Sports in Society:Issues and Controversies
Chapter 6Violence in Sports:
Does It Affect Our Lives?
Statements about violence in sports may be confusing because people fail to define important terms.
Definition of Violence
Theuseofexcessivephysicalforce,whichcausesorhasobviouspotentialtocauseharmordestruction
***v Violence isnotalwaysillegalordisapproved.
§ Itmaybepraisedasnecessarytoachievegoalsv When violence involveswidespread
rejectionofnorms,itmaysignalanarchy.v When violence involvesextreme
overconformitytonorms,itmaysignalfascism.
Violenceisprimarilyaboutcontrol.Violenceworks.Itmakespeopledowhatthey otherwisewouldnot.Itgovernsthethinlinebetween lifeanddeath. —AllanG.Johnson,sociologist,2013
Definition of aggression
Verbalorphysicalactionsgroundedinanintenttodominate,control,or
doharmtoanotherperson***
v Aggression isnotthesameastryinghardorbeingassertiveandachievementoriented.
v Intimidation referstowords,gestures,andactionsthatthreatenviolenceoraggression.
Violenceinsportsisnotnew,butnotallsportsareviolent.
Violence in sports history
v Researchshowsthatviolence wasmoresevereinthepast,bothonandoffthefield.
v Ratesofsportsviolence havenotincreasedovertime.
v Violence insportsisanissuetodaypartlybecauseitmayreproducegenderideologythatprivilegesmenoverwomenatthesametimethatitendangersmanymen.
Serioussporthasnothingtodowithfairplay.
Itisboundupwithhatred,jealousy,boastfulness,disregardofallrulesandsadisticpleasureinwitnessingviolence:
inotherwords,itiswarminustheshooting.
—GeorgeOrwell,1945
Types of on-the-field violence
1. Brutalbodycontact
2. Borderlineviolence
3. Quasi-criminalviolence
4. Criminalviolence
Whenviolenceisassociatedwithexcellence,athletesmaylearntoseeitasanormalpartofsports.
PhotobyJayCoakley
Violence on-the-field as overconformity to the sport ethic (I)
v Coachesmayexpectplayerstouseviolence.v Violence oftenattractsmediaattention.v Playersmaynotlikeviolence,butmost
acceptitaspartofthegame.v Quasi-criminalandcriminalviolence are
routinelyrejectedbyathletesandspectators.
(continued)
Violence as overconformity to the sport ethic (II)
v Violence mayberelatedtoinsecuritiesinhigh-performancesports.
v Expressionsofviolence arerelatedtomasculinity,butnotlimitedtomen.
v Physicalityandfacingviolence createsdramaandexcitement,strongemotions,andspecialbondsofmutualsupportamongathletes.
Commercialization and violence
v Someathletesarepaidtodoviolence.
v Commercializationandmoneyexpandthevisibilityofviolence insportsandencourageapromotionalrhetoricthatusesviolentimages.
v Violence isnotcausedbyTVandmoney—itexistedlongbeforeTVcoverageandbigsalaries.
Ifwewanttounderstandviolenceinsports,wemustunderstandgenderideologyandissuesofmasculinityinculture.
Violence & masculinityvViolence is grounded in
general cultural norms.
vViolence in sports is not limited to men.
vPlaying power and performance sports often are ways to prove masculinity.
Doingviolenceinsportsisnotlimitedtomales.
Women UFC fighters disrupt orthodox gender ideology, but reaffirm an emphasis on domination that works to their disadvantage
Violence in sports and gender ideology
v Doing violence in sports reproduces the belief that “men are superior to women.”
v Power and performance sports, when they encourage violence, emphasize differences between men and women.
v Sports violence reproduces an ideology of male entitlement.
Violence is institutionalized in some sports
v Innon-contactsports,violence isusuallylimitedtousingviolentimagesinverbalstatements.
v Maleplayerslearntouseviolence asastrategy.§ Incontactsports,enforcersandgoons
arepaidtodoviolence.
v Femaleplayerslearntouseviolenceasastrategyincontactsports,buttheydon’tuseittoprovefemininity.
Incertainsports,violenceistaughtasastrategy.
Violence is most likely when:
Sports are organized in ways that
vProduce hubris
vSeparate athletes from the communityvEncourage athletes to think that others do
not deserve their respect
Pain and injury as the price of violence
v Aparadoxintoday’ssports:Peopleacceptviolencewhilebeingconcernedaboutinjuriescausedbyit.
v Disablinginjuriescausedbyviolence areaseriousprobleminsomesports.
v Dominantideasaboutmasculinityarerelatedtohighinjuryratesinmen’ssports.
90%ofallseriousinjuriesincollegefootballoccuronlegalplays.
Brutal body contact, head trauma and brain damage
Asresearchshowsthatconcussionsandrepetitivesub-concussiveheadtraumacancausebothtemporaryandpermanentbraindamage,somepeoplearebeginningtoquestiontheexistenceofcollisionsports.p Vestedinterestsinthesesportsaresostrongthatmany
peoplerefusetoheedwhatscienceissayingp Thereisnoformofheadgearthatpreventsthebrainfrom
hittingtheinsideoftheskullduringviolentcollisionsorrapidheadrotation;helmetsprovidetheillusionofsafety.
Controlling on-the-field violence
v Brutalbodycontactisthemostdifficultformofviolence tocontrol.§ Mostinjuriesoccuron“legalhits.”
v Themosteffectivestrategiesmightinvolve:§ Suspensionsforplayers§ Finesforteamowners
Ultimatefighting(aka cagefighting)isorganizedaroundbrutalbodycontactandborderlineviolence;rulesexistonlytoremainalegalsportinU.S.states.
Off-the-field violence control vs carryover
Researchsuggeststhattherelationshipbetweenviolenceon-the-fieldandviolenceoff-the-fielddependson:§ Themeaningsthatathletesgivetotheir
on-the-fieldactions§ Thecontextinwhichathletesseekand
maintainstatusoffthefield
Learning to control violence through sports
Controlmaybelearnedifsportculturesemphasize:
p Non-violencep Self-controlp Respectforselfandothersp Physicalfitnessp Patience
Assault&sexualassaultratesbymaleathletes
v AssaultandsexualassaultbymalesareseriousproblemsinUnitedStatesandmanyothersocieties§ Tofocusonlyonathletesdistractsattentionfromthe
largerproblemofviolenceagainstwomen§ Validandreliableresearchonthedynamicsofsuch
violenceperpetratedbyathletesisdifficulttodo§ Sexualassaultandrapearevastlyunderreported
crimesduetop genderrelationsp popularmisconceptionsaboutthemeaningof“no”p policeinvestigationsthatareinsensitivetorapevictims
Research-based hypotheses about male athletes’ violence against women (I)
Violenceisrelatedto
1. Supportfromfellowathletesforusingphysicalforceasinterpersonalstrategy
2. Perceivedculturalsupportfordominationasabasisforstatusandidentityamongmen
3. Socialbondscreatedbycollectiveover-conformitytothenormsofthesportethic
(continued)
Violenceisrelatedto4. Collectivehubris amongathletesandthe
notionthatoutsidersdonotdeservetheirrespect
5. Thebeliefthatwomenare“groupies”insportworlds
6. Institutionalsupportforeliteathletesregardlessoftheiractions
7. Institutionalfailurestoholdathletesaccountablefordeviance
Hypotheses about male athletes’ violence against women (II)
Violence among spectatorsv Violence isnotusuallyaproblemamongspectators
watchingnon-contactsports
v Violence isoccasionallyaproblemamongspectatorswatchingcollisionsportsbutthecausesofthatviolencevariesbysituation.
v Evidenceindicatesthat§ ratesofspectatorviolencetodayarelower
thanratesinthepast§ Nearlyallsportspectatorviolenceinvolvesmen
Spectator violence and the context in which events occur
v Spectatorsbringwiththemthehistories,issues,controversies,andideologiesofthecommunitiesinwhichtheylive.
v Whentensionsandconflictsareintenseandwidespread,confrontationsmayoccur.§ Sporteventsmaybeusedassitesforconfrontations.
v Racial,ethnic,andclassdivisionsincreasethelikelihoodofviolence.§ Nearlyallspectatorviolenceinvolvesyoungermen.
Thelanguageusedbysportspectatorsreferstoviolence,butaretheyareviolentpeople?
Thereislittleresearchonspectatorviolenceinvenueswherecrowdswatcheventsonlargeoutdoorscreens.
PhotobyJayCoakley
Researchisneededoncelebratoryviolenceassociatedwithcertainsports.Thisviolenceisdifficulttocontrol
whenitoccursindiverselocationsawayfromthestadium.
Spectator violence worldwidep Violence is always related to the context in
which it occurs; it is most likely when n Male spectators are unemployed an alienated from
society generallyn Groups of male spectators see violent confrontations
with police or opposing fans as a means of creating excitement and gaining status
n Male spectators use the stadium as a site for expressing nationalism, racism, extreme positions on social issues, political opposition to local or national officials perceived as autocratic and corrupt.
Spectator panicsp Morespectatorshavebeenkilledinmasspanics
andaccidentsatsporteventsthanfromanyintentionalviolence
p Panicsarelinkedwithmanyfactors,buttheyarefueledbyemotionalcontagion, ortherapidformationofsocialnormsthatlargenumbersofpeoplefollowsimultaneously
p Themostcommonfactorindeadlypanicsisalackofescaperoutes.n Whenthousandsofpeoplefleeinfearandhita
blockedexit,peoplearecrushedandtrampled.
Post-event violencep Celebratoryriots
n Thesewereoftendefinedasoverexuberant fansexpressingteamloyalty—untilsomeonehadtopayforthedestructiontheycaused.
n Somepoliceforces(inmanycollegecampustowns,forexample)havelearnedtoanticipatetheseriotsandhowtodisbursecrowdswithoutcreatingconfrontations
p Frustrationriotsn Thesearerare;theyusuallyoccurinresponsetoaperceived
injusticethatdeterminestheoutcomeinthefinalminutesofagame;violencebetweenplayersoftenisaprecipitatingincident
p Bothoftheseformsofriotsarelinkedwiththeextenttowhichateamisasourceofspectators’identities
Crowd dynamics and situational factors related to spectator violence
ü Crowd sizeü Composition of crowdü Meaning and importance
of eventü History of relationship
between teamsü Crowd control strategies
at event
ü Alcohol consumption by spectators
ü Location of eventü Motivations for attending
the eventü Importance of teams as
sources of identity for spectators
Controlling crowd violence
Be aware of the following factors:1. Perceived violence on the field is
positively related to crowd violence2. Crowd dynamics and conditions3. Historical, social, economic, and political
issues underlying spectator orientations
v Employvisiblecoachesandathletestogiveanti-violencemessages
vUseonfieldritualstohighlightconnectionsbetweenopponents
vMakespectatorsawareofanti-violencenorms;promotecivilitytowardsotherfans
v Regulatealcoholconsumption
(continued)
Controlling violenceby creating anti-violence norms (I)
v Limittheuseofsocialcontrolmethodsthatdehumanizespectatorsorlimitattendance
v Lawenforcementofficialsmustbewelltrained
v Longtermcontrol dependsontheextenttowhichanti-violencenormsareestablishedandmaintainedinstadiumsandbypeopleinattendanceatevents
Controlling violenceby creating anti-violence norms (II)
Terrorism at sport eventsv Terrorism isaspecialformofviolencedesignedto
intimidateatargetpopulationofpeopleforthepurposeofachievingpoliticalorsocialgoals§ Terrorismoccursmostfrequentlyindividedsocietiesorwhen
oppressedpopulationshaveanoppositionalpoliticalagenda§ Althoughsporteventsappeartobelikelytargetsforterrorism
duetotheirvisibilityandmediacoverage,fewdeadlyattackshaveoccurredinrecenthistory—acknowledgingp BostonMarathonattackin2013p Domesticterrorismatthe1996OlympicGamesinAtlantap PalestinianattackonIsraeliteamsmembersatthe1972OlympicgamesinMunich,Germany
Terrorism as spectator violence
v Terrorism hasoccurredatsportseventsinthepast(e.g.,1972Olympics).
v Currentthreatsofterrorism haveincreasedsecurityatsportvenues.
vUnderstandingterrorism requiresawarenessofglobalissues.v Sportsdonotexistinsocialvacuums.v Globalproblemsandhostilitiesmaybe
expressedinsportcrowds.
Thethreatofterrorismhasledtobillionsofdollarsofsecurityexpensesatmajorsporteventsworldwide.
Thisisoneofthefactorsthathasincreasedtheexpensesforhostcitiesandnations.
Herearetwoofthethousandsofpolice,military,andprivatesecuritypersonnelondutyforeveryminuteoftheOlympicGamesinLondon.
PhotobyLaraKillick
Thecostofterrorism: