company, HERO Motors have appointed
distributors in Paraguay.
A consortium of Indian edible oil companies is exploring the possibility of acquisition
of farm land in Paraguay to grow oilseeds and food crops.
34
An Indian IT Company, Flat world Solutions, in collaboration with a local company,
runs a call centre employing around 1300 Paraguayans.
Technical Cooperation
India gives 3 ITEC scholarships to Paraguayan candidates every year.
Paraguayan diplomats attend the PCFD Course run by the Foreign Service Institute
from time to time.
Cultural
The First ever “ Festival of India” in Paraguay was organised by the Indian Embassy in
Argentina, concurrently accreditted to Paraguay from 11-15 November 2009 in two
cities: Ciudad del Este and Asuncion. The Festival which was inaugurated by the
Tourism minister of Paraguay Ms Rosana Cramer Campos. The Third Festival of India
in Asuncion was held from 11-12 Nov 2010. Oddisi and Folk Dance by Goan Dance
group performed in Paraguay.
Indian community
About 300 Indians live in Ciudad del Este, a city on the border with Brazil.
These Indians are in trading, wholesale and retail business. Most of them are of
Sindhi and Gujarati origin.
STEEPLED ANALYSIS OF METAL INDUSTRY IN THE PARAGUAY
Social Analysis
The value for Income share held by second 20% in Paraguay was 7.76 as of 2010. The
value for Income share held by third 20% in Paraguay was 12.77 as of 2010. The
value for Income share held by fourth 20% in Paraguay was 19.78 as of 2010. The
35
value for Income share held by highest 20% in Paraguay was 56.43 as of 2010. The
value for Income share held by highest 10% in Paraguay was 41.11 as of 2010.The
value for Income share held by lowest 10% in Paraguay was 0.98 as of 2010.
According to the 2010 revison of the World Population Prospects the total
population was 6,455,000 in 2010, compared to only 1,473,000 in 1950. The
proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 33.5%, 61.4% was between
15 and 65 years of age, while 5.1% was 65 years or older.
Social life tends to revolve around the family. Godparents are particularly important;
if parents become unable to provide for their children, godparents are expected to
assume responsibility for them. Paraguayan cuisine reflects traditional Guaraní
cooking styles. Beef dishes and freshwater river fish are popular. Other typical foods
are soups, often with meat, and various breads, especially chipa, which is flavoured
with cheese and egg. Corn (maize) is a staple ingredient in many dishes, including
sopa paraguaya, a pie made from corn, eggs, and milk; avatí mbaipy, a corn soup;
and mbaipy he-é, a dessert made from corn, milk, and molasses. Beer and caña, a
cane sugar spirit, are popular drinks. Yerba maté, the local herbal tea, is consumed
year-round—chilled in summer, hot in winter. A common pastime is drinking tereré
(a bitter tea made from the same type of leaves that are used to brew yerba maté)
from a shared gourd or from a hollowed cow’s horn, or guampa, which often is
beautifully carved.
The Labor force; total in Paraguay was last reported at 3088802.88 in 2010,
according to a World Bank report published in 2012. Total labor force comprises
people ages 15 and older who meet the International Labor Organization definition
of the economically active population: all people who supply labor for the
production of goods and services during a specified period. It includes both the
employed and the unemployed. While national practices vary in the treatment of
such groups as the armed forces and seasonal or part-time workers, in general the
labor force includes the armed forces, the unemployed, and first-time job-seekers,
but excludes homemakers and other unpaid caregivers and workers in the informal
36
sector. This page includes a historical data chart, news and forecasts for Labor force;
total in Paraguay.
U.S. Embassy Asuncion, Paraguay is an equal opportunity employer.
All applicants will receive consideration without regard to race, color, religion,
gender, national origin, disability, age, sexual orientation, social status, or political
ideologies/affiliation.
Paraguay is a developing country and one of the poorest in Latin America. It has
been reported that around 60 % of Paraguayans live in poverty. Over half of the
population are under the age of 25. It has been reported by the United Nations that
over 70 % of people aged 15-29 are unemployed in Paraguay. However many of the
young in Paraguay are eager to change their future but lack the education, guidance
and financial resources to do so. Entrepreneurship is one way to help transform
Paraguay. As Paraguay lacks natural resources, it’s people is its biggest resource.
‘Jovenes Empresarios del Paraguay’ (The Youth Entrepreneurs of Paraguay) have
introduced programs over the previous two years to boost entrepreneurship. It has
been proven over the last years by more than 10 start-ups were made feasible ,
including an organic lettuce growing business, a brick factory, and a clothing store.
All have filled a niche in their markets, created jobs and even improved local
infrastructure.
Paraguay has not valued education highly. During Alfredo Stroessner Mattiauda’s
presidency (1954–89), education initiatives took a backseat to economic concerns and
the task of controlling political adversaries, and teacher salaries fell to extremely low
levels. The constitution of 1992 attempted to remedy the long neglect of education.
Article 85 of the constitution mandates that 20% of the government dibudget be
designated for educational expenditures. This measure, however, has proven to be
impractical and has been largely ignored.
37
Paraguay culture is highly influenced by various European countries, particularly
Spain, which are combined with indigenous culture.
This cultural blend is seen in Paraguay's forms of arts, crafts, music, festivals,
literature, cinema, fashion, languages.
As a Peace Corps Volunteers, you will have to adapt to conditions that may be
dramatically different than you have ever experienced and modify lifestyle practices
that you now take for granted. Even the most basic practices— talking, eating, using
the bathroom, and sleeping — may take significantly different forms in the context
of the host country. If you successfully adapt and integrate, you will in return be
rewarded with a deep understanding of a new culture, the establishment of new and
potentially lifelong relationships, and a profound sense of humanity.
Technology Analysis
Paraguay (104th), Venezuela (108th), Bolivia (119th), and Haiti (141st) close the
regional rankings. These four countries fall behind others in the region because of
important ICT connectivity weaknesses and an innovation-adverse environment that
38
prevents high economic impacts that would result from innovation and the
economic transformation of these countries toward knowledge-intensive activities.
Paraguay 2013 Conectado y Plan Nacional de Telecomunicaciones—PNT
Paraguay is ideally positioned to become the next global boom economy. Built upon
an incredibly stable macro economy and conservative fiscal policies, Paraguay’s new
Government and Business Leaders are in unison with regard to opening up the
country's wealth of opportunities to foreign investors. Utilizing strong government
incentives and structures developed to promote PPP’s, Direct Investments and Local
Partnerships in a manner that will promote a sustainable, transparent economy that
will benefit all Paraguayan's, foreign investors have opportunities rarely present in
Emerging Markets.
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) approved a loan to Paraguay for $10
million to finance a program aimed at increasing foreign direct investment and job
creation.
Paraguay relies almost solely on hydroelectric power to meet its energy needs. The
Itaipú Dam, completed in 1984, has the world’s second largest power-generating
capacity: 13.3 gigawatts. The dam is located on the Paraguay River, and Paraguay
and Brazil evenly share the ownership, operation, and electricity generated.
Additionally, Paraguay co-owns another major hydropower plant, Yacyretá, with
Argentina. Paraguay uses only a small portion of the energy it generates through
Itaipú and Yacyretá. In 2002 Paraguay generated more than 48 billion kilowatt-hours
of energy. It consumed only 2.5 billion kilowatt-hours while exporting 45.9 billion
kilowatt-hours. Paraguay will have even more hydroelectricity to export when
planned new turbines are installed at Itaipú and the Yacyretá dam is fully completed.[6] In 2007 electricity production rose to 70 TWh, and exports reached 64 TWh which
put Paraguay in second place worldwide as an exporter of electrical power.
39
Budde Comm’s yearly update of Paraguay - Telecoms, Mobile, Broadband, and
Forecasts provides a comprehensive overview of the trends and developments in the
telecommunications market of Paraguay, including the regulator’s market data for
the first half of 2012, operator and other industry data, and expected market
developments in the coming years.
40
Economy Analysis
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Paraguay expanded 1.40 percent in the third
quarter of 2013 over the previous quarter. GDP Growth Rate in Paraguay is reported
by the Banco Central del Paraguay. GDP Growth Rate in Paraguay averaged 1.32
Percent from 2008 until 2013, reaching an all time high of 9.70 Percent in the first
quarter of 2013 and a record low of -5.10 Percent in the first quarter of 2012. In the
last decade, Paraguay has been one of the fastest growing economies in Latin
America. From 2008 to 2012, the country has been expanding at an average rate of
0.93 percent on a quarter over quarter basis, mostly due to a rise in exports of
agricultural commodities. Shipments of soy, cereals and meat account for more than
65 percent of total exports and for almost a quarter of the output. Yet, high poverty,
inequality rates and corruption, remain the biggest challenges that the country has
to face in order to reach its growth potential. This page contains - Paraguay GDP
Growth Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic
calendar and news.
The benchmark interest rate in Paraguay was last recorded at 6 percent. Interest
Rate in Paraguay is reported by the Banco Central del Paraguay. Interest Rate in
Paraguay averaged 6.34 Percent from 2010 until 2013, reaching an all time high of
8.50 Percent in August of 2011 and a record low of 3.50 Percent in November of
2010. The benchmark interest rate in Paraguay was last reported at 6.5 percent. In
Paraguay, interest rates decisions are taken by the Central Bank of Paraguay (Banco
Central del Paraguay). The official interest rate is the 14-day interest rate (la tasa de
14 días). This page contains - Paraguay Interest Rate - actual values, historical data,
forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.
Public expenditure on education consists of current and capital public expenditure
on education includes government spending on educational institutions (both public
and private), education administration as well as subsidies for private entities
(students/households and other privates entities).This page includes a historical data
41
chart, news and forecasts for Public spending on education; total (% of government
expenditure) in Paraguay.
Unemployment Rate in Paraguay decreased to 8 percent in the second quarter of
2013 from 8.40 percent in the first quarter of 2013. From 2010 until 2013, Paraguay
Unemployment Rate averaged 7.6 Percent reaching an all time high of 9.2 Percent in
March of 2010 and a record low of 6.0 Percent in December of 2011. In Paraguay,
the unemployment rate measures the number of people actively looking for a job as
a percentage of the labour force. This page contains - Paraguay Unemployment Rate
- actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and
news.
araguay’s tax system is insufficient to provide the resource base to eradicate poverty
in the country, and has done little or nothing to achieve a more equal distribution of
income and wealth.
Two major reforms over the last decade have done little to alleviate the fiscal
injustice that is generated partly by the low tax reciprocity of the soy agribusiness –
Paraguay’s main export crop. Meanwhile, programs and projects to support small-
scale farming receive a level of public financing accounting for just 5 per cent of
public expenditure.
he USDPYG spot exchange rate appreciated 168.6304 or 3.81 percent during the last
30 days. From 2003 until 2013, the USDPYG averaged 4882.5500 reaching an all time
high of 6290.0000 in April of 2005 and a record low of 3642.7000 in August of 2011.
The USDPYG spot exchange rate specifies how much one currency, the USD, is
currently worth in terms of the other, the PYG. While the USDPYG spot exchange
rate is quoted and exchanged in the same day, the USDPYG forward rate is quoted
today but for delivery and payment on a specific future date. This page contains -
Paraguayan Guarani - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics,
economic calendar and news.
42
The inflation rate in Paraguay was recorded at 4.40 percent in November of 2013.
Inflation Rate in Paraguay is reported by the Banco Central del Paraguay. Inflation
Rate in Paraguay averaged 6.32 Percent from 2005 until 2013, reaching an all time
high of 13.40 Percent in July of 2008 and a record low of 0.90 Percent in May of
2013. In Paraguay, the main components of the consumer price index are: Food (32
percent of the total weight); Transports (14.8 percent) and Shelter, Household
Maintenance and Services (8.9 percent). Furniture and Household Equipment
account for 7.7 percent; Miscellaneous Goods and Services for 7.3 percent and
Leisure and Culture for 6.1 percent. Others include: Restaurants and Hotels (5.5
percent); Clothing (4.9 percent); Health Care (4.1 percent); Education (4 percent);
Communications (3.4 percent) and Alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco (1.2 percent).
The national index has a base of 100 as of December 2007. The CPI reflects the prices
and spending patterns registered in the metropolitan area of Asunción, which
includes: Asunción, Luque, Fernando de la Mora, Lambaré, San Lorenzo and Capiatá,
and which accounts for 43.5 percent of the urban population of the country. This
page contains - Paraguay Inflation Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast,
chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.
43
Environment Analysis
hydropower, timber, iron ore, manganese, limestone.
Paraguay’s main contributions to reducing the threat of global warming was the
construction of the Itaipu Dam, which started generating power in 1982. By 2000, it
was supplying hydroelectric power to much of the country, making 93 percent of all
electricity generation in Paraguay; and providing 20 percent of the electricity used by
Brazil, generating significant income for the Paraguayan economy. Subsequently,
work has begun on the Yacyreta Dam, located on the Paraguayan-Argentine border,
which will provide electrical power for sale to Argentina.
In Paraguay, the management of industrial waste needs to be significantly improved.
Although there is a legislative framework for waste management in general, there
are no specific regulations for industrial waste management, and the regulations
that do exist are not practically applicable. Financial resources to support the
recycling of industrial waste and to enforce regulations are lacking. There is some
knowledge and technical capacity for the treatment of industrial waste, and there
are at least some attempts by the industrial sector to treat waste as a resource.
Nevertheless, technical and scientific knowledge at the level of the authorities needs
to be enhanced.
Paraguay improves seven places in the Index, lifted by improving performance on
the energy security dimension and on indicators of economic strength. Paraguay, a
‘Hydro-powered’ country, has an energy trilemma balance that is typical of that
country grouping, with average-to-low energy security and equity rankings balanced
out by excellent marks on the environmental sustainability dimension. Paraguay’s
total energy consumption growth rate is relatively flat considering its strong
economic growth, allowing it to strengthen its favourable energy consumption to
production ratio and free up more energy (most of it excess electricity generated
through hydropower) for export. Energy equity remains the most challenging of the
three dimensions for Paraguay, as gasoline prices increase and energy continues to
44
be very expensive. Environmental sustainability performance is unchanged and
remains exceptional, with the country’s emission-free-electricity generation being of
note. Indicators of contextual political and societal strength remain on the lower
side, but are improving, while increased macroeconomic stability and more plentiful
domestic credit for the private sector help to boost Paraguay’s ranking of economic
strength.
In economic terms, Paraguay has depended heavily on its rivers, especially in the 20th
century. Waterways provide 3,100 kilometers (1,926 miles) of transport paths. Most
international trade flows through the Paraguay and Parana Rivers, which connect
Asunción to the Atlantic
45
Political Analysis
Paraguayan Agricultural Development (DAP) is an agricultural organization based in
Paraguay. It is a large scale project, formed by an important group of Paraguayan
entrepreneurs and Argentineans in conjunction with the Moises Bertoni Foundation
and the Environmental Law and Economics Institute (IDEA).
The organization evaluates economic, social and environmental factors for
companies in Paraguay, ensuring that they comply with social and environmental
regulations for instance, drawing up management plans and granting licenses and
offering expertise on the use of agro chemicals and managing the Paraguayan
environment in coordination with ideologies of sustainable development
The third review of the trade policies and practices of Paraguay takes place on 27
and 29 April 2011. The basis for the review is a report by the WTO Secretariat and a
report by the Government of Paraguay.
Politics of Paraguay takes place in a framework of a presidential representative
democratic republic (whereby the President of Paraguay is both head of state and
head of government) and of a multi-party system. The National Constitution
mandates a separation of powers in three branches. Executive power is exercised
solely by the President. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the
National Congress. The Judiciary power is vested on Tribunals and Courts of Civil Law
and a nine-member Supreme Court of Justice, all of them independent of the
executive and the legislature.
Cartels and near-monopolies will now be regulated and punished in Paraguay, after
the country’s first ever competition law brings the country in line with global
standards.
46
The end of his iron-fisted rule did not bring political stability. Factional splits led to
the assassination of a vice-president, the resignation of a president and an
attempted coup.
Stroessner's party, the National Republican Association-Colorado Party, survived his
departure and remained in power until 2008. In elections in April it was defeated by
the centre-left Patriotic Alliance for Change led by Fernando Lugo.
Crime continues to be a serious concern, with levels rising each year since 2008.
According to the Paraguayan National Police (PNP) Department of Statistics, overall
crime increased in 2012 over 2011 levels. In 2012, the PNP reported an increase of
18 percent in overall arrests, most notably including an increase of over 68 percent
for cases of domestic abuse. Arrests involving firearms also increased over their 2011
level. The PNP concedes that many crimes go unreported due to lack of confidence
in the judicial process.
Political party in paraguay Authentic Radical Liberal Party, Beloved Fatherland Party, Boquerón Departmental Alliance, Christian Democratic Party, Colorado Party, Democratic Progressive Party, National Encounter Party, National Union of Ethical Citizens, Paraguayan Communist Party, Paraguayan Humanist Party, Partido Patria LibreParty for a Country of Solidarity, Revolutionary Febrerista Party, Tekojoja People's Movement, Workers' Party.
47
Legal Analysis
Paraguayan law allows unions, strikes, and collective bargaining, and forbids binding
arbitration. In practice, however, employers act with impunity against strikers and
unions. The law also prohibits forced labor, but in practice it is widespread. Labor by
children under 14 is illegal, but it is actually widespread, As of 2010, slightly over half
of Paraguayan children between ages five and 17 are in employment, with the
majority of them working over 14 hours a work. There are known to be slaves in
Paraguay, especially among domestic servants; parents sell children to perform
forced labor, smuggle drugs, and commit other crimes. Enforcement of laws against
these activities is hampered by a lack of resources.
An agreement to be used to distribute and commercialize a product belonging to a
foreign or national company by a local distributor in the territory of Paraguay.
Contract to be used when parties agree to lease a product with an option to buy it
after certain term. Contract to render services subject to the civil code.
The Central Unitaria de Trabajadores (CUT) is a national trade union center in
Paraguay. It was founded in 1989 and is affiliated with the International Trade Union
Confederation.
The National Workers' Central (CNT) is a national trade union center in Paraguay. It
was formed in 1963 as the Christian Workers' Central (CCT) and changed its name in
1978.
The CNT is affiliated with the International Trade Union Confederation.
The Paraguayan Workers Confederation (Spanish: Confederación Paraguaya de
Trabajadores) or CPT is a national trade union center in Paraguay. It was formed in
1951 with close ties to the Colorado Party. In 1958, after a general strike, many
unionists were exiled, and formed the CPT-E, a CPT in exile.
48
CPT again operates in Paraguay. Until 1974 it was affiliated with the International
Trade Union Confederation, but is now a member of the International Trade Union
Confederation.
Paraguayan civil law contemplates some of the key factors of corporate governance
provisions in comparison to common law jurisdiction and while it can be said that
they lack some specific ones, these do not really prevent some of the key functions
of a company to operate as such, and on the contrary it gives the due and necessary
framework to conduct their businesses in the market.
49
ETHICAL ANALYSIS
In Paraguay, ethical metal are known as prescription and non-ethical Importantly that in
this paper no distinction will be made between these two types of metals, but the
analysis will be carried out in general.
In the last five years the metal sector grew annual average of 9.2% and in 2007 and 2008,
revenues reached the 712,000 and 773,000 million, respectively, as IMS5 data.
Divided into two groups: ethical generic, which are those whose patent has expired and
can be made freely and ethical patented that can only be made by the owners of the
original patent laboratories or those who grant them a license (this is applied in countries
that accept the rules in the matter), to which is why the patented product prices are
generally higher. Moreover, unethical metal are those that can be obtained without a
prescription.
Chamber of metal Paraguay established for ethical practices.
50
STEEPLED ANALYSIS OF METAL INDUSTRY IN INDIA/GUJARAT
SOCIO ANALYSIS
India's per capita income (nominal) is $ 1219, ranked 142nd in the world,[1] while its
per capita purchasing power parity (PPP) of US $3,608 is ranked 129th.[2] It is
estimated that India's Per Capita Income will register an average growth rate of 13%
during 2011-2012 so as to reach $ 4,200 by 2020. In the year 2020 India's real GDP is
projected to be at $5 trillion, and per capita Nominal GDP at $ 3,650. India's per
capita purchasing power parity (PPP) will be at $ 12,800 in the year 2020. States of
India have large disparities. One of the critical problems facing India's economy is the
sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories
in terms of per capita income, poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-
economic development.[3] Although income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini
coefficient: 32.5 in year 1999- 2000);[4] India's nominal Gini index rose to 36.8 in
2005, while real Gini after tax remained nearly flat at 32.6
The demographics of India are inclusive of the second most populous country in the
world, with over 1.21 billion people (2011 census), more than a sixth of the world's
population. Already containing 17.5% of the world's population, India is projected to
be the world's most populous country by 2025, surpassing China, its population
reaching 1.6 billion by 2050. Its population growth rate is 1.41%, ranking 102nd in
the world in 2010. Indian population reached the billion mark in 2000.
India has more than 50% of its population below the age of 25 and more than 65%
below the age of 35. It is expected that, in 2020, the average age of an Indian will be
29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan; and, by 2030, India's
dependency ratio should be just over 0.4.
India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every major religion is
represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian,
Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages) as well as two language isolates (the
Nihali language spoken in parts of Maharashtra and the Burushaski language spoken
in parts of Jammu and Kashmir).
51
Demographic & Socioeconomic changes influence the living & working habits of
populations. Economic growth, modernization, urbanization & socialization has
changed the life style of Indian families.
The labour sector of the Indian economy consists of roughly 487 million workers, the
second largest after China Of these over 94 percent work in unincorporated,
unorganised enterprises ranging from pushcart vendors to home-based diamond and
gem polishing operations. The organised sector includes workers employed by the
government, state-owned enterprises and private sector enterprises. In 2008, the
organised sector employed 27.5 million workers, of which 17.3 million worked for
government or government owned entities.
Now, a Times of India article cites new research by employer branding company
Universum that reveals a growing entrepreneurial spirit amongst Indian youth. In
fact, the spirit of entrepreneurship is higher in Indian youth than other nationalities.
Figures suggest that in the US 10% business students and 12% IT students chose to
be entrepreneurs or work with new-age companies and 12% German students
belonging to both the categories respectively chose the same. While in India, 26% of
undergraduate business students and 16% of IT and engineering students prefer
working in startups.
As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children
between the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to
report enrollment above 96%. 83% of all rural 15-16 year olds were enrolled in
school. However, going forward, India will need to focus more on quality.
India is a country with an ancient clothing design tradition, yet an emerging fashion
industry. Though a handful of designers existed prior to the 1980s, the late 80s and
the 1990s saw a spurt of growth. This was the result of increasing exposure to global
fashion and the economic boom after the economic liberalization of the Indian
52
economy in 1990. The following decades firmly established fashion as an the
industry, across India.
The management of AAFT deems its primary responsibility to offer a cozy, homely
working environment to all its students, camping here away from their homes for
their short-term foundation to graduating or post graduating courses.
Technology
53
MUMBAI: IT spending in India is expected to reach $ 71.3 billion in 2014, a 5.9 per
cent increase over 2013 forecast, research firm Gartner today said.
IT services will record the strongest revenue growth at 12.1 per cent, while, software
revenue will grow 10 per cent and the telecommunication services segment, that
accounts for 42.1 per cent of the Indian ICT market, is expected to grow by two per
cent in 2014.
Indian manufacturing sector contributes around 16% to the GDP and grows around
9-10% every year, till 2008. Strong automotive sector growth and ever expanding
domestic market helped the sector grow. Though manufacturing had not been a
traditional strength to India, it has made considerable progress in manufacturing,
particularly in auto, computer hardware, engineering products and consumer
durables. Many surveys have indicated India’s manufacturing strength like low
manpower cost also coupled with quality management skills to bring modern
technology and capital. No doubt as India’s education system produces 400,000
engineers every year.
The economic development in India followed socialist-inspired policies for most of its
independent history, including state-ownership of many sectors; India's per capita
income increased at only around 1% annualised rate in the three decades after
Independence. Since the mid-1980s, India has slowly opened up its markets through
economic liberalisation. After more fundamental reforms since 1991 and their
renewal in the 2000s, India has progressed towards a free market economy.
This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific
discoveries and contributions of India, including both the ancient and medieval
nations in the subcontinent historically referred to as India and the modern Indian
state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological history of India, during
which architecture, astronomy, cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics,
metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of study pursued by its
scholars. During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also
54
focused on automobile engineering, information technology, communications as
well as research into space and polar technology.
In a companion paper [Dechezleprêtre, A., Glachant, M., Ménière, Y., 2008. The
Clean Development Mechanism and the international diffusion of technologies: An
empirical study, Energy Policy 36, 1273–1283], we gave a general description of
technology transfers by Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects and we
analyzed their drivers. In this paper, we use the same data and similar econometric
models to explain inter-country differences. We focus on 4 countries gathering about
75% of the CDM projects: Brazil, China, India and Mexico. Sixty eight percent of
Mexican projects include an international transfer of technology. The rates are,
respectively, 12%, 40% and 59% for India, Brazil and China. Our results show that
transfers to Mexico and Brazil are mainly related to the strong involvement of
foreign partners and good technological capabilities. Besides a relative advantage
with respect to these factors, the higher rate of international transfers in Mexico
seems to be due to a sector-composition effect. The involvement of foreign partners
is less frequent in India and China, where investment opportunities generated by fast
growing economies seem to play a more important role in facilitating international
technology transfers through the CDM. International transfers are also related to
strong technology capabilities in China. In contrast, the lower rate of international
transfer (12%) in India may be due to a better capability to diffuse domestic
technologies.
The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 229.251 GW as of October
2013, the world's fifth largest. Captive power plants generate an additional 34.444
GW. Non Renewable Power Plants constitute 87.55% of the installed capacity, and
Renewable Power Plants constitute the remaining 12.45% of total installed Capacity.
India generated 855 BU (855 000 MU i.e. 855 TWh) electricity during 2011–12 fiscal.
About 70% of India's energy generation capacity is from fossil fuels, with coal
accounting for 40% of India's total energy consumption followed by crude oil and
natural gas at 24% and 6% respectively. India is largely dependent on fossil fuel
imports to meet its energy demands — by 2030, India's dependence on energy
55
imports is expected to exceed 53% of the country's total energy consumption. In
2009-10, the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of crude oil which amounts to
80% of its domestic crude oil consumption and 31% of the country's total imports
are oil imports. The growth of electricity generation in India has been hindered by
domestic coal shortages and as a consequence, India's coal imports for electricity
generation increased by 18% in 2010.
Five minutes on a street in India and you will be convinced that you are in the most
connected community in the world. Cutting across socio-economic classifications,
there is a feature common to everyone – a mobile phone! This technology that most
of us have seen develop during our lifetime, has transformed the nation from one
where a telephone was the symbol of dystopian bureaucracy – with trunk calls,
rotary dials, and seven-year waiting periods the accepted norm – to one where a
mobile phone has become a way of life. I manage everything from my bank accounts
to paying bills to booking tickets to following my fitness regime on my mobile phone!
56
Economy
The benchmark interest rate in India was last recorded at 7.75 percent. Interest Rate
in India is reported by the Reserve Bank of India. Interest Rate in India averaged 6.60
Percent from 2000 until 2013, reaching an all time high of 14.50 Percent in August of
2000 and a record low of 4.25 Percent in April of 2009. In India, interest rate
decisions are taken by the Reserve Bank of India's Central Board of Directors. The
official interest rate is the benchmark repurchase rate. This page contains - India
Interest Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic
calendar and news.
Monetary policy is the process by which monetary authority of a country, generally a
central bank controls the supply of money in the economy by exercising its control
over interest rates in order to maintain price stability and achieve high economic
growth.[1] In India, the central monetary authority is the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
is so designed as to maintain the price stability in the economy. Other objectives of
the monetary policy of India, as stated by RBI.:
Unemployment Rate in India decreased to 3.80 percent in 2011 from 9.40 percent in
2010. Unemployment Rate in India is reported by the India Ministry of Labour. From
1983 until 2011, India Unemployment Rate averaged 7.6 Percent reaching an all time
high of 9.4 Percent in December of 2010 and a record low of 3.8 Percent in
December of 2011. In India, the unemployment rate measures the number of people
actively looking for a job as a percentage of the labour force. This page contains -
India Unemployment Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics,
economic calendar and news.
Taxes in India are levied by the Central Government and the state governments.
Some minor taxes are also levied by the local authorities such as the Municipality.
The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates
the power to levy various taxes between the Centre and the State. An important
57
restriction on this power is Article 265 of the Constitution which states that "No tax
shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law. Therefore each tax levied
or collected has to be backed by an accompanying law, passed either by the
Parliament or the State Legislature. In 2010-11, the gross tax collection amounted to
7.92 trillion, with direct tax and indirect tax contributing 56% and 44%
respectively.)
he Official exchange rate (LCU per US dollar; period average) in India was last
reported at 46.67 in 2011, according to a World Bank report published in 2012.
Official exchange rate refers to the exchange rate determined by national authorities
or to the rate determined in the legally sanctioned exchange market. It is calculated
as an annual average based on monthly averages (local currency units relative to the
U.S. dollar).This page includes a historical data chart, news and forecasts for Official
exchange rate (LCU per US dollar; period average) in India.
The inflation rate in India was recorded at 7.52 percent in November of 2013.
Inflation Rate in India is reported by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India.
Inflation Rate in India averaged 7.71 Percent from 1969 until 2013, reaching an all
time high of 34.68 Percent in September of 1974 and a record low of -11.31 Percent
in May of 1976. In India, the wholesale price index (WPI) is the main measure of
inflation. The WPI measures the price of a representative basket of wholesale goods.
In India, wholesale price index is divided into three groups: Primary Articles (20.1
percent of total weight), Fuel and Power (14.9 percent) and Manufactured Products
(65 percent). Food Articles from the Primary Articles Group account for 14.3 percent
of the total weight. The most important components of the Manufactured Products
Group are Chemicals and Chemical products (12 percent of the total weight); Basic
Metals, Alloys and Metal Products (10.8 percent); Machinery and Machine Tools (8.9
percent); Textiles (7.3 percent) and Transport, Equipment and Parts (5.2 percent).
This page contains - India Inflation Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast,
chart, statistics, economic calendar and news
58
Consumer Confidence in India decreased to 112 in the third quarter of 2013 from 118 in the second quarter of 2013. Consumer Confidence in India is reported by the Nielsen. From 2009 until 2013, India Consumer Confidence averaged 118.5 reaching an all time high of 131.0 in December of 2010 and a record low of 92.0 in March of 2010. The Consumer Confidence Index in India is part of The Nielsen Global Survey of Consumer Confidence and Spending Intentions, established in 2005. The survey is conducted by the Internet and tracks consumer confidence, job prospects, personal finances and spending intentions. Consumer confidence levels above 100 indicate optimism and below a 100 indicate pessimism. This page contains - India Consumer Confidence - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news
59
Environment
Natural resources are materials derived from the environment. It may exist as a
separate entity or in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain the
resource. Most of the resources are available in specific area which are called as
localized resources. They satisfy the needs of people. Resources can be classified
based on the Renewability or Basis of origin or Utility. They are classified as Biotic
and Abiotic resources on basis of origin. India has both type of resources and its
economy is dependent on these resources. The resources are extracted in different
ways and some of the ways are agriculture, mining, drilling and forestry. Due to over
consumption or limited availability some of the resources are getting depleted.
India Infrastructure Summit is the largest platform for policy debate relating to
infrastructure sector in India. It brings together Central and State Government
officials, policymakers, regulators, leading infrastructure developers, contractors,
investors & financial institutions and other stakeholders in a dialogue designed to
address key challenges and issues facing infrastructure sector.
60
Political
A good environment is a constitutional right of the Indian Citizens. Environmental
Protection has been given the constitutional status. Directive Principles of State
Policy states that, it is the duty of the state to 'protect and improve the environment
and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country'. It imposes Fundamental
duty on every citizen 'to protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife'.
Politics in India takes place within the framework of a constitution. India is a federal
parliamentary democratic republic in which the President of India is head of state
and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. Nominally, executive
power is exercised by the president and is independent of the legislature. Legislative
power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament of
India, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. Federal and state elections generally take
place within a multi-party system, although this is not enshrined in law. The judiciary
is independent of the executive and the legislature, the highest national court being
the Supreme Court of India. India is the world's largest democracy in terms of
citizenry
61
Legal
Indian labour law refers to laws regulating employment in India. There are over fifty
national laws and many more state-level laws.
Traditionally Indian governments at federal and state level have sought to ensure a
high degree of protection for workers (allegedly). For instance, a permanent worker
can be terminated only for proven misconduct or for habitual absence.
Indian contract law regulates contract law in India. The main contract law in India is
codified in the Indian Contract Act 1872 which came into effect on September 1,
1872 and is applicable in the whole country. It governs entering into contract,
execution of contract, and the effects of breach of contract.
Corporate governance refers to the system by which corporations are directed and
controlled. The governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and
responsibilities among different participants in the corporation (such as the board of
directors, managers, shareholders, creditors, auditors, regulators, and other
stakeholders) and specifies the rules and procedures for making decisions in
corporate affairs. Governance provides the structure through which corporations set
and pursue their objectives, while reflecting the context of the social, regulatory and
market environment. Governance is a mechanism for monitoring the actions,
policies and decisions of corporations. Governance involves the alignment of
interests among the stakeholders
In India the Trade Union movement is generally divided on political lines. According
to provisional statistics from the Ministry of Labour, trade unions had a combined
membership of 24,601,589 in 2002. As of 2008, there are 12 Central Trade Union
Organisations (CTUO) recognised by the Ministry of Labour.
62
ETHICAL ANALYSIS
The metal industry has in recent years come under attack from an ethical point of view
concerning its patents and the non-accessibility Metals for many of the poor.
The industry has replied with economic and legal justifications for its actions. The result
has been a communication gap between the industry on the one hand and poor nations
and Indian critics on the other.
Attempts to present and evaluate the arguments on all sides and suggests a possible way
out of the current impasse.
Attempts to determine the ethical responsibility of the Metal industry in making Metals
available to the needy, while at the same time developing the parallel responsibilities of
individuals, governments, and NGOs..
63
Bibliography
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Paraguay) (http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=kQYtjoEyDJoC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=minerals+and+mining+sector+in+paraguay+pdf&source=bl&ots=A1XIqR9scR&sig=MoABoh GzAPFPQy5SP5SqllqoY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DPG3Uun_DYXkkAX8loCwDg&ved=0CFgQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=minerals%20and%20mini)
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Paraguay)
64