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REPORT OF THE
International
Symposium on:Social, Ethical,Political and Policy
Implications ofInterpretations ofIslams Foundational
Text: The QuranFunded by:
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of the Federal Republic of Germany
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SOCIAL,ETHICAL,POLITICAL,ANDPOLICY
IMPLICATIONSOFINTERPRETATIONSOF
ISLAMSFOUNDATIONALTEXT:THEQURAN
ReportoftheSymposiumorganizedbythe
CenterforDialogues:IslamicWorld-U.S.-theWest
NewYorkUniversitysCasaItaliana
November10,2010
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SOCIAL,ETHICAL,POLITICAL,ANDPOLICYIMPLICATIONSOFINTERPRETATIONSOF
ISLAMSFOUNDATIONALTEXT:THEQURAN
Copyright2011byCenterforDialogues:
IslamicWorld-U.S.-TheWest.Allrights
reserved.Nopartofthispublication
maybeusedorreproducedinanymanner
whatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermission
exceptinthecaseofbriefquotations
embodiedincriticalarticlesandreviews.
Formoreinformation,address
CenterforDialogues:IslamicWorld-U.S.-theWest
NewYorkUniversity
194MercerStreet,4thFloor
NewYork,NY,10012-1502
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CONTENTSDirectorsPreface 4
ExecutiveSummary 7
OpeningSession 10
SessionINormativeIslamversusHistoricalIslam: 13
ACriticalDistinctionforOurTimesandtheModernEpistemologicalToolsthatMakeItPossible
SessionIIInterpretingtheQuran,Respondingtothe 26
ChallengesoftheModernWorld:
MuslimSocietiesataCrossroads
NotestoSessions 36AppendixI:ConferenceProgram 37
AppendixII:ParticipantBiographies 39
AppendixIII:MustaphaTlilisOpeningStatement 43
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DIRECTORSPREFACE
InNovember2010when theNYUCenter for Dialogues convened its symposium onthe
Social,Ethical,PoliticalandPolicyImplicationsofInterpretationsofIslamsFoundationalText:theQuran,Icouldnothavepredictedthepowerfultransformationsthathavetaken
placeacrosstheMuslimworldthesepastfewmonths.Astheseeventscontinuetounfold,analysts and journalistshave repeatedly raised the question: what rolewill Islam play?How will Islam influence the governments and societies that blossom from these
revolutions?Thesequestionsrelateinadirectwaytothecentralquestionandchallengeof
the symposium: what are the practical implications of contemporary interpretations ofIslamsfoundationaltext,theQuran?
BelievedbyMuslimstohavebeenrevealedbyGodtotheProphetMuhammadinthe7th
century,theQuranconstitutestherootofIslamthefoundationuponwhichtheIslamic
religion (as it is practiced in various forms today) was built. Far from being a purelyreligioustext,theQuranlaysthegroundworkforethical,political,andsocialfoundations
ofsociety.UnlikeCatholicism,thereisnoonepersoninIslamictraditionwiththeultimateauthoritytomandatehowtheQurananditsethical,political,andsocialinjunctionsshouldbe interpreted. Religious schools of thought that vary widely in their theoretical and
theologicalapproachestotheQuranhavebeenestablishedthroughouttheMuslimworld,notonlyacrosstheArabMiddleEastandNorthAfrica,butalsoinCentralAsia,SouthAsia,
sub-SaharanAfrica,andChina.
Despitetherelativefreedomofinterpretationpermittedbythelackofacentralauthority,
variousgroupsandindividualsthroughouthistoryhavetriedtoclaimthatauthorityandhave prohibited different interpretations, sometimes violently. TodayMuslims andnon-
MuslimsalikearefacedwiththechallengeofMuslimfundamentalistswhoclaimtospeak
on behalf of all Muslims and who view the world through the narrow lens of aninterminableclashofcivilizationsbetweentheWestandanIslamicEast.
ThesymposiumontheSocial,Ethical,PoliticalandPolicyImplicationsofInterpretationsofIslamsFoundationalText:theQuranwasconceivedasaforumforprogressiveMuslim
intellectuals to discuss and disseminate their methods of interpreting the Quran andreflectuponthepositive,practicalimplicationsoftheirwork.Byinitiatinganintra-Muslim
debate, the NYU Center for Dialogues sought to illuminate the work of a number of
innovativeMuslimscholarswhohavefoundnewandconstructivemeaningsintheQuranthatwidenthetraditionalboundariesofIslamicexegesis.
Thesymposiumsagendawasdividedintotwosessions.Inthefirstsession,participantsdiscussedthecriticaldifferentiationbetweennormativeIslamandhistoricalIslam,aswell
asthemethodstheyemployininterpretingtheQuranasahistoricaltext.Thisdiscussionnaturallyseguedintothesecondsession,inwhichparticipantsexplainedhowtheyapply
contemporaryinterpretationsoftheQurantochallengesfacingtheMuslimworldtoday
challengessuchascurricularreformandIslamicfundamentalism.
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Thereareseveralindividualswhodeserveacknowledgementandthanks;thissymposiumwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthem.
First and foremost I would like to thank the symposiums participants: Robert Lee,
Professor of Political Science at Colorado College (United States); Andreas Christmann,SeniorLecturerofContemporaryIslamattheUniversityofManchester(UnitedKingdom);Abdelmajid Charfi, Professor Emeritus of Arab Civilization and Islamic Thought at the
UniversityofTunis(Tunisia);AdelRifaatandBahgatElNadi,politicalscientistspublished
togetherunderthepseudonymMahmoudHussein(Egypt);AminAbdullah,ProfessorofIslamic Studies at Universitas Islam Negari Sunan Kalijaga (Indonesia); Dale Eickelman,
ProfessorofAnthropologyandHumanRelationsatDartmouthCollege(UnitedStates);andStefanWild,ProfessorEmeritusofSemiticLanguagesandIslamicStudiesattheUniversity
of Bonn (Germany). The participants outstanding presentations at the symposium are
evidence of their rigorous research, and their firm commitment to both challengepreviously held assumptionsand broadenthe fieldofQuranic interpretation for a new
generation.As the idea of this symposium was forming in my head, I was fortunate to have the
encouragementofAmbassadorHeidrunTempel,thenSpecialRepresentativeforDialogueamongCivilizations at the German Federal ForeignOffice and now Deputy Head of the
GermanMissioninJakarta.ItwasthroughAmbassadorTempelthatwewereabletosecure
thegenerousgrantfromtheMinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalRepublicofGermany,which made this symposium possible. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to
AmbassadorTempelandtohercolleagues:StephenBuchwald,JuliaFugel,ElmarJakobs,and the rest of the staff at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Federal Republic of
GermanyandthePermanentMissionofGermanytotheUnitedNations.
Finally, I would like to thank the indefatigable NYU Center for Dialogues staff, most
especially Helena Zeweri, until recently an Assistant Research Scholar; Reema Hijazi,
Assistant Research Scholar; Joanna Taylor, Junior Research Scholar; and Liz Behrend,Consultant.Theyalldedicatedasignificantamountoftimeduringandafterofficehoursto
ensurethesuccessofthissymposiumandIamverygratefulfortheiroutstandingworkandproudtohavethemascolleagues.Finally,ashasbeenthecasewithmanyotherreports
producedbytheCentersinceitsinceptioneightyearsago,mythanksgotoSharaKay.We
arefortunatetohaveherasoureditorialadvisorandweappreciateherintellectualandstylisticrigor.
ThepublicationofthisreportcomesatasignificantmomentinthehistoryoftheMuslimworld. Over the past twomonths revolutionshaveoverthrownold, despotic regimes in
TunisiaandEgyptandtherehavebeenwidespreadprotestsacrosstheregiondemandingchangeandreform.AsisalreadybeingseenwiththeMuslimBrotherhoodinEgypt,Islam
willbean integralpartofthe discussionasthese countries formnew governments.We
hopethatthisreport,initsvarioustranslations,willserveasavaluableresourcefortheregionsemergingleadersandpolicymakers,aswellasitscitizens,andwillaidtheregion
indecidinghowtobestconsiderIslaminrelationtogovernmentandciviclife.
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March3,2011
MustaphaTliliFounderandDirector
CenterforDialoguesIslamicWorld-U.S.-TheWest
NewYorkUniversity
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EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Theinternationalsymposium on theSocial,Ethical,Political, andPolicy Implicationsof
IslamsFoundationalText:theQuranwasconvenedonNovember10,2010inNewYork,NewYork,bytheNewYorkUniversityCenterforDialogues:IslamicWorld-U.S.-theWest.
Thissymposiumbroughttogetheraninternationalgroupofscholarstoparticipateinanintra-Muslim debate on the methods and practical implications of contemporaryinterpretationsoftheQuran.
Founder and Director of the NYU Center for Dialogues, Mustapha Tlili, opened the
symposiumbyremindingtheaudienceofthetroublingIslamophobicevents,inparticular
the demonstrations against the ground-zero mosque, that shook New York and theUnitedStatesinthefinalmonthsof2010.Nowmorethanever,Tlilistated,thereisaneed
for intra-Muslim debate and dialogue with the two-fold aim of challenging themisconceptionsofIslamintheWestandencouragingMuslim-majoritycountriestofacethe
problematicrealitiesoftheirownsocieties.
Before the startof the first session,Professor EmeritusofArabCivilization and Islamic
Thought,AbdelmajidCharfi,brieflyreflectedontheimportantlegacyofAlgerianscholarMohamedArkoun who had intended to participate in the symposium but sadly passed
awayinthefallof2010.
Theparticipants in the first session explored thecritical distinctionbetweennormativeIslamandhistoricalIslam,anddiscussedthemethodstheyemploytointerprettheQuran
asahistoricaltext.
Professorof PoliticalScienceat ColoradoCollege,RobertLee, presentedtheideasof the
lateMohamedArkoun.AccordingtoLee,Arkounwasprimarilyopposedtowhathe titledIslamicReason,orthemonopolisticholdofMuslimgovernments,theulama,andIslamist
movementsonQuranicinterpretation.Incontrasttothesegroups,Arkounbelievedthatthe Quran is an open and dynamic text and he argued that it should be submitted to
analysis from a variety of different literary, anthropological, sociological, and historical
perspectives.ForArkoun,theentiretyoftheQurancannotbeunderstoodascontainingasingular meaning. Instead, the truth of the Quran can be found in the plurality of
meaningsyieldedbycriticalinterpretationsofthetext.
Following Professor Lees presentation, Senior Lecturer on Contemporary Islam at theUniversityofManchester,AndreasChristmann,presentedtheideasofMuhammadShahrur
whowasunabletoattendthesymposiumforhealthreasons.OftencomparedtoProtestantreformerMartinLuther,Shahrurarguesinhisworkthatpoliticalleadersandthe ulamahavemonopolized interpretationsof theQuranandhaveused religious institutionsand
practiceinawaythatposestheleastresistancetopoliticaltyranny.However,according
toChristmann,ShahrurfirmlybelievesthatIslamcanandshouldbereformedandthatitcan provide a necessary third way between radical fundamentalism and secular
nationalism.HeenvisionsanIslamthatisentirelydepoliticized,butformsthemoralforceofpoliticsandsocietyasasortofcivilreligion.
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Thelastspeakerinthefirstsession,ProfessorEmeritusAbdelmajidCharfi,approachesthe
Quran froma historical perspective. Heargued that the historical context in which theQuran is read and interpreted has immense implications for the ways the text is
understood.ForCharfi,thedifferinginterpretationsthathaveemergedthroughouthistorynecessarilysuggestthattheQurandoesnotandcouldneverhaveonesingularmeaningor
truth.Charfisummarizedhissubsequentargumentsinthreemainpoints:
MuslimsinterpretingtheQurantodayneedtoacknowledgethelimitsimposedbytraditionalexegesis.
The relationship between exegesis and jurisprudence should be reversed. Inother words, traditional exegesis should not inform contemporary
interpretationsof theQuran,but insteadcontemporary interpretationsof the
Quranshouldpavethewayfornewformsofexegesis.
Finally,CharfiarguedagainstastrictlylinearinterpretationoftheQuranastherevelations were assembled according to length and not according to acontinuousnarrative.
Thepanelistsinthesecondsessionfocusedonhowtheycombinetheorywithpracticeto
addresschallengestheMuslimworldisfacingtoday.
Politicalscientistandauthor,AdelRifaatpresentedonbehalfof MahmoudHussein,thepseudonymunderwhichhepublisheswithco-authorBahgatElNadi.Intheirmostrecent
bookPenserleCoran(GrassetetFasquelle,2009),theauthorsseektoexposethehistoricity
oftheQuranusingtheoriginalsacredtexts,especiallythetestimoniesoftheCompanionsof the Prophet, in order to prevent radical fundamentalists and other literalists from
claimingthathistoricityisimposedontheQuranby foreignintellectualtraditions.Rifaatcitedthreemainexamplesofthishistoricity:
TheQurandistinguishesGodfromhisWord.GodiseternalbuthisWordistime-boundanddependantuponthecontextinwhichitisrevealed.
GodisconstantlyindialoguewiththeProphetandtheCompanionsandHeallowsforexplanationbasedonthecontextofthesituation.
Finally,Goddoesnotweigheachofhisrevelationsequally.WhatGodsaysinoneverseisoccasionallyabrogatedinalaterverse.
AminAbdullahwasunfortunatelyunabletoattendthesymposiumbecausehisrequestforanentryvisatotheUnitedStateswasrejected.His ideaswerepresentedbyamemberof
the NYU Center for Dialogues staff. As a professor of Islamic studies at the Universitas
Negari Islam Sunan Kalijaga in Yogyakarta, Abdullah has spearheaded many curricularreform efforts includingmoving oversight ofhis IslamicUniversityfrom theMinistryof
Religion to the Ministry ofEducation when hewas the universitys president. Abdullahexplained that many Islamic universities in Indonesia are now required to integrate
multidisciplinary approaches into their courses, including using social science
methodologiestointerprettheQuranandothersacredtexts.Heacknowledged,however,that many departments still remain rooted in traditional methodologies and practices.
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AbdullaharguedthatthemainprojectforthefieldofIslamicStudiestodayiseliminating
misunderstanding and mutual suspicion between Islamic Studies, Islamic Thought andIslamicReligiousKnowledge.
In his closing remarks, Mustapha Tlili underscored the need for a stronger dialogue
betweentheWestandtheMuslimworld.HeencourageduniversitiesandscholarsintheWesttorealizetheimplicationsofthisdialogueandtoengagetheirpeersintheMuslim
worldinordertocontinuethelong,andtoooftenobscured,historyofintellectualcross-
fertilizationbetweentheMuslimworldandtheWest.
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OPENINGSESSION
OpeningRemarks:MustaphaTlili,FounderandDirector,NYUCenterforDialogues
(U.S.)
MustaphaTlili, thesymposiumsorganizer,welcomed participants and remarked on the
particularimportanceandtimelinessoftheevent.Thispastsummer,theQur'anwastobeburnedbyanobscurepastor ofa non-denominational church inFloridauntilPresidentObamaandotherU.S.administrationofficialspersonallyintervened.Evenmorerecently,
NewYorkCitywitnessedhugedemonstrationsforandagainsttheso-calledGroundZero
mosque. Misunderstandings about the Muslim faith abound in the West. Meanwhile,Muslimsthemselves,intheU.S.inparticular,donotseemtoagreeonwhatbeingMuslimis
about.Thosewhospeakintheirnameareoftendrivenbyaquestforpower,andprojectconflictingimagesofIslamanddifferentunderstandingsofitsholytexts.
TheabsenceofacentralauthorityinIslamictheologyandtraditionheightenstheanxietiesof Muslims and non-Muslims alike regarding Islam, Tlili explained. History tells us,
however, that the search for a universally recognized truth has been part of Islamictraditionsincetheadventofthefaithmorethan14centuriesago.ToTlilismind,ifyoustrip Islamic history of its competition for political power, what remains can all be
articulated in terms of interpretation of the faith, its tenets, and its underpinningfundamentaltextsaboveall,theQur'an.
Whatmakesthe currentmomentunique, Tlili continued, is theweight and challenge ofglobalization, which requires the Muslimworld toconfront its realities to look in the
mirrorofmodernityandanswerthequestionofhowtobeMusliminthe21stcentury.IntheflatworldoftodayincontrasttothetimesofAl-Mu'tazila1andAl-Muwahiddin2
information is transmitted globally in an instant. The Muslim worldcan no longer hide
certaintruths,hesaid,aboutitslackofeconomicdevelopment,education,women'srights,freedomofexpression,ruleoflaw,andregardforoursharedhumanity.
TliliclaimedthatwhileIslammayhaveabadnameintodaysworld,it'snotallthefaultofitsenemies.Islam,forhim,iswhatMuslimsmakeittobeand,thus,theimportanceofthis
symposium: how we interpret the Qur'an is not simply a matter of piety. It has realimplicationsonhowMuslim-majoritysocieties,whetherthoseofyesterdayortoday,build
states, economies, ethicalsystems, legal systems,andrelationshipswiththenon-Muslim
world.ThescienceofQur'anicinterpretationhasevolvedthroughthecenturies.But,ifweadmitthatit,asanyscience,reliesonintellectualtoolsandcategories,weshouldnotTlili
saidhesitatetoapplythemodernhumanandsocialsciencestoitsinterpretation.Infact,
thisis,accordingtoTlili,themostimportantchallengethattheMuslimworldfacestoday.
Tlilithenpausedtomournthedeathsoftwomajorthinkerswhohadplannedtoattendthesymposium: the first, his former teacher, dear friend, and colleague, MohamedArkoun
(1928-2010),whopassedawaytwomonthsago,andthesecond,theothergiantofmodern
Islamicthought,ProfessorNasrAbuZayd(1943-2010),whopassedawaylastspring.Tlilihopedthesymposiumwouldpayhomageto theirlives,theirintellectualstruggles,andto
the extraordinaryimportanceofthe bodyofrigorousresearch they left behind.Healso
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acknowledged two other important absences: the Syrian thinker, Muhammad Shahrur,
authoroftheseminalbook, TheBookandtheQur'an:AContemporaryReading,whowasprevented fromcoming forhealth reasons,andMohammadAminAbdullah,the eminent
IndonesianscholarofIslamandoftheQur'an,whowasdeniedanentryvisatotheU.S.
Tlili concluded by stating that as intellectuals, the participants foremost duty was torigorous and clear thought. Piety serves its purpose,he said, but critical intellect has adifferent function one in which the sacred becomes an object for rigorous and clear
examination.Witheverythingthatweknowintheworldtoday,mustIslambesimplythe
Islamofpiety?OrcanitbetheIslamtowhichAbdelmajidCharfi,MahmoudHussein,AminAbdullah,MuhammadShahrur,andthelateMohammedArkounandNasrAbuZaydapply
thetoolsofcriticalthought?HesubmittedthatthisisthepreeminentquestionfacingthesymposiumandtheMuslimworldtoday.
In Memory of Mohamed Arkoun: Abdelmajid Charfi, Professor Emeritus of Arab
CivilizationandIslamicThought,UniversityofTunis(Tunisia)
Dr.Charfi,ProfessorEmeritusofArabCivilizationandIslamicThoughtattheUniversityofTunis(Tunisia),spokeinmemoryofMohamedArkounasarespectedcolleagueandvaluedfriend.Charfidescribedhisdifficulty inpreparing thisspeech,bothbecauseof theclose
natureofhisfriendshipwithArkoun,andbecauseoftheeruditionofArkounswork.
Charfi knew Arkoun for four decades and they often met in Paris and at academic
conferences in Europe and the Middle East. When Arkoun would visit Tunis, Charfiwelcomedhimasahouseguest.Drawntogetherbyintellectualaffinityandasharedloveof
longwalks,theyenjoyedfrankdiscussionsonarangeofpersonalandprofessionalmatters.Charfi learnedto recognize the fragility and anxietyArkounhidbeneathhis intellectual
brilliance.
CharfidescribedhowArkounsbackgroundandpersonalexperiencesinformedhisfriends
academic perspective. Arkoun acquired French nationality after Algerian independence,
whenhewasdismissedfromhisuniversitypostinAlgeriaonthegroundsthathisteachingwassubversive.Thebenefitofthisexperience,Charfipostulated,wasthatitgaveArkoun
the opportunity to combine intimate knowledge of both Islamic and Western cultures.Despite living in France, Arkoun always identified as Kabil, Algerian, and Maghrebi.
Moreover, his encounters with authorities from the Front de Libration Nationale in
Algeriataughthimtoremainalooffrompoliticalrhetoric.Instead,headoptedanoverviewof the problems in Maghrebi societies and sought to analyze their underlying causes.
BecauseArkounavoided takingapublicpositionon suchpoliticalmatters,hewasoften
reproachedforlackingcompassion.Yet,asCharfiwitnessed,Arkounwasconsumedbythetopicshestudiedandbelievedthathisworkwascapableofeffectingchange.
Charfi commented onthe difficulty ofdiscussingArkounsworkdue to its richnessand
depth.Leavingmorein-depthtreatmenttopresenterslaterinthesymposium,Charfisaid
hewouldlimithiscommentstoafewaspectsofArkounswork.HefirstnotedArkounsbrilliantspeakingabilityinthreenon-nativelanguages:French,English,andArabic,which
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he learned relatively late in life (at the age of 17). He then outlined Arkouns primary
contributionstothehistoryofIslamicthinking.
Above all, Charfi said, Arkoun was adept at deconstructing established dogmas andcritiquingseeminglyself-evidentbeliefs.Evenifonedisagreeswithhisconcepts,or finds
them destabilizing, one cannot remain untouched after reading an Arkoun text, Charfiobserved,forArkounsapproachencouragesreaderstothinkcriticallyforthemselves.
Arkoun employed ideas from the modern social sciences and also developed his own
concepts, many ofwhich Charfi said have become indispensable for understandingreligioningeneralandtheQuranandIslaminparticular.Someoftheseoriginalconcepts
havebeenpopularized,suchasdemythication,demysticationanddemytholigization,aswellas unthought and unthinkable.3 Other concepts have met with objection. For example,
Arkounsadmonitionstotransgressanddisplacecertaintheologicalconstructspreviously
regardedassacredhavebeenwidelyresisted.Notably,Arkounbelievedthatreligioustextsmustbere-interpretedinanewlighttoovercometheearlyofficialclosingofthe mushaf
thestandardizedcollectionofQuranicversesinasinglevolume.Charfi concluded by summarizing the implications of Arkouns approach beyond its
importance to Islamic studies alone. Arkouns assessment of the need to criticize andquestion everything is relevant, Charfi said, in a modern world characterized by
dehumanization and the creation of docile consumers. Regardless ofwhetherweagree
with Arkouns own ideas, he continued, believers and nonbelievers alike must takeresponsibilityfordevelopingtheirownintellectualandspiritualpotential.Charfisuggested
that this is where Arkoun has often been misunderstood. Olivier Carr, for example,comparedArkountoSayyidQutbinhisfundamentalistfixationonoriginaltextsandin
hisclaimsabout theperformativenatureofprophetic religious discourse..4 Indeed,both
Qutb and Arkoun see the Quran as unique in being highly performative and all-encompassing. However, Carr attacked Arkoun for rejecting positive rationalism and
questioningtheoriginaltextasaproductandsourceofreligion.
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SESSIONINORMATIVEISLAMVERSUSHISTORICALISLAM:ACriticalDistinctionof
OurTimesandtheModernEpistemologicalToolsthatMakeItPossible
Tlili introducedthesession,creditingmodernepistemologicaltoolswithmakingpossiblethecriticaldistinctionbetweennormativeandhistoricalIslam,adistinctionfoundinthe
workofbothArkounandCharfi.TliliintroducedRobertLee,ProfessorofPoliticalScienceatColoradoCollege,aseminentlyqualifiedtopresentArkounswork.Leeisimmersedinthe intellectual world of Islamic civilization, Middle Eastern societies and Islamic
intellectualmovements.Fromthisperspective,andasatranslatorofArkounswork,hehas
muchtosayaboutArkoun.
TheIdeasofMohammedArkoun:RobertLee,ProfessorofPoliticalScience,Colorado
College(U.S.)
Leebeganbyclaimingthathewasill-suitedtospeakonArkounsbehalf.Asastudentofthe
politics of the Middle East, he said, he lacked the insight to Arkouns work thatphilosophers,anthropologists,semioticiansandhistoriansofIslamhave.However,hehas
readmuch ofArkounswriting, heardhim lecture, translated one of his books, writtenaboutthepoliticalimplicationsofhiswork,andenjoyedhisfriendship.
LeedefendedArkounagainstclaimsthathewasanuncommittedscholar;despiteArkounspostmodernistterminology,hispassionandthevolumeofhisoutputbeliedadeeplyfelt
commitment.
LeeexplainedArkounsoppositiontowhathecalledIslamicReason,theapplicationof
methodologies, based on Greek logic, which contributed to rigid orthodoxies in Islam.Arkoundecried themonopolization of religious interpretation bymodern governments,
the ulama Muslim leaders classically trained inQuranic interpretation and Islamist
movements,allintheserviceoftheirrespectivepoliticalprojects.Thoughhesympathizedwithreformers,healsocriticizedthemforfailingtoaddresstherootoftheproblem:the
repressionof innovative thought in theMuslimworld. Becauseof thesepositions, some
perceivedArkountobeagainstIslamitself,andfewMuslim-majoritycountrieswelcomedhimtospeakorsellhisbooks.
ItismoredifficulttounderstandwhatArkounwasforthanwhathewasagainst,Leesaid.
Leebelievedhimtobeanidealist,motivatedbyfaithinthetruthofhisideasandintheir
ability to resurrect a unified Muslim consciousness, or perhaps even a unified humanconsciousness.
Arkounexpressedthisideathroughtheterm remembrer,whichLeetranslatedasputtingbacktogether.ArkounhopedhisideascouldhelpmaketheMuslimconsciousnesswhole
again,andinclusiveofallbelievers.ArkounextendedhisinclusivenesstothePeoplesoftheBookmeaningMuslims,Jews,andChristianswhohesawasfundamentallyunited
inbelief.
Asking how Arkouns treatment of the Quran fit into his objective of putting back
togetherIslam,LeepointedtothecriticaldistinctionArkounmadebetweentheprophetic
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moment of Quranic revelation, and the ensuing compilation of themushaf, or Closed
OfficialCorpus(inArkounsterminology).Becauseofthegapbetweenrevelationandtext,ArkounapproachedtheQuranictextasaliterarydocumenttobeanalyzedwithmodern
interpretivetools,inordertoremembrerthetruthofthepropheticmomentthatprecededit.
Lee used two examples of Arkouns exegesis to illustrate his application of theory inpractice: the Fatihathe statement of faith that begins the Quranand Sura 18 (The
Cave).
Summarizing Arkouns readingof the Fatiha, Lee emphasized hismultilayeredanalysis.
Arkoun applied linguistic, historical, and anthropological analyses to understand thelanguageofthetext,itschanginginterpretationsovertime,andthesocietyinwhichitwas
revealed.Arkounconcludedthatthetextholdsapluralityofequallyvalidmeaningsand
thatthetruthisfoundininfinitepluralityitself.
Lees second example, The Cave, yielded a different set of observations from Arkoun.Observingthatthelongsuradoesnotcohereinthemeornarrative,Arkounproblematizedtraditional readings, such as al-Tabaris, which sought a unified interpretation. Arkoun
blamedsuchforcedreadingsonIslamicReason,whichsacrificedrichsymbolisminfavoroflogicandrationale.
Basedonhisownreadingsofthetext,ArkounconcludedthatQuranicinterpretationanditsedificeofIslamicReasonhavehistoricallybeenrelatedtoworldlypowerstruggles.By
contextualizingthoseinterpretationsinhistory,withoutdenyingtheirvalidity,hesoughttoliberatetheQuran.
LeesconcludingremarksdrewattentiontotheintellectualrisksArkountookbyattackingthe inherited tradition of interpretation, aswell as contemporary political regimes and
movements that appropriate religion for ideological aims. Opposed to these abuses of
Islam, Arkoun urgedMuslims tochallenge received knowledgeand reopen the realmofideas that Islamic tradition has rendered unthought and unthinkable, such as the
distinctionbetweenthecompiledQuranandtheoriginalrevelation.Arkounbelievedthat,throughreassembling(remembrer)Muslimtraditionbyacceptingallitspastandpotential
iterations,thePeoplesoftheBookandhumanityasawholecouldbebroughttogether.
The Ideas ofMuhammadShahrur (Syria):AndreasChristmann, SeniorLecturer in
ContemporaryIslam,UniversityofManchester,U.K.(Germany)
ThankingLeefor anilluminatingpresentation,Tlili introducedMuhammadShahrurasathinkerinthesamespiritasArkoun.ShahruristheauthorofTheBookandtheQur'an:A
Contemporary Reading, one of the most widely disseminatedand controversialcontemporary books on interpreting the Quran. Though the Syrian thinkers work
representsadifferentschool,Shahrur,likeArkoun,appliesthetoolsofcriticalthoughtto
theQuranandthetraditionofinterpretation.TliliexplainedthatShahrurwasunabletoparticipateinthesymposiumbecauseofhealthreasons,andinvitedAndreasChristmann,
Senior Lecturer in Contemporary Islam at the University of Manchester, to present
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Shahrurs ideas in his place. A scholar of Islamic civilization and thought, Christmann
publishedanEnglishtranslationofShahrurswritingsin2009.5
Christmann opened his presentation with a brief overview of Muhammad Shahrursbiography and professional background. Shahrur was not trained in traditional Islamic
studiesorinthemodernstudyofIslam,butisaretiredprofessorofsoilengineering.HislaymansQuranicinterpretations,whichChristmanncharacterizedasmodern,scientific,liberal, andprogressive, are therefore from a quitedifferent perspective than the usual
scholars.
Christmann contextualized Shahrurs work in contemporary Islamic discourse by
explaining that it respondstoboth radical Islamists,who politicize Islamfor right-wingideological aims, and to Leftists andsecular-nationalists,who seek to eliminate religion
frompubliclife.ShahrursinterpretationsoftheQuranoffera thirdalternative:anIslam
that isprogressive and liberalandwhichhebelieves should be the source ofuniversalmoralvaluesandthefoundationforpoliticalleadership.
Christmann proceeded to summarize Shahrurs work by distilling it into ten theses,drawing a comparison to the Ninety-Five Theses of Martin Luther and suggesting that
Shahrursworkhas thepotential to similarly reform institutionalized Islam. Christmannnoted thatmany of Shahrurs readings of the Quran entail redefining Islamic terms as
universalethicalprincipals.
Christmann articulated a first thesis that he determined to be the most prioritized of
Shahrursideas:thenecessityofseparatingstateandreligion,whilereinvestingpubliclifewith Religion. Christmann used lowercase religion to denote Shahrurs concept of
historicalandinstitutionalIslam,asdistinguishedfromReligion,capitalized,whichrefers
to Shahrurs ideal of a universal civic religion. The separation of state and religion,Christmannclarified,means thatstate authoritiesmustnotmanipulatereligion fortheir
political agendas, nor should institutional religion co-opt state power in pursuit of
theocracy.Shahrurisconcernedthatcombiningstateandreligion(dinwa-dawla)obstructsreligious freedom by privileging one religious faction over others. Yet he is equally
concernedbytheprospectofstatewithoutreligion(dawlabidundin),whichhebelievesleads to authoritarianism. Instead, the moral values of Religion, writ large, should
reconnectstateandsociety.
ThesecondthesisChristmannenumeratedwasShahrursobservationthatHistoricalIslam
(religion)hasbeenpoliticizedandde-moralizedbytheulama.ToachieveUniversalIslam
(Religion), Shahrur contends, itmust be de-politicized and re-moralized. According toShahrur,thereligiousclasseshaveinterpretedIslamicbeliefsandpracticesinwaysthat
impose the least resistance to political tyranny and despotism. Christmann describedShahrursthirdthesisashisproposedsolution:civilsocietyandcivilReligion.Objectingto
Islamist calls for achieving the Islamization ofMuslim society by collapsing public and
privatespheres,Shahruremphasizestheimportanceofasphereofcivilsocietythatcanoperatealongsideprivatereligionandpublicpolitics.Thisspherewillprovideanethical
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modelthatovershadowsbothstatepoliticsandprivatereligionwhileallowingdissentand
freedomofthought,speechandreligion.
According to the fourth thesis Christmann described, in order to achieve this solution,religiousreformmustprecedepoliticalreform.BecauseShahrurbelievesthatbothpolitics
without religion and politics with the current form of Islam lead to authoritarianism,religious reformmustcome first. Shahrurenvisions religiousreformasthereshapingofIslam into a civil religion, inwhich freedomof thought, human rights, democracy and
socialjusticearevaluedasreligiousimperatives.
Inhisfifththesis,ChristmannclarifiesthatShahrurdoesnotviewthisreligiousreformasa
newinterpretationof Islam,butastherecuperationofessentialQuranicprinciples thathavebeenobscuredbytraditionalIslam.ShahrurdrawsadistinctionbetweentheIslam
passed down by religious scholars and the Islam found in the text of the Quran. This
Universal Islam of theQuran, according to thesis six, does not include the sunnaof theProphetstoriesof theProphetslife,apartfromthepropheciesthatbecametheQuran.
ShahrurseesIslamasanaturalreligionforallhumankind,whilethe sunnaareboundtoaparticulartimeandplacethatcannotbeacceptedasnormative.AbandoningthesunnaandrelyingonlyontheQuran,ShahrurconcludesthatIslamhasonlythree,notfive,pillars:
beliefinGod,beliefintheLastDay,anddoinggoodwork.
Christmanns seventh thesis discussed the distinction Shahrur makes between general
Religion,whichisglobal,humananduniversal,andparticularreligion,whichreferstospecificculture-andcontext-boundinstitutionalreligions.AccordingtoShahrur,thelatter
isagainsthumaninstinctandthereforeunsuitableforbeingthereligionofpubliclife.Itistheformer,therefore,thatshouldbepoliticizedandpublicized.
Moving from the general to the specific, Christmann illustrated how Shahrurs viewsonreligionare reflected inhisviewsonreligiouslaw,religiousdutiesand jihad.Hiseighth
thesis addressed Shahrurs treatment of sharia Islamic law which Christmann
describedasbeingattheheartofShahrursreformproject.Observingthat sharialawandhududpenaltiesarenotfixed,Shahrurconcludesthatsharialawonlyreferstotheupper
and lower limits ofhuman legislation. Therefore, sharia can and should to Shahrursmindbeimplementedeverywhere,butshouldbelimitedtotherequirementthathuman
societies legislate laws to uphold justice, equality and morality. Specific laws, such as
criminal, family and commercial law, should remain the provenance of parliamentarylegislation.
Inhisninththesis,ChristmanndescribedShahrursreinterpretationoftheslogan, Al-'Amrbi al-Ma'ruf wa al-Nahy 'an al-Munkar, which is frequently used by Islamists to justify
religious policingandtheir literal implementationof sharia rules.6 Bycontrast, Shahrurdoesnotseethephraseaspertainingtoindividualconductinmattersregardingdress,but
as a general imperative to care about the democratic norms and liberal values of civil
religioninsociety;inshort,asanobligationofgoodcivilcitizenship.HethereforeplacesNGOsandhumanrightsgroupsunderthisrubric.
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Lastly, Christmanns tenth thesis articulated Shahrurs interpretation of jihad as a non-
violentfightagainstpoliticaltyranny,injusticeandtheoppressionofhumanrights,aswellas the duty to do charitable work for ones family, neighborhood and society at large.
Christmannsummed it upas human rights jihad: the religious obligation of good civilcitizenship.HefurtherexplainedthatShahrurarrivedatthisviewbyreinterpretingijtihad
notasmartyrdombutastheprocessofgivingwitness.JihadfisabilAllahthusbecomesastruggle for the sake of Gods covenantwith humankind, rather than a military fightagainstkufrdisbelief.
AbdelmajidCharfi,ProfessorEmeritus of ArabCivilizationand IslamicThoughtat
theUniversityofTunis(Tunisia)
TliliobservedthatChristmannspresentationprovidedanaturaltransitiontoAbdelmajidCharfis intervention in the discourse onQuranic interpretation. Professor Emeritus of
Arab Civilizationand IslamicThought,University ofTunis, Charfi distinguishesbetween
Islamashistoryandasmessage.Thatdistinctionismadepossible,Tlilicontinued,bytheapplicationofcriticaltoolsborrowedfromthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.BothArkoun
andShahrurarriveatthesamedistinction,yetCharfihasdedicatedmostofhisscholarlywork to this particular issue. Moreover, Tlili stressed, Charfi is the head of a school ofthoughtandhasmentoredanentiregenerationofyoungscholars,equippingthemwiththe
tools ofmodern critique. Tlili concluded by highlighting Charfis important book, IslamBetweenMessageandHistory(LIslamentrelemessageetlhistoire),translatedintoFrench
in2004andEnglishin2009,andencouragingalltoreadit. 7
Charfibeganbydiscussinghisinitialapproachtothetopicofthesymposium.Hefirsttried
to list all the social, ethical and political implications of interpreting the Quran as afoundationaltext. Yethe immediatelyrealized thisapproachwasfutilebecauseMuslims
livingunderdifferentconditionsnecessarilyapproachthetextfromdiverseperspectives.
Asanexample,CharficomparedawealthyyoungMalaysianmanwithapoorNigerian,oraSaudiwomanlivingintribalconditionswithanIranianwhohasinternalizedthedominant
ideologyofthetheocraticstate.Eachwouldclearlyarriveatadifferent,evencompletely
contradictory, interpretation. The only trait shared among them is the influence of aparticularsocial,political,andculturalcontext.Basedonthisobservation,Charfirevised
his approach, deciding instead to focus on the historical and epistemological aspects ofinterpretingtheQuran.Withthisframework,hesoughttoavoidtime-boundpolemicsand
encompasstheentirerangeofinterpretation,fromextremismtomysticism.
Charfi pointed out that,while itmay seemnatural to acknowledge the external factors
affectinginterpretation,infactthisnotionisinformedbymodernlinguisticsandsemiotics.
Moreover,hesaid, itcontradictstraditionalassertionsaboutQuranic interpretationthatareupheldbytheoverwhelmingmajorityofMuslimstoday.Hedescribedhispresentation
as an attempt to reveal truths often overlooked and clarify the terms of debate aboutQuranicinterpretationanditslegitimacy.
Beforedelvingintothesetruths,CharfinotedthatitisfirstnecessarytounderstandtheroleoftheQuraninIslamandthehistoryofQuranicexegesis.Toillustratetheimportance
of the Quran, he contrasted it with the Bible in Catholicism. In Catholicism, church
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teachingsinformtheunderstandingofthegospels,whereas,inIslam,theQuranictextis
sacred and preeminent.Charfi asked rhetorically:domodernapproaches, suchas thosethatuserecentlydevelopedcriticaltools,thereforechallengethesacrednessofthetextor
itsinterpretations?Inanswer,hearguedthateventraditionalinterpretationwasbasedoncontemporary culture andhistorical conditions, contending thatmodern readers areno
different.Takingahistorical view,Charfi said, it ispossibletoseethetwo-stage processwhereby
Islam evolved from a spontaneous, oral, prophetic message into an institutionalized,
dogmatic, and ritualizedreligion. Charfi said that thisprocesswas drivenbythe ulama,whosereadingsoftheQuranwereinflectedbytheirparticularsocialposition.Unlikethe
majorityofMuslims,theulamawereurban,hadadirectrelationshiptotherulingpower,and were heavily influenced by Greek philosophy. By the 11th or 12th Century, their
Quranic readings, rooted in their specific class interests, were firmly established. This
resulted,accordingtoCharfi,intheformationofSciencesoftheQurantheopinionsandmethodsoftheulamathatgounquestionedasorthodoxy.
Charfi opined that the entrenchment of orthodox interpretations abrogated alternatereadings. Becoming aware of the historical processes by which such interpretations
evolvedallowsustoconsiderthoseotherpossibilities.Charfioutlinedthreesuchalternatereadings: theQuran ascreated, the theory ofrevelation,and the idea that the Quranic
messagecanstandalonewithoutthehadith(storiesoftheProphetslife).
According to dominant Muslim belief, the Quran is the uncreated word of God. In an
alternateinterpretation,CharfiproposedtheideathattheQuraniscreated,explainingthatthisviewwouldacknowledgethetextshistoricalaswellasdivinedimensions.Ratherthan
assumingtheQuranexistsoutsideofhistory,suchareadingwouldallowQuranicmoral
injunctionstobeunderstoodinlightoftheparticularhistoricalcontextinwhichtheywererevealed.
The second idea, which Charfi described as having been rejected by orthodox belief,pertainstothetheoryofrevelation.TheProphetistraditionallyunderstoodtohavebeena
passive recipient of Gabriels message. An alternative, Charfi suggested, would be tounderstandhisroleasactive,implyingastageofmediationbetweenthedirectwordofGod
andtheQuran.Inanotherformulation,Charfiadded,wemightdescribetheProphetsrole
asexpressingthedivinemessageinhumanlanguage.
Finally,CharfidescribedthepossibilitythattheQuranicmessageissufficientwithoutthe
hadith of the Prophet. Though today this idea is widely considered heretical, it hadproponentsinearlyIslamichistory.Charficlaimedthatthisideawassuppressedbecause
theQurandidnotprovideananswertoeveryproblemencounteredinMuslimsocieties.Socialinstitutionswereformedtolegislateforsocieties,andthehadithprovidednecessary
religiouslegitimacy.
Charfinoted thatthese threepositionscanbeconsideredfromaperspectiveofmodern
rationalitywithoutbeingseenasanattackonthesacrednatureoftheQuran.Yettheyare
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oftensuppressedforbreakingwithorthodoxbelief.Thus,inCharfisview,theyarefertile
avenuesofinquiryandconsistentwiththespiritofthetext.
CharfireasonedthattheQuranshouldnolongerbeconsideredatextoflaw,butatextoffaith. Indeed,despitetraditionalassertions to thecontrary,Quraniccommandmentsare
primarily moral in nature and not legal. Legal commandments in the Quran, Charficontinued,respondedtoconcreteproblemsinthecontemporarysocialorder.Forexample,whentheQuranportraysthelawofretaliationasnecessary,itmustbeunderstoodina
context inwhich the statedid not have amonopolyon violence. Such commandments,
Charficlaimed,arethereforenotahistoricalornormative,andMuslimsshouldremainfreetolegislateonthebasisofgeneralQuranicvaluesratherthantakingliterallythespecific
casesdepictedinthetext.
Inanotherexample,Charfi pointedtothe ideaofshura, or consultation,which Islamists
now consider a central Quranic concept. Historically, because there was a separationbetweenthepoliticalandreligiousspheres,traditionalexegetesdidnottreatshuraasan
imperativeingovernance.Charfiagainpointedoutthatmodernreadingsfindinthetextwhattraditionalreadingsdidnot.
Charfi concluded by summarizing his four main points: first, that the Quran does notcontain a single meaning, but addresses readers in all times and places with multiple
meaningsthatrenewthemselvesonthebasisofchanginghistoricalconditions.Therefore,
asCharfihimselfdemonstrated, readersshouldseekahermeneuticinterpretationratherthan follow a single exegesis. Second, inorder to free Quranic interpretation from the
dogmaticstraitjacketoforthodoxy,itisnecessarytoacknowledgethelimitsimposedontraditional exegesis by the Sciences of the Quran. Third, the relationship between
exegesis and jurisprudence should be reversed. Instead of subjecting the Quran to
theologically-basedinterpretations,ashastraditionallybeendone,thetextshouldbethebasis fornew theological constructs. Finally, the linearmethodofexegesisreading the
Quranfrombeginningtoendisneitherrationalnornecessary. Suraswerenotcompiled
inorderof revelation, but according to their length. Charfi elaborated on this point bydismissingall idealogicalmodelsof interpretation, including thatofShahrur. Instead,he
admonishedMuslims to find theirown relationshipwith the Quran,a relationship thattakesintoaccounttheinteractionsbetweensacredtext,history,andtruth.Itisfutile,he
argued,toproposeideasthatareonlyvalidtoMuslimstoday,asopposedtoMuslimsofthe
future,or,forthatmatter,thepast.Muslimsmuststruggleindividuallyandcollectivelytofind a peaceful relationship with the text. The implications will differ from traditional
interpretations, which donot account for the logic of the Qurans organization and its
spiritualvalue.
Discussant:StefanWild,ProfessorEmeritusofSemiticLanguagesandIslamicStudiesattheUniversityofBonn(Germany)
Tlili invitedthesessionsdiscussant, StefanWild, amajor Arabistand scholarof Islamic
thought inGermany, tocommentonthediversematerialpresentedbyLee, Christmann,andCharfi.Wilddeclinedtosummarizewhathedescribedasanalreadycondensedseries
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ofpapersoncomplexideas.Heinsteadlimitedhisremarkstoafewobservationsdesigned
tofacilitatediscussiononthepanelandwiththeaudience.
Referringtotheletterofinvitation,whichdescribedthesymposiumasanintra-Muslimdebate, Wild remarked that hewas glad that criterion had not been rigidly enforced,
thereforeallowinghisparticipation.Yetheacknowledgedtheimportanceofthesentimentbehindit.However,heopined,dialogueandresearcharedifferentthings.Whiledialogueisimportant,itmayhavenothingtodowithacademicresearchandmayevenbeinconflict
withit.
Turning to the subject ofArkoun,Wild discussed a pointofdifferencehehad with the
thinker.WildexplainedhisbeliefthatMuslimscholarsshouldfirstdevelopideasofhowtoapplyexegesistorealworldmatterssuchasgenderissuesandshariabeforenon-Muslims
are invited to jointheconversation. Arkoundisagreed,arguing thatMuslimuniversities
shouldstartbyincorporatingnon-Muslimideasintotheircurricula.HeadvocatedferventlyforajointeffortbyscholarsfromtheWestandtheMuslimworld.Wildjustifiedhisown
positionbypointingtothecrisisoforganizedreligioninEuropeandexpressingsympathywithMuslimscholarswhoarereluctanttofollowthepathofWesternintellectualhistory.
WildthenintroducedtheideasofthelatetheEgyptianQuranicscholar,NasrHamidAbuZayd,whoWildsaidwouldhavelovedtoparticipateinthesymposium.Afriendandearly
followerofAbu Zayds,Wild discussed Abu Zayds importance in the history of Islamic
exegesis and described the hardships Abu Zayd endured for his work, including beingaccused of heresy, having his marriage forcibly dissolved, and fleeing to exile. Wild
describedAbuZaydsapproachtoQuranic interpretationasa theoryof communicationbasedonsender(God),recipient(Prophet),andcodedmessage(Quran).
AbuZaydwasfamousforhisattempttocreateahumanistichermeneuticsoftheQuran,preferringtoexaminenotwhataverseliterallysaysbutthedirectioninwhichitpoints.
For example, where the text says women inherit half what men do, Abu Zayd saw a
directiontowardsgreaterfreedomandequalityofgenders,whenonekeepsinmindtherights women lacked at the time the versewas revealed.Wild noted that some ofAbu
Zayds books were first published in German, suggesting they could not have beenpublished in Egypt. Yet theywere also published in Syria. Wild concluded byposing a
questiontotheaudienceandpanelists:whydidtheliberalQuranicinterpretationsofAbu
ZaydfindpublicationinanoppressivestatelikeSyria?
FloorDiscussion
Tliliopenedthediscussionto theaudience.AnArabicandIslamicStudiesprofessorfromTheNewSchool(auniversityinNewYorkCity)observedthatacommonthemerunning
throughthepresentationswasfrustrationathowtheweightoftraditiondefinesMuslimlearningandpractice.Sheaskedwhetherthereisevidenceofpre-moderninterventionsin
thehegemonyofexegeticalliteratureandsuggestedthatsuchanavenueof inquirymight
bemorefruitfulifitlookedtonon-Arabiclanguageheritages.
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Charfianswered,explainingthatscholarlyworkhasfocusedonthecircumstancesofthe
revelationbecausethatswherethegreatestamountofhistoricalmaterialisavailableforstudy. In scholarship, he said, it used to be believed that one must understand the
circumstancessurroundingtherevelationinordertounderstandtheQuranictext.Now,onthebasisofmanystudies,itisclearthatthenarrativesdescribingthosecircumstances
weredevelopedbyexegetesdecadesandcenturiesafterthefact.ReferringbacktoWildscomments, Charfi stated that he agreed with Arkoun that non-Muslim scholars shouldparticipateintheseinquiries,fortheirresearchandperspectivecanofferamorebalanced
understandingthanresearchbyMuslimsalone.
An audience member asked the panelists to discuss the extent to which new Quranic
interpretationshadmadeanimpactonthelargerMuslimworld,orwhatimpacttheymightpotentiallyhaveonsocialandpoliticaloutcomesinMuslimsocieties.
Thequestiondrewresponsesfromeachpanelist,beginningwithChristmann,whosaid itwasaverydifficultquestionbutoneoftenaskedaboutacademicwork.Hecontendedthat
it isnot possible tomeasure the effect ofwords inpractical and social terms. The onlynotablemeasureofShahrursinfluence,accordingtoChristmann,isinthenumberofhisfollowers,whichChristmannsaidwasnotlargeenoughtoconstituteasocialmovementin
theMiddleEast.Thoughinterestisgrowing,Shahrursreadership,heexplained,islargelylimited to intellectuals and university graduates, in particular natural scientists and
engineers. In sum, in Christmanns view, it is not possible to see the implications of
scholarshiponpolicies.
Wild spoke upto say hewas not aspessimistic asChristmann.He pointedout that thestrongcensorshipinmanyArabiccountriesisanindicationthatthinkerslikeAbuZaydand
Shahruraretakenseriously.WildmentionedseeingAbuZaydsbookinaJeddabookstore,
anecdotal proof that there is an audience for such ideas. He cautioned that theologicalfacultiesintheArabicworldarenotagoodindicatorofnewtrendsinthought.Explaining
that such institutions do not even recognize 19th Century reformists, Wild opined that
changeismorelikelytocomefromacademiccentersoutsidetheArabworld.
Lee had earlier described Arkoun as being pessimistic about his own influence. LeequalifiedthatdescriptionbysayinghebelievedArkounhadunderestimatedhimself.Lee
added that ifArkouns followers intheMuslimworldwere small in number, itcouldbe
attributedtothefactthathewroteinFrenchandhistextsweresodense,sohisideaswerenotaccessibletothegeneralpublic.LeesuggestedthatCharfiandotherswouldbemore
likelytohaveaneffectonmainstreamthought.
Charfi cautioned that we must distinguish between the effects of scholarly efforts in
differentMuslimcountries.HeofferedTunisiaasanexamplewherereformistapproachesaretaughtinuniversitiesandpeoplearereceptivetomodernapproachesandtheories;in
Yemen, on the otherhand, they are less developed. The greatest impediment to reform
comes from Wahhabism, a movement centered in Saudi Arabia, whose adherents,according to Charfi, use their resources to spread hostility to modernist ideas. Their
influenceisespeciallysignificantatthepopularlevel,hesaid.
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ThenextquestionerwonderedifthelivelydebateaboutthehistoricityoftheOldandNewTestaments,seeninChristianandJewishcirclessincethe19 thCentury,hadanyparallelin
Muslimdiscourse.
Lee answered, referencing Charfis book Islam Between Message and History, which hedescribed as an argument for differentiating Islam from the message of the religion, aposition similar to Arkouns. However, Lee conceded, such an approach is not widely
embracedintheMuslimworld.
Theaudiencememberspoke again to clarifyhisoriginalquestion.Hedescribedhow, in
recent Jewish andChristian discourses, even peopleof faith acknowledgeevolutionandeclecticisminthegospels.Thereisevidenceofthesameprocessesatworkinthesuras,but
haveMuslimsbeensimilarlyattunedtothishistoricityoftheQuranictext?
Christmann answered that such work is being done in Europe, particularly in Berlin
(includingCorpus Coranicum,a research project of the Berlin-Brandenburg AcademyofSciencesandHumanitiesunderthedirectorshipofAngelikaNeuwirth),preciselybecauseitisnot yet embraced intheMuslimworld. There areMuslim scholarswho approach the
Quranusinghistoricalcriticism,suchasSayyidMuhammadAlQimni,andothers.However,they do not use such methods to the same extent as applied to the Bible by Western
thinkers in the 19th Century. The main difference, according to Christmann, is that the
Muslimthinkersstillapproachthereadingofthetextas,inCharfiswords,areadingoffaith.AtrulyhistoricalcriticalreadingwouldseetheQuranasanexpressionofhuman
traditionratherthandivineintervention,butamongMuslimbelievers,Godspowerisnotseparatedfromthatofthehistorical/human.
Wild suggested that the Wahhabi influence is partly responsible for the suppressionofhistorical criticism. Although exegesis from the 1st through 3rd Centuries incorporated
historicity, as in their treatment of abrogated verses, the tradition was not developed
further. Today, Wild said, petro-Islam controlsmuch of the intellectual production ofMuslim theological centers, not only in Saudi Arabia but in places like Bosnia and the
formerSovietUnion.
Charfi had a more positive outlook on the issue of historicity, pointing out that many
studieshavealreadybeenmadeontheissue.YethecautionedagainstapplyingtheBiblicalapproachofhistoricalcriticismtotheQuranwithoutaccountingforthedifferentnatureof
theIslamictext.
ACityUniversityofNewYork(CUNY)professorintheaudienceturnedtheconversation
toward literary analysis, asking whether the Qurans treatment as a literary text wasconsideredathreattoitsstatusasasacredreligioustext.
LeerespondedbyreferencingArkoun.Arkoun,hesaid,believedthattheQuranshouldbetreatedasaliterarytext.Theliteraryapproachisnotdenigratingbecauseitpreservesthe
sanctityoftheoralrevelationasdistinctfromitswritteniteration.Inthisview,thetextis
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anavenuebywhichtobetterunderstandtheoriginalpropheticmoment.However,there
aremanywhodisagree;theyseetheQuranictextassanctified,andthereforeobjectto itbeingtreatedliketheBibleorotherliterarytexts.
Charfiagreed,describingtheQuranasatextofhumanlanguagethatmustbeapproached
throughhumanlanguage.Heagainreferencedhistoricalexegesis,explainingthatMuslimsthroughout history have analyzed the grammatical, linguistic, and poetic aspects of theQuran.Moreover,Charfisaid,notonlywoulditwouldbeimpossiblenottoapproachitasa
literarytext,butreadingitthroughthatlenshasnotpreventedMuslimsfromappreciating
otheraspects of the text.The literary aspect is only one level of analysis and does notprecludeexistential,moral,ethical,anthropologicalandtheologicaldimensions.Asapoint
of entrance into the text, linguistic analysis is less contentious than deeper levels ofanalysis, where exegetes are more likely to disagree and project their own ambitions,
concerns,andtraditionsontothetext.
ThenextquestionwasposedtoChristmannconcerningShahrursdismissalofthe sunna
(thesixththesisinChristmannssummary);howdidShahrurreconcilethefactthatGodsentabookandamessenger?IftheProphetspracticeswerehisinterpretationofhowtoliveGodsmessage,howdowe notentanglethe sunnainourowninterpretationsofthe
Quran?
Christmann explained that Shahrurs treatment of the Quranic text divides it into two
categories:oneuniversallyapplicable,absoluteand,eternal(prophethood),andtheothertemporal, historical, andrelative (messengerhood). Inhisdissectionof Islamicconcepts,
Shahrur categorizes each word as belonging to one of the two categories, thendistinguishes the eternally divine from the historically contingent. For example,
Christmannexplained,ShahrurcannotreconciletheideaofMohammedbeinghuman and
divine, for if divine, he would be a god (which constitutes shirk). Therefore, Shahrurconcludes that as a human, Mohammed and everything related to him is contingent,
historical, and temporal. Shahrur then addresses each verse in turn, showing what is
eternallydivineandwhatishistoricallycontingent,andconcludesthatobediencetoGodisdifferentfromobediencetotheProphet.
AwomanintheaudienceaskedifthinkerslikeShahrurandAbuZaydcouldbeconvinced
toappeal toa larger, less eliteaudience inorderto instigate grassrootsmovements for
reform. She argued that such an effort would defend against claims that the reformmovementisdrivenbytheWest.
Shealsocommentedthat,asasecularMuslim,sheobjectedtoShahrursclaimthatIslamhas only three Pillars of the Faith rather than five.Such arguments, she opined,werea
manipulation of language and can be blamed for alienating mainstream Muslims andmarginalizingreformistideas.SheaskedforChristmannsopiniononthisproblem.
Responding to the first comment, Christmann replied that Shahrur is aware of suchcritiquesandhasbeenaskedbyhisownfriendsandfollowerstoclarifyhisargumentsby
simplifying them and using illustrative examples. However, he added, Shahrur already
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believesthathislanguageisbroadlyaccessible,forasanaturalscientisthedoesnotspeak
in the language of philosophers and the ulama. As for the accusation that Shahrurmanipulateslanguage,Christmannsaiditwassuchafrequentchargethatitconstituteda
clich.
InresponsetotheissueofthePillarsofIslam,ChristmannsaidShahrurwouldaskforaQuranicverse thatspecificallymentions five. Thewoman retorted, believers are thosewho believe xyz, referring indirectly to the doctrinal rational for the Five Pillars
professionoffaith,prayer,fasting,alms-giving,andpilgrimage.
Christmannexplainedthatthosearerathertenetsofaqida,whiletheexplicitmentioningof
IslamasbasedonFivePillarsisonlytobefoundinthehadith(Jibril),notintheQuran.HesaidthattheQuranicversesdorefertoonlythreeitemsofIslam,whichShahrurseesas
thePillars;heconsidersthesumoffivetobeanimposednumbernotintrinsictothetext
butattributedtoitbytheulama(throughthehadith).Christmanndescribedtheaccusationof textual manipulation as a killer argument, meaning it can be used against any
interpreterof theQuranwhosubjectivelychoosesbetween severalopinionsona givenverse.ChristmannassertedthattheaccusationofShahrurslinguisticmanipulationisweakandwithoutmerit.
Christmannthenreturnedtothetopicofliteraryexegesis,reiteratingCharfispointthatit
has a longhistoryinIslamandadesignated technical terminArabic(al-tafsiral-adabi).
Ironically,thefirstpersonwhorevitalizedthisclassicaltraditioninthe20thCenturywastheIslamistSayyidQutb,inthe1930sand40s.AfterQutbbeganusingapurelyliterary
perspective,otherschoolsfollowed.
An audience member interjected asking how Shahrur can be considered an authentic
MuslimvoiceiftheQuranitselfcomesfromGodinitsentirety?Howcanaspectsofthetextbedistinguishedashistoricalorliteraryversusdivine?
Christmann responded that the question encompassed two issues: origin andinterpretation.WithintheMuslimworld,theQuranisalwaysconsideredthedivineword
of God, Christmann agreed, even if the text also contains things that are historicallycontingent and not universally applicable. But this belief does not preclude applying
various interpretive methodologies to the text; divinity is irrelevant to the literary
approach.
Charfiillustratedthediscussionaboutlinguisticanalysiswithanexample.Observingthat
manysurasnarratethespeechofhumanpersonages,hecontendedthatthosesentencesshouldnotbereadliterallyasthedivinewordofGod,sincetheyarebeingreportedfroma
non-divinesource.
CharfialsoaddressedtheearliercommentaboutapplyingWesternmethodologiestothe
Quran.HeurgedthatwemuststopdefiningmoderncivilizationasexclusivelyWestern.While many modern ideas may have Western origins, what is more important is the
universalityofvaluessuchasfreedom, equality, justice,anddemocracy.Charfi criticized
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the fear of Western influences, defending the universality and applicability of modern
criteria to all languages and texts. He tempered his position by agreeing that Muslimsshouldtakeacriticalpositionvis--visWesternelements,thoughnotbecauseofapparent
Westernhypocrisyinimplementingtheirownvalues.
Mostimportantly,Charfisaid,itisnecessarytobewaryoftheanti-intellectualismfoundinmuch Islamic thinking, which adheres to tradition, consensus, and what is consideredinvariableinIslam.Itistherightandobligationofeachbelievertoexamineideasthatare
consideredself-evident,andtofreehimselforherselffromtheintellectualconstraintsof
traditionalthought.
Charficoncludedhiscomments,andthefirstpanel,byreiteratingtheconnectionbetweenthemutuallyreinforcingspheresoftraditionalIslamandnon-democraticMuslimregimes,
whichrepresscriticalapproachesthatthreatentheirclaimstoreligiouslegitimacy.
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SESSIONIIINTERPRETINGTHEQURAN,RESPONDINGTOTHECHALLENGESOFTHE
MODERNWORLD:MuslimSocietiesataCrossroads
Tlilidescribedthefocusofthesecondsessionasappliedinterpretation;anoccasiontotranslatetheideasdiscussedinSessionOnetorealworldscenarios.Beforeintroducingthe
speakers,heinviteddiscussantDaleEickelmantospeakaboutanunanticipatedabsenceonthepanel.
Eickelmanexplainedthattheemptyseaton thestagewasintendedforMohammadAmin
Abdullah,therectorofIndonesiasUniversitasIslamNegariSunanKalijagainYogyakarta.The day before the symposium, organizers learned that, despite several appeals, U.S.
HomelandSecurityhaddeniedAbdullahavisa.Eickelmanhadhopedthat,afterSecretaryof State Hillary Clintons recent apology for refusing entry to Tariq Ramadan, fewer
mistakeswouldbemadeinthescreeningofdistinguishedscholarshopingtovisittheU.S.
HeremindedtheaudiencethattheobjectiontoRamadanwasbasedonasmalldonationhehadmadetoanorganizationyearsbeforeitwaslabeledasupporterofterrorism.
Eickelman spoke scathingly about the failure of authorities to recognize Abdullahscredentials, which include a higher degree from Canada. Abdullah also succeeded in
moving oversight of his Islamic university from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to theMinistryofEducationbasedonhisbeliefthatIslamiceducationshouldbemainstreamed.
Eickelman recounted his recent visit to the university, where he saw visible efforts to
disseminatebroaderknowledgeaboutIslam, includingmaterialscensoredinmanyotherMuslim countries. Eickelman described the goal of Abdullahs lifes work as
mainstreamingIslam,andconcludedwithanapologytotheaudiencethatAbdullahwasunabletoattendthesymposium.
MohammadAmin Abdullah,Professor of Islamic Studies,Universitas Islam NegariSunanKalijaga,Yogyakarta(Indonesia)
InAbdullahsabsence,hisspeechwaspresentedbyastaff-memberof theNYUCenterfor
Dialogues. Abdullahs comments focused on the recent expansion of Islamic studies toincludenotonlyhistoricalanddoctrinalaspects,butalsoIslamasa culture,civilization,
community,andpolitical,economic,andglobalizingforce.Nevertheless,heacknowledged,many Islamic studiesdepartmentsremainrooted inuncritical tradition, often leadingto
conflictamongMuslimsofdifferentdenominationsandbeliefs.
Sohow does the fieldof Islamic studies, Abdullah asked, competewith otherscientific
disciplines in addressing contemporary issues in areas such as human rights, gender
equity,internationalrelations,andtheenvironment?ToAbdullahsmind,thisiswherethetoolsofmodernepistemologyfindtheirrelevance.HecitedtheworksofRichardC.Martin
(an outsider to Islam) and of Mohammed Arkoun (an insider) as good examples.Richard C.Martins book,Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies,8 presents Islam as a
historical entity subject to scientific study beyond sacred theological interpretation.
AbdullahcitedtheworkofKhaledM.AbouEl-Fadl 9andJasserAuda10asrepresentinganew generation of interdisciplinary approaches to Islamic studies that still rigorously
maintainthedisciplineofIslamicReligiousKnowledge,orUlumal-Diin.
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Abdullahs speech also covered the development of Islamic studies in the context ofIndonesia,whereinter-disciplinaryandmulti-disciplinaryapproacheshavebeenputinto
practicesincetheestablishmentofIslamicStateUniversitiesin2002.AttheSunanKalijagaState Islamic University of Yogyakarta, a new scientific paradigm called integrated-
interconnected science11
recognizes that ascholarmustanalyzehis fieldby integratingotherdisciplinesandrecognizingtheirinterconnectivity.
AbdullahsremarksthendelveddeeperintotheontologyofcontemporaryIslamicstudies,
andtheimportanceofdifferentiatingbetweenIslamicStudies(DirasatIslamiyyah),IslamicThought (al-Fikr al-Islamy), and Islamic Religious Knowledge (Ulum al-Diin). He
emphasized that Islamic Thought or al-Fikr al-Islamy has a scientific and systematicstructure,andastrongandcomprehensivebodyofknowledgeonIslam,whileUlumal-Diin
oftenemphasizescertainpartsratherthanthefullbodyofknowledge.Healsodiscussed
howcertain religiousgroups,sects,ororganizationsmayintentionallyorunintentionallyskewthisknowledgesettosuittheirownpurposesandperspectives.Inhisopinion,the
presenceof al-Fikral-Islamy,whichismorehistorical,systematical,comprehensive,non-sectarian,non-provincial,andnon-parochial,helpsstudentscomplete theirknowledgeofUlumal-Diin.
Pointing to the proliferation of Islamic scientific journals, symposiums, seminars,
encyclopedia, and new books published by both insiders and outsiders, Abdullah
concludedthattheIslamicacademicworldkeepsgrowingandfollowsthedevelopmentofresearchmethodsingeneral.HeremarkedthatcontemporaryIslamicstudies,orDirasat
Islamiyyah,alwaysusesandcollaborateswithmethodsofthoughtandresearchinsocialsciencesandcontemporary humanities to reveal Islamicreligiosity indaily life, notonly
limited in circle of foundational texts. These new approaches have surprised and
sometimes offended students of Ulum al-Diinwho are still implementing old scientificparadigms and perspectives. Some Islamic studies approaches have been criticized as
secular,liberal,apostate,andthelike.12
Looking to the future,Abdullah described themain projectof thecontemporaryIslamic
Studies as eliminatingmisunderstanding andmutual suspicionbetween Islamic Studies(DirasatIslamiyyah),IslamicThought(al-Fikral-Islamy),andIslamicReligiousKnowledge
(Ulum al-Diin). Their only true differences, he believes, are in methods (process and
procedure),horizonofobservationandtheoreticalframework(approaches),andsourcesof data. Abdullah called for the present generation of students, scholars, and other
stakeholderstounitethesethreeclusters.
Tlili then introduced Mahmoud Hussein as two men with a shared mind. Mahmoud
HusseinisthenomdeplumeofAdelRifaatandBahgatElNadi,politicalscientistswhohaveco-authoredanumberofbooksandarticles.Theirmostrecentbook,notyettranslatedinto
English, raises the implications of interpretation for the social, political, cultural, and
ethicalissuesfacedbyMuslimcommunitiestoday.TliliaddedthattheirworkalsocarriesimplicationsfortherelationshipsbetweenMuslimandnon-Muslimcommunitiesaround
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the world, on issues ranging from the status ofwomen to freedomof expression. Adel
Rifaatgavethepresentationonbehalfofthepair.
MahmoudHussein(AdelRifaatandBahgatElNadi),Authors(Egypt/France)
OverthecourseofIslamshistory,Rifaatbegan,religiousconformityhastoooftenstifled
intellectualcuriosity.Unfortunately,inworldopinionitiswidelyassumedthatthisisanintrinsicqualityofIslam.Yetthecurrentstatedatesonlytothelast30yearsandfollowedaperiodofgreatintellectualandpoliticalprogressintheMuslimworld.DuringthisMuslim
Renaissance,thinkerswerefreedfromtheliteralistinterpretationsthathadboundthem
foryears.Itpavedthewayforthenationalliberationmovementsthatcharacterizedthefirst half of the 20th Century in the Muslim world, during which the regions emergent
middle classes adoptedapolitical discourseofsecular rationalism.Yet after aperiodofeconomicandsocialgains,theprogressivemomentumgavewaytocorruptionandunequal
development.Fromthe1980s,thetideturnedandthereligiousorthodoxythathadwaned
duringyearsofsecularizationtookholdonceagain.
Rifaatassessedthecurrent situationthus: in thisnewcentury,Muslimsareinextricablydrawn into the orbit of globalizationwhere their only hope for success is to adapt byregaining intellectual freedom and mastering the tools of criticism and innovation.
However,fundamentalistthought,whichcounteractsthoseneeds,isagaindominant.Intheface of this dilemma, Rifaat stressed the importance of recent reformist thought,which
furnishesthetoolsnecessarytoaddressthemodernworld.
Rifaat honored the recently deceased thinkers Arkoun and Abu Zayd, and welcomed
symposiumpanelistCharfiasapreeminentrepresentativeoftheirschoolofthought.HepraisedtheirrepresentationofIslamasbothadivinemessageandahumanstory,thereby
lightingapathforbelieverstocombinefaithinGodwithknowledgeoftheworld.
Suchthinking,Rifaatsaid,isconsideredbydogmatiststobeanaffronttothesacrednature
of revelation because it connects the divine with temporal events. Dogmatists react
violently to the idea that a text of revelation was influenced by its historical context.Fundamentalists refuse to debate the reformers regarding these objections, instead
condemningthereformersinterpretivemethodologiesasillegitimate.
Rifaat described Mahmoud Husseins recent work as a powerful defense of reformist
thoughtagainstsuchattacks,sinceitexposesthehistoricityoftheQuranwithoutrelyingonillegitimate,profanedisciplines.TheircritiqueusesthetestimonyoftheCompanions
oftheProphetasourceunassailablebytraditionalstandardsofexegesis.Byrelatinga
Quranic verse to the reported circumstances of its revelation, they prove that thehistoricityofrevelationisnotimposedfromtheoutside,butiscontainedwithintheQuran
andistheverywillofGod.
Rifaatexpandedonthisconclusionbyelaboratingthreerelatedfindings.First,theQuran
distinguishesGodfromhisWord;whileGodtranscendstime,hisWordistime-boundandlinkedtothecontextinwhichitwasrevealed.Second,theWordofGodisnotpresentedin
monologue,butthroughexchangesbetweenheavenandearth.Goddialoguesinrealtime,
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throughtheProphet,withthefirstcommunityofMuslims.Third,Goddoesnotweigheach
ofhisrevelationsequallybuthastruthsofdifferentorders:absoluteandrelative,perpetualandcircumstantial.
In light of theseconclusions, Rifaat askedrhetorically how literalist dogmawas able to
imposeitselfdespitecounterfactualevidenceintheQuran?Inanswer,RifaatdescribedtheprocessoftheQuransrevelation,whichtookplaceintermittentlyoverthecourseof22years,inchangingcircumstances,andtouchedonadiverserangeoftopics.TheProphet
andCompanionsmemorizedtheserevelationsthroughrecitation.OnlyaftertheProphets
death was the Quran systematically committed towriting. Under the Caliph Uthmann,verseswerestandardizedandgroupedinasinglevolume,themushaf.Theirgroupingwas
orderednotbychronologyofrevelationbutby lengthofverse,creatingproblemsforthetextsintelligibility.Yettheliteralistapproachtreatstheorderofversesasifdecreedby
God,andthetextistraditionallystudiedinstrictlythatorder,versebyverse.
Rifaat described this approach as severing any causal link between verse and the
circumstancesofrevelation.Intheabsenceof suchconnections,manyversesaredifficultor impossible to decipher. The difficulty of findingmeaning is a feature in the earliestQuraniccommentariesandinallschoolsofinterpretation.Fromthebeginning,itwasclear
that the context of revelationheld the key to understanding, and effortsweremade toreconstruct those circumstances by gathering the testimony of the Companions. This
material, called al-asbab nuzul, is used by all exegetes and actually constitutes its own
branchofexegesis.
Given this tradition, Rifaat asked, how do literalists justify their reliance on temporaleventswhilerejecting a connectionbetween theWordofGod and humantime?Infact,
Rifaatargued,theyfailedtoexplainthecontradictionandmerelyissueddecreesjustifying
theirapproach. Thus theirwork ispremised onanapriori belief that theWord of Godtranscendstime,thoughtheyareunabletoexplainthelogicoftheargument.
Rifaat dismissed this position as outmoded. If one reads the Quran using those sameexternal sources, it is possible to use the testimony of the Companions to rationally
rediscovertheconnectionbetweentextandcontext.Theversesbecomemorethanphrasestoberecitedinorder:theyaremomentsofrevelationconnectedbytemporalcontinuity.
Rifaat acknowledged that the chronicles of companion testimony contain contradictoryaccounts,andareofdebatableveracity.Rifaatarguedthattheiranalysis,then,isataskfor
historians rather than religious scholars, who accept the authoritativeness of all hadith
withoutquestion.Rifaatexplainedthattheyareneverthelesssignificantnotbecausetheyarenecessarilyaccurate,butbecausetheyconstituteacriticalmassofevidenceregarding
thehistoricityoftherevelation.Mostimportantly,literalistscannotobjecttotheiruse.
RifaatsexamplesshowedthattheQuranhasacleartimedimensioninwhichmomentsare
relational;somearemoreimportantthanothers;anda subsequenteventmayoverrideaprecedent.Godisbothalwaysright,andyetsayscontradictorythings.Rifaatresolvedthis
seemingdilemmabyemphasizingthehistoricityofGodsdeclarations.Godsinterventions
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exist in time, making truths relative and contingent on particular but changing
circumstances.Therefore,Quranicversescannotbereadasthoughtheyallhavethesameweight, and are absolute and eternal, for God made them situational. Lessons and
inspirationcanalwaysbefoundinverses,buttheyarenotmandatorylessonsforalltimesandplaces.JettisoningtheliteralistassumptionsabouttheQuranfreesbelieverstoreadit
notasasetofcommandmentsandprohibitions,butasaguidetohelpfindGodswayonthepathoflife.
Discussant: Dale Eickelman, Professor of Anthropology and Human Relations,
DartmouthCollege(U.S.)ThediscussantDaleEickelmanthankedTliliagainfororganizingthesymposiumdespite
thesetbackscausebyvisaproblems,deaths,andotherchallenges.
Eickelmanreflectedonbothsessionsanddrewoutthecommonthreadsrunningthrough
all of the presentations. He said each of the speakers combined thinking with practice,which is a courageous act inmuch of theMuslimworld. Even if theirwork is not fully
accepted inpublic, it isreferred to inprivatediscussions.The fearofpublic opinionontheseissuesisacharacteristicofthecurrentpoliticalmoment,andcanchangeovertime.
The discussant observed that another theme common to the presentations was thedifficulty of defining what it means to be a Muslim, for there is no agreement on the
questionamongMuslims.AlthoughthetextoftheQuranisstable,itsinterpretationisnot.
As one delves deeper, Eickelman added, even the text becomes unstable. For example,whenearlyfragmentsoftheQuranwerefoundinYemen,containingaberrationsfromthe
standardtext,theyweredestroyedatthebehestofconservativeIslamicfactions.
EickelmancomparedArkounsembraceofthemultiplicityofmeaningtoShahrurs.Both
areresolutelymodernistalthoughindifferentways.ShahrurarguesthatsincethetimeoftheProphetMuhammad,welive inapost-propheticworld.Since prophecy isatanend,
humankind must rely on reason to understand revelation. In their separateways, both
thinkers,togetherwiththelateNasrAbuZayd,illustratethattheQuranisadefiantlyopentextthatcannotbeclosedbyanyone.Onewayofthinkingaboutthedebateoverwhatit
meanstobeMuslimis toinvokeOxfordphilosopherWalterGalliesnotionofessentiallycontestedconcepts.13
Eickelmancommented that the stated intentofthe symposiumwas tofoster adialogueamongMuslims,withnon-Muslims serving asdiscussants. Thiswas also themodelthat
Wildadvocatedinhiscommentsduringthefirstsession.Yet,withoutidentifyingnames,a
reader of the symposiums transcriptwouldbeunable todistinguishMuslim fromnon-Muslim participants. All sharea passionate rapportwith the text.AsCharfi indicated, a
passionaterapportisnecessary.
EickelmanthencommentedoneffortstocensorShahrursfirstbookwhenitwaspublished
in 1990. State authorities refused to censor him, responding to Shahrurs attackers bysuggesting that they simply publish their criticisms. Eickelman also recalled the
experiencesofElNadiandRifaat,whoservedprisontimeduringtheirleftiststudentdays.
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Their presentation today made a passionate rereading of their texts and approach to
Quranicinterpretationaccessibletoawideraudience.
Eickelman emphasized the importance of Amin Abdullahs proposition for curricularreforminIndonesia.Hispresentation,thediscussantsaid,liketheothers,remindedushow
ideasand practices are inscribed in the times inwhich they occur, and of the limits ofspeechinmanyplacesintheMiddleEast.
Finally, Eickelman suggested the importance ofwhat isnot said inpublic. The Arabian
Peninsula,forexample,hasanumberofthinktanks,buttheapproachtocriticalstudiesofreligionismorerestrained.WhilepartoftheArabianPeninsulainspiresforwardthinking,
manyGulfleadersarewaryofpubliclyattachingtheirnamestoprojectsinvolvingreligiousissuesandprefertodonateprivately.Westernersmustpaycloserattentiontogreyareas
andlayersofmeaning.For instance,if explicitfeministstatements areineffectual in the
MiddleEast,thereispossibilityinmoresubtleapproachesthatmaynotbeinitiallynoticedbyoutsiderslessattunedtotherealitiesandpracticesofcontemporarycensorship.Thusin
thenewIslamicStudies(DirasatIslamiyya)curriculumusedintheprimaryandsecondaryschoolsoftheUnitedArabEmirates,textbookimagesdepictwomenandmenasequals,atleastuptotheageofeight,withoutheavy-handedexplanationsofhowsuchimagesdiffer
frompredecessortextbooksinwhichrepresentationsofyounggirlswereabsent.ThereisastrongtraditionofsayingthingsindirectlyintheArabworldandelsewhereintheMiddle
East,andoutsiderswouldbenefitfromcomprehendingsuchlocalsocialnorms.
Tobeginthefloordiscussion,Eickelmanreviewedhismainpoints,beginningwiththeidea
thatQuranic interpretation isnotanarcanetopicbutonethatengages practical reasonandoftenoccupiesthecenterstageofpublicdebate.Ithasimplicationsforhowbelievers
think about their faith and its role in society. Because of the different audiences for
interpretation,wemusttakeanethnographicapproachandbesensitivetothegreyareas,understanding that even if ideas are not publicly embraced, they may still resonate in
private.
FloorDiscussion
Thefloordiscussionopenedwithaconversationamongthepanelists,whoreturnedtotheissueofwho isentitled tocarryon thisdebateaboutIslamandwhether theirideasare
marked by their identity as Muslims or non-Muslims. Wild responded to the opinion
expressed earlier that the commentary by Muslim and non-Muslim panelists wasindistinguishable.HereferredtoAbuZaydsdeclarationthathewouldnotlongerspeakof
Godpersebutinsteadaboutthedivine.AbuZaydwrotethathewantedtobeinclusiveof
readerswho are uncomfortable personalizing divinity. Yet,Wild contended, this notioncannotbe translatedintoArabic,bothlinguisticallyandculturally.Muslimreaderswould
notaccepttheideaandasaresult,hepredicted,thebookwouldremainun-translated.
TherewasabriefdiscussionofwhattheArabictranslationforthedivineinthiscontext
wouldbe,whetheral-ilahioral-muqaddas,untilCharfisaidthe important thingwasnothowtheconceptistranslatedbuthowit isexplained.Frequentlyintranslation,wordsdo
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not correspond exactly, but awriter is free to develop his own critical terminology by
explaininghisuseofaword.Theimportanceisnotthetranslationbutthecontext.
Tlili spoke about the importance of the social and political credibility that come fromhavinganintra-Muslimdebate.Inthewakeof9/11andtheIraqwar,thediscussionabout
whatbeingaMuslimmeansandhowtoreconcileIslamwithdemocracyisproblematicintheMuslimworld; the impositionof these ideas fromwithout has failed materiallyandpoisonedMuslimsunderstandingofthemselvesandtheirrelationshiptothenon-Muslim
world.Forthisreason,debatesonissuesfundamentaltothefaithandtoMuslimidentity
must be nurtured from the inside to have social and political value and a chance ofinfluencingtheMuslimcommunity.Hencethe invitationto thissymposiumwasintended
to draw voices from the Muslim world and nurture this debate, but also to offer anopportunity for exchanging ideas with colleagues from the West, who share
epistemologicaltools.
The next question drew a distinction between theory and practice and the questioner
opinedthat,althoughtheideasdiscussedonthepanelshavepracticalimplications,theywereinsufficientlyillustrated.Muslimsimplementpracticalinterpretationsofreligiononadaily basis, she said,and there are vibrant interpretations in the areaofgender equity,
whichwasnotreflectedintodayspresentations.ShesaiditwasanespeciallyimportantareafordiscussionbecauseofWesterncriticism.Shesuggestedthatitwouldbefruitfulto
askhowpracticegetstheorized,ratherthanviceversa.
ElNadidisagreed thatweshould discuss the detailsand applicabilityof the Quran, for
people find in religionwhatever they are seeking. He advocated instead examining therelationshipbetweentheProphet/thedivine/GodandtheCompanions.Byaskinghowthey
treatedtheverses,wecanderiveamodelforpractice.TheCompanionsdidnotacceptthe
revelationasafaitaccompli,butdiscusseditandrequestedchanges,andGodcomplied.Ifthe Companions had freedom and authority, why must believers today see the text as
unchangeable?
Rifaat expanded on El Nadis comments, observing that practice has not remained
unchangedoverthecenturies,especiallyintheareaofgenderrelations.Asanexample,hepointedoutthattodayswomenarewearingtheveilincountrieswhere50yearsago,itdid
notexist.So,whentalkingaboutpractice,Rifaatsaid,wehavetobeawarethatpracticeis
constantly changing, especially in the last century.A change inpracticecan be justifiedthroughQuranic interpretation,andindifferentculturalcontexts,differentpracticeswill
bejustifiedbythetext.
Rifaat continued, commenting on how reformers treat the text. Despite differences of
opinion among reformers, they are united in an effort to think differently about therelationshipbetweenthewordofGodandtherealityinwhichthatwordresonateswith
humanbeings.Today, reformers confronta restrictiononcriticalthought in theMuslim
world,withanyonewhoquestionsthestatusoftheQuranasthewordofGodbeingshutoutoftheconversation.HeandElNadithereforetakeastheirstartingpointthattheQuran
isthewordofGod,yetquestiontheimplicationsofthisassumption.Accordingtoliteralist
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thinking, sinceGod iseternal andmakesnomistakes, thenHis word is inalienable and
applicableineverytimeandplace.YetthislineofthoughtpresupposesthatGodandhiswordsareoneandthesame.RifaatandElNadisworkarguesthatthewordofGodisnot
theessenceofGod,butistime-bound.ThisapproachgivesMuslimbelieversthefreedomtotakeresponsibilityoftheirownreadingoftheQuran,andtoliveascitizensofapluralist
worldwithoutrenouncingtheirfaith.Eickelmanagreedthatgenderisacentralissue,butcautionedthatitisalsofrequentlya
conversation-stopperintheWest,wherestereotypesofwomeninIslamareentrenched.
However,therealityofgenderrelationsis farmorecomplex,hesaid.InterestingdebatesaretakingplaceintheArabianPeninsulaabouttheroleofwomen.IntheSaudipresslast
year,theargumentwasmadethattheseparationofthesexeswasbidaforbiddencitinghadiths that indicate it was not original to early Islam. Such conversations are made
possiblebytheaccessibilityofthe hadithsontheInternet.AccordingtoZibaMirHosseini,
womeninIranlearntoimitatemensvoicestobetakenseriouslyinmagazines.InKuwait,whereclassroomshavebeenintegratedsincethe1960s,peopleargueagainstseparation
bysayingthatwomenshigheracademicperformanceraisesthelevelofeducationformenaswell. On the Internet, women can enter the public spherewithout being marked bygender.
Lee,apanelistfromthefirstsession,objectedtoRifaatsclaimthatthecurrentclimateof
intellectualrepressiondatesbackonly30years.LeecitedArkoun,whocommentedonthe
problemasearlyasthe1960sandbelievedthatthesolidificationofIslamicinterpretationbeganlongbefore.LeearguedthatIslamhadnotdisappearedundersecularmovements,
mentioningbywayofexamplethattheMuslimBrotherhoodwasfoundedin1928andwasafactorinEgyptiansocietyevenunderGamalAbdelNasser(EgyptsPresidentfrom1956
to1970).Moreover,hesaid,manyMiddleEasternstatesattainedindependencethrough
religiousprojects.ArkounhimselfwasrestrictedfromspeakinginAlgeria,whereseminarswererunasindoctrinationsessionsonbehalfofthestate.Leeconcludedthattheproblem
is of long-standing duration and cannot be attributed to recent Islamist movement or
policiesoftheWesternpowersintheMiddleEast.
El Nadi clarified Mahmoud Husseins position, agreeing with Lee that Islam had notdisappearedunderNas