Published in the series:Trends in school supervision
School supervision in fourAfrican countries:
Vol. I: Challenges and reforms
Anton De Grauwe
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International Institute for Educational Planning
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Trends in school supervision
School supervisionin four African countries:Volume I
Challenges and reforms
Anton De Grauwe
International Institute for Educational Planning
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
The designations employed and the presentation of material
throughout this review do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of UNESCO or IIEP concerning the legal status
of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning
its frontiers or boundaries.
The publication costs of its study have been covered through a grant-
in-aid offered by UNESCO and by voluntary contributions made by
several Member States of UNESCO, the list of which will be found at
the end of the volume.
Published by:
International Institute for Educational Planning
7-9 rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris
e-mail: [email protected]
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Cover design: Pierre Finot
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5
CONTENTS
Pages
List of abbreviations 6
List of tables 7
List of figures 8
Presentation of the series 9
Summary 13
Introduction 191. Methodology 192. Background on the four countries
and their education systems 22
I. General overview of supervision and supportstructures 27
1. Historical background 272. The overall structure 293. Official functions 354. Relations with other services 415. School-site supervision 45
II. Management of supervision and support services 531. Basic facts and figures 532. Critical management issues 683. Budgetary and financial matters 804. Working conditions 87
III. The actual operation of supervision and supportservices 93
1. Planning and workload 942. School visits 1053. Reports 1164. Follow-up, including use of reports 119
IV. Overall assessment 1251. Impact on school functioning and quality 125
2. Main challenges 135
3. Present reforms and trends 145
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AT Advisory Teacher
B. Ed. Bachelors in Education
BETD Basic Education Teachers Diploma
CE Certificate in Education
CTO Central Transport Organization
DDC District Development Committee
DEO District Education Officer
ELTSP English Language Teaching Support Project
EO Education Officer
IE Inspector of Education
M. Ed Masters in Education
NER Net enrolment rate
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NIED National Institute for Educational Development
PSI Primary School Inspector
REO Regional Education Officer
SAT Senior Advisory Teacher
SEO Senior Education Officer
SIE Senior Inspector of Education
SSMDP Secondary Schools Management Development Project
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Area and personnel investigated for regional case study 21
2. Basic indicators 23
3. Basic indicators on education 25
4. Pupil/teacher ratios at primary level 25
5. Numbers of schools, teachers and supervisors, 1997-1998 54
6. Disparities in supervisors’ posting by region 56
7. Primary supervisors by age 59
8. Secondary supervisors by age 59
9. External advisers by age 60
10. Primary supervisors by length of service (as supervisor) 62
11. Primary supervisors by total length of service 62
12. Secondary supervisors by length of service 63
13. External advisers by length of service 63
14. Primary supervisors by qualifications 65
15. Secondary supervisors by qualifications 65
16. External advisers by qualifications 66
17. Supervision and advisory staff by gender 67
18. Share of women among supervisors and teachers 68
19. Recruitment procedures and criteria 69
20. Namibia: annual salaries (1997) of officers withcomparable experience 81
21. Zimbabwe: basic annual salaries and monthly allowancesof education staff, July 1997 onwards 83
22. Distribution of time between tasks for supervision staff 96
23. Distribution of time between tasks for advisory staff 97
24. Distribution of time between pedagogical andadministrative duties 98
25. Tanzania: primary schools inspected per year 102
26. Zimbabwe: regularity of teacher inspection visits 103
27. Different types of school visits 111
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Index of growth of primary enrolment (1970 = 100) 24
2. Age of primary-school supervisors 59
3. Age of secondary-school supervisors 60
4. Age of external advisers 60
5. Experience in supervision of primary-school supervisors 62
6. Years of experience of primary-school supervisors 63
7. Years of experience of external advisers 64
8. Primary supervisors by qualifications 65
9. Supervision and advisory staff by gender 67
10. Tanzania: % of schools not inspected 102
11. Headteachers’ responses on the impact of supervisionon schools: average scores 127
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PRESENTATION OF THE SERIES
This publication forms part of a series on ‘Trends in school
supervision’, which accompanies the implementation of an IIEP
project on ‘Improving teacher supervision and support services for
basic education’. The project, which began in 1996, is one of the main
research components of the Institute’s Medium Term Plan 1996-2001.
The Institute wishes to express its sincere thanks to BMZ (the German
Federal Ministry for Technical Co-operation) and to UNICEF for their
support in the implementation of this project.
Earlier research, at the Institute and elsewhere, has pointed to
the need, in an era of increased decentralization and school
autonomy, to strengthen the skills of personnel involved in
supervision and support at local level and in schools.
Two related points are worth mentioning here, as they form both
the background to and the rationale for the IIEP’s concern with this
area of management. Firstly, professional supervision and support
services for teachers, although existing in almost every country for a
long time, have been ignored, increasingly so since resources have
become more scarce. This neglect has, until recent times, been
reflected by a similar indifference among researchers. Secondly, one
important reason why the quality of basic education has deteriorated
in many contexts is precisely related to the weakening of these
services.
The IIEP project, developed against this background, consists of
research, training and dissemination activities. Its specific objectives
are to assist countries in diagnosing and reforming the existing
services of supervision and support, and to identify promising
strategies for their reorganization and strengthening. The series of
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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publications, of which this monograph forms a part, is the result of
research, implemented in several regions, to address a number of
questions, such as:
• How are supervision and support organized in different countries?
What have been the major trends in their recent evolution?
• What are the principal problems which supervision and support
services are presently facing in terms of: organizational structures;
overall management; and daily functioning?
• To what extent and under what conditions do these services have
a positive impact on the quality of the teaching-learning processes
in schools?
• What are the major innovations taking place, mainly in respect of
the devolution of supervision and support to the school-site level?
How do these innovations operate? What are the main results?
In order to formulate answers to these questions, the project
elaborated the following operational definition of school supervision
and support services: all those services whose main function is to
control and evaluate, and/or advise and support school heads and
teachers. The focus of the project is on external supervision and
support, that is to say on the work of inspectors, supervisors, advisers,
counsellors, etc. located outside the school, at local, regional or
central levels. A common characteristic of these officers is that regular
visits to schools are an essential part of their mandate.
However, many countries, in their attempts to reform and innovate
supervision, are increasingly relying on in-school or community-based
strategies (such as resource centres, school clusters, in-school
supervision by the principal or by peers, school-based management)
to complement – if not to replace – external supervision and support.
The project therefore also pays attention to a number of such
innovations and, in more general terms, the strengths and weaknesses
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Presentation of the series
of strategies, aiming at the reinforcement of internal quality-control
mechanisms.
This series ‘Trends in school supervision’, thus consists of a variety
of titles: national diagnoses on supervision and support, comparative
analyses of the situation by region, case studies on innovative
experiences, monographs and discussion papers on specific
management issues. It is hoped that this series will fill a gap in
education research as well as be an inspiration, in particular to policy-
makers intending to reform supervision, and to supervisors who want
to improve on their practice.
Other titles in the series include:
• Ali, M.A. 1998. Supervision for teacher development: a proposal for
Pakistan. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for Educational
Planning.
• Carron, G.; De Grauwe, A. 1997. Current issues in supervision: a
literature review. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
• Carron, G.; De Grauwe, A.; Govinda, R. 1998. Supervision and
support services in Asia. Volume 1: A comparative analysis. Volume
II: National diagnoses (Bangladesh, the State of Uttar Pradesh in
India, the Republic of Korea, Nepal and Sri Lanka). Paris: UNESCO/
International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Fergusson, V. 1998. Supervision for the self-managing school: the
New Zealand experience. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
• Gurr, D. 1999. From supervision to quality assurance: the case of
the State of Victoria, Australia. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute
for Educational Planning.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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• Khaniya, T.R. 1997. Teacher support through resource centres: the
Nepalese case. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for Educational
Planning.
• Perera, W.J. 1997. Changing schools from within: a management
intervention for improving school functioning in Sri Lanka. Paris:
UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Wilcox, B. 2000. Making school inspection visits more effective: the
English experience. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
Acknowledgements
This publication could not have been written without the
invaluable advice and continued guidance of Mr G. Carron.
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SUMMARY
Improving the quality of schools and the achievement of students
remains a priority throughout the world, not least in the developing
countries. To monitor quality, national authorities rely strongly on
the school supervision system. But that system has not always been
able to play that role, plagued as it is by a lack of resources, an
inefficient structure and an ambiguity about its main functions. Much
of our knowledge about the challenges facing supervision services
and individual supervisors is based on anecdotal evidence and the
somewhat repetitive complaints of supervisors themselves and of
school staff. This publication intends to make up for this lack of data
by examining the situation of four countries in the Eastern- and
Southern-African region: Botswana, Namibia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe.
Methodology
The study is the result of work undertaken by four national teams,
which generally included one or more practising supervisors, based
at central and/or regional level and an experienced researcher. Each
report was prepared in two stages. In a first stage, the present state
of supervision and support services was examined at national level,
in order to arrive at an overall picture of their structure and
management. In a second stage, the actual operation of these services
in one region or district became the focus. This second step therefore
covered only a limited number of supervisors and schools. Its
purpose was not to arrive at a complete picture of supervision in the
whole region under study, but to gain an overview of how supervisors
operate and the problems they encounter. Once the four studies were
finalized, the IIEP prepared a comparative analysis and drew a number
of conclusions for the reform of supervision.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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The challenges
Supervision services in the four countries face a myriad of
problems, and it is useful to distinguish between root causes and
results. The root causes can be classified in three categories: (i) a
lack of resources; (ii) inefficient management; and (iii) an
organizational structure not adapted to the present realities.
The lack of resources has multiple implications. The number of
supervisors has not kept pace with the numbers of schools and
teachers; as a result, the school/supervisor and teacher/supervisor
ratios are high. This workload becomes more difficult to manage if it
is combined with a lack of financial and material resources.
Supervision offices in Tanzania suffer most and some have become
almost ghost-like. Elsewhere, the situation is less serious, but does
not justify complacency, as the service remains under-financed in all
four countries.
Management problems are experienced in several areas of
management: selection and recruitment; training; career development
and incentives; and support and evaluation. Identifying the ‘right’
recruitment criteria is not an easy matter. The situation is particularly
complicated at secondary level: supervisors are generally recruited
from among subject specialists, few have experience in school
management and they occupy a post at the same grade as the
secondary-school principals. Many principals therefore do not
consider supervisors as their superiors and refuse their advice. Maybe
one should think about creating a specific cadre of school-
management supervisors, as distinct from subject inspectors, with
recruitment criteria and a post of a grade adapted to their more
demanding job description. In all four countries, there are concerns
with both the organization and the content of training courses,
which are ad hoc rather than part of an overall programme of
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Summary
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professional development, and seldom seem to address the real needs
of supervision staff. A further management problem concerns the
lack of career development opportunities: for most supervisors,
their present post is the culmination of their career, a reward for
many years of service in schools. This evidently risks turning the
supervision service into a conservative body, with little motivation
to innovate and look for new challenges.
The organizational problems which supervision experiences relate
to four points. Firstly, in two countries, the service is still relatively
young and its present structure lacks clarity (in Namibia) or logic (in
Botswana). Secondly, co-ordination is difficult, especially between
the supervision service and other services which work towards
pedagogical improvement, such as teacher training, teacher resource
centres, curriculum development and examinations. The follow-up
to school visits suffers from this lack of co-ordination.
Recommendations made in inspection reports and addressed to the
administrative and/or pedagogical authorities, remain words in the
wind, which frustrates the school staff as well as the supervisors. A
third issue concerns the very demanding job description of
supervisors, who are asked to handle a load of administrative and
pedagogical tasks. The fourth point in this regard might well be the
most significant. In all four countries, supervisors feel constrained -
even frustrated - by their lack of autonomy and authority to take action,
especially on their own recommendations. School heads are in a
similar situation. Overcoming these constraints implies, however, a
profound change in the management system and culture and – but
less crucially – a strengthening of management capacities at district
and school levels.
The results of these varied problems are that supervisors face a
heavy workload with few resources. This leads to a lack of motivation
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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and has a negative impact on the actual operation of the service.
Inspectors, who do not have the resources nor the time to give
detailed and profound support to schools, quickly, as a defensive
reaction, take on control-oriented and critical attitudes which are
poorly appreciated by school staff. The overall conclusion seems to
be that there is insufficient close and supportive contact – through
school visits, seminars, courses and so on – between supervisors and
schools. In particular, follow-up actions on visits or reports are scarce.
It is not surprising then that many schools feel that the overall impact
of the supervision and support service on what goes on in school is
weak.
The reforms
Managers and decision-makers are conscious of these weaknesses
and challenges and are making attempts to improve the situation:
changes are occurring in three main areas: the management, the
organization of the service and its actual operation.
All four countries are fully conscious of the perverse effects of
some existing management rules and practices. There are indications
that policies are being reformulated and that some practices have
changed. To give a few examples: in Zimbabwe, recruitment has
become more transparent, through systematic advertisement of
vacant posts, interviews of candidates, and the convening of a
Promotion Committee involving all regional directors. Both Botswana
and Namibia see the need to define more clearly the tasks of the
different categories of supervision and support staff. In Namibia, this
forms an integral part of a Performance Management System, which
should clearly set out the tasks of the different officers and the criteria
on which they will be evaluated. This will help in monitoring their
work and in giving them support.
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Summary
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The second set of reforms concerns the organization and
structure, and the responsibilities given to different levels and actors.
Four changes can be identified. Firstly, there exists a willingness to
co-ordinate more strongly existing services at a central level.
Secondly, to allow for a closer and more regular supervision of
schools, these are brought together into clusters and officers are
given the responsibility for one such group of schools, with their
office sometimes being located at that level. Thirdly, and following
logically from the above, there is an increased stress on in-school
supervision and support. In Botswana, for instance, Staff
Development Committees are established in secondary schools: they
carry out needs assessment and draw up programmes for school-
based training, using expertise from within or outside the school. In
Zimbabwe, headteachers of both primary and secondary schools have
received or are receiving training in school management. In principle,
each school has a Board, with members of the administration and
teacher representatives, which supervises, assists and advises
teachers, and also has to assess and recommend them for promotion.
Fourthly, the civil society and certain school communities are
gradually being given an increased role in monitoring the functioning
and quality of schools.
A third set of reforms concerns the actual operation and the focus
of supervision activities, in particular school visits. In some cases,
inspectors work more as a team than as individuals and the focus shifts
from individual teacher inspection to school evaluation. Openness
and transparency are increasingly encouraged, implying that schools
will be informed beforehand of visits. As a result, where these reforms
are actually being implemented, teachers are beginning to consider
inspectors as sources of help rather than of criticism. One final trend,
which seems more the result of practical constraints than a well-
designed policy, lies in focusing supervision and support
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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interventions on the schools most in need of these. The challenge
now is to turn an existing but very ad-hoc practice into a well thought-
out policy. A diversified supervision system, which concentrates on
the most remote and isolated schools and on the least experienced
or weakest teachers, is a promising way out, not only to solve several
practical problems, but also to guarantee a better impact of
supervision services on schools.
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INTRODUCTION
This report compares the management and the operation of school
supervision and support in four countries: Botswana, Namibia,
Tanzania1 and Zimbabwe. The countries were selected in such a way
that the set included more developed (Botswana) and least developed
(Tanzania) countries, countries which recently became independent
(Namibia) and those which formed part of the first wave of Africa’s
drive for independence (Tanzania), with populations ranging from
just over a million (Botswana, Namibia) to over some 10 million
(Zimbabwe) to some 30 million (Tanzania). All have made major
efforts to increase access to basic education: Botswana, Namibia and
Zimbabwe come close to achieving universal primary education,
while Tanzania has in recent years lost much of the progress made in
earlier decades and continues to face a severe challenge: only about
half of the children between six and eleven are at present enrolled.
1. Methodology
The report is the result of work undertaken by four national teams,
as part of an international project on Improving teacher supervision
and support services for basic education. In each country, a research
team was set up, which generally included one or more practising
supervisors, based at central and/or regional level, and an
experienced researcher. These teams worked according to a set of
detailed guidelines, prepared by the IIEP, and wrote their report in
two distinct stages. In the first stage, the present state of supervision
and support services was examined at national level. The objective
was to arrive at an overall picture of the structure and management
1. The United Republic of Tanzania constitutes Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar, whichhave separate Education Ministries and a different management system. Zanzibar tookpart only in the first stage of this exercise by preparing a brief report on the structures,management and main problems of its supervision services. No case study was undertaken.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
of these services, with an outline of the main problems they
experience, without entering into the details of their daily operation.
This first step relied mainly, if not exclusively, on a perusal of the
available literature, reports, official documents and statistical data.
In the second stage, the actual operation of supervision services
became the focus, by examining their situation in one region. This
second step therefore covered only a limited number of supervisors
and of schools. Its purpose was not to arrive at a complete picture of
supervision in the whole region under study, but to gain an overview
of how supervisors operate and the problems they encounter. The
collection of information for this regional case study relied mainly
on two sources: interviews with a limited number of supervisors;
and group discussions, with questionnaires addressed to
headteachers and/or teachers in a few schools.
The samples of supervisors, schools and teachers who were
interviewed as part of the regional case study differed quite a bit in
size and make-up from one country to another, the main reason being
that the size of the region or district also varied greatly. In Botswana,
the case study covered the southern part of the Central region and
the team interviewed only the Regional Education Officer (REO), four
inspectors and one in-service officer, in addition to staff from 10
schools. In Namibia, the region selected was Ondangwa West, but
special attention was given to the Okahao inspection circuit, one of
eight circuits within this region. The seven inspectors and 11 advisory
teachers come from the whole region, while the 11 headteachers were
chosen from among the 42 schools in the Okahao circuit. In Tanzania
Mainland, the samples of staff interviewed all came from the Muheza
district, which forms part of the Tanga region in the north of the
country. In Zimbabwe, finally, the study was undertaken on Kwekwe
district, where one Education Officer (EO) and five District Education
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Introduction
Officers (DEO), 12 school headteachers and 35 teachers were
interviewed (see Table 1).
The samples were not chosen to be representative of the national
situation, but to illustrate with more details and more vividly the daily
operation and the circumstances within which supervisors actually
work. While the situation they depict is generally not very different
from that of other areas, care should, nevertheless, be exercised when
interpreting the results from these case studies.
Table 1. Area and personnel investigated for regionalcase study
Country Area of investigation Personnel interviewed2
Botswana Southern part of • 1 regional education officerCentral region • 4 inspectors
• 1 in-service officer• 7 headteachers (5 primary,
2 junior secondary)• teachers in 10 schools
(5 primary, 5 junior secondary)
Namibia Okahao circuit in • 7 inspectorsOndangwa West region • 11 advisory teachers
• 11 primary-school headteachers• teachers of 11 schools
Tanzania Muheza district in • 4 school inspectorsTanga region • 4 district education officers
• 2 teacher service commissionofficials
• 8 Ward education co-ordinators• 20 primary-school
headteachers• teachers in 20 primary schools
Zimbabwe Kwekwe district in • 1 education officerMidlands region • 5 district education officers
• 12 primary-school heads• 35 primary-school teachers in
12 schools
2. All listed staff were interviewed. To some staff, in addition, questionnaires were distributed.The case studies contain the relevant details.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
The research teams were asked to define, for the purpose of this
project, the term ‘supervision and support services’ as covering all
those services whose main function is to inspect, control, evaluate,
and/or advise, assist, support school heads and teachers. The main
focus of the project was on external supervision and support, that is
to say on the work of inspectors, supervisors, advisers, counsellors,
etc. located outside the school, at local, regional or central levels. A
common characteristic of all these officers is that regular visits to
schools form an essential part of their mandate. In-school or
community-based devices of supervision and support were also to
be considered so as to ensure a full understanding of the functioning
of the external services.
2. Background on the four countries3 and their education systems
The four countries in this comparative study were all formerly
colonies of the United Kingdom, but the difference in their dates of
independence shows the diversity in their more recent history:
Tanzania, 1961; Botswana, 1966; Zimbabwe, 1980; and Namibia, 1990.
Their economic development has also been very different, the result
being that Tanzania is, at present, one of the least developed countries
in Africa, while Botswana is one of the most advanced (see Table 2
for more detailed data). The AIDS pandemic, however, has hit this
country particularly hard, and life expectancy has decreased from
68 years in 1994 to 46 years, according to the latest estimates.
3. The data on Tanzania, in this introduction, refer to Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibarcombined. No separate data were available in the sources used.
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Introduction
Table 2. Basic indicators4
Population GNP GNP Life Aid % urban (millions) per capita per capita expectancy per capitapopulation
(US$) Average (US $)growth
1985-1995
Botswana 1.6 3,240 6.1 46 68 50
Namibia 1.7 1,890 2.9 54 108 30
Tanzania 32.9 240 1.0 47 31 32
Zimbabwe 11.9 520 -0.6 51 24 35
Immediately after independence, all four countries experienced
a steep expansion in the number of children going to primary school
(see Figure 1 for data on three countries). Tanzania was unable to
sustain this development and has seen enrolment rates dropping,
especially in the late 1980s. Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe can
be said to have come close to universal primary enrolment, although
pockets of low enrolment (among nomadic groups and in large
commercial farming areas) remain. (Recent data on Botswana are
somewhat misleading: the drop in the net enrolment rate from 89 per
cent in 1985 to 81 per cent in 1996 is largely the result of a recent
policy decision to decrease the admission age at primary level (from
seven to six) and the resulting change in calculating the rate. The
NER stood in 1994, just before the policy change, at 96 per cent, which
shows better the continuing increase in enrolment). Enrolment at
secondary education has also experienced a sizeable increase in
Botswana and Namibia, but less so in Zimbabwe, while it remains
very low in Tanzania. Regional disparities are, undoubtedly, more
important than those concerning gender: the enrolment rate of girls
at primary level is equal to, if not higher than, that of boys. Table 3
4. For purposes of comparison, all data are taken from the indicators database, made availableby the World Bank on its web-site (http://www.worldbank.org/data/). They refer to 1998or 1999.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
presents some basic indicators on the development of the education
system. One can see that education occupies a priority position in
public policy given that it receives a significant share of the budget:
not less than 20 per cent in the different countries.
With the exception of Tanzania, teachers’ qualifications have
improved significantly over recent years. In Botswana, for instance,
teachers are now trained up to Diploma level. For secondary schools,
Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe still experience some teacher
shortages and have to rely on expatriates. Pupil/teacher ratios in all
four countries decreased between 1980 and 1995, although there has
been a slight increase in both Tanzania and Zimbabwe in recent years
(see Table 4).
Figure 1. Index of growth of primary enrolment(1970 = 100) 5
500
400
300
200
100
1970 1980 1990 1996
BotswanaTanzaniaZimbabwe
5. No comparable data are available in the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook on Namibia, whichobtained independence only in 1990.
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Introduction
Table 3. Basic indicators on education6
NER primary NER Pupil/ GER SpendingTotal primary Teacher ratio secondary on educ.
girls 1996 as % of budget
1985 1996 1996 primary secondary 1985 1996 1985 1996
Botswana 89 81 83 25 18 29 65 15.4 21.8
Namibia7 . . 91 92 32 21 39 61 .. 25.6
Tanzania8 56 48 49 36 17 3 5 15.6 23.0
Zimbabwe9 136 113 111 39 27 41 49 15.0 22.9
Table 4. Pupil/teacher ratios at primary level
Botswana Namibia Tanzania Zimbabwe
1970 36 .. 46 37
1980 32 .. 41 44
1990 32 32 35 36
1996 25 .. 36 39
The structure of the education system in the four countries is as
follows: two years of pre-primary, followed by seven years of primary
and five (Botswana, Namibia) or six (Tanzania, Zimbabwe) years of
secondary, in two cycles. The successful expansion of primary
enrolment has led to a redefinition of the term ‘basic education’,
which is now considered to last in Botswana 10 years and to cover
primary and junior secondary.
6. For purposes of comparison, data for Tables 2 and 3 and for Figure 1 are taken from UNESCO’sStatistical Yearbook 1998.
7. Data for pupil/teacher ratios are for 1990.8. Data for current public spending only.9. Data for GER primary. Data for spending on education in 1996 come from national
sources.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
All four countries have kept some parts of their colonial legacy,
which explains the similarities in, for example, the education
structure and in some aspects of educational management. At present,
their policies continue to be somewhat influenced from experiences
in the United Kingdom, sometimes through reform projects, financed
by international agencies. The trend towards giving schools more
autonomy and the efforts to build up resource centres can be quoted
as examples, although such impact is of course tempered strongly by
the different policy environments and by national initiatives.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
27
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SUPERVISION ANDSUPPORT STRUCTURES
1. Historical background
The creation of inspection services accompanied the introduction
of formal public education in each country: as early as the 1920s for
instance in Tanzania10 and the 1930s in Zimbabwe (for white
education; African education had to wait until 1972 to see its first
inspectors).
The expansion of the system after independence, in numbers
of schools, students and teachers, was accompanied by a slower
growth in the number of supervision officers. To allow supervision
services to function efficiently with an increased workload, in
different countries, several strategies were used:
• separating primary from secondary supervision;
• decentralizing some services;
• creating specific support services.
The following paragraphs comment on these three strategies. In
Botswana and Zimbabwe, a separation was made in the 1970s
between supervisors in charge of primary and secondary education.
Such a separation already existed in Tanzania at that time, but has
not yet been introduced in Namibia. In Zanzibar, from 1984 onwards,
a distinction was made between primary inspectors, secondary
inspectors and inspectors for specific subjects, such as religious
studies and Arabic, who serve both levels. Two further categories
10. The remainder of the document will refer to Tanzania Mainland as ‘Tanzania’. Zanzibarwill be considered as a separate case, although it forms part of the United Republic ofTanzania.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
28
have since been created: junior work inspectors in 1987, and
inspectors for headteachers in 1996.
All countries, with the understandable exception of Zanzibar, have
at different moments in time decentralized the supervision tasks to
officers based at regional or district level. This process has not been
problem free. In Botswana, it has led to a lack of subject-specific
officers for secondary subjects in the regional offices, because of the
financial burden the appointment of a full cadre of officers in each
region would represent. Moreover, the fact that the regional offices
for primary and secondary education do not coexist has resulted in
poor co-ordination. In Tanzania, the Decentralization Act of 1972
implied that inspectors became accountable to district authorities
rather than to the Ministry of Education. As a result, the central co-
ordination system was abolished, but this was deplored to such an
extent that the central Inspectorate Department was re-established
in 1978.
Namibia, with quite a different background, experiences at present
a similar problem of co-ordination and leadership. This is the result
of its particular history rather than a poorly managed decentralization
process. Before independence, there were 11 different supervision
and support authorities. Since 1990, regional offices have to a large
extent retained the autonomy of those pre-independence authorities.
In order to offer leadership and policy guidance, in 1996, a Directorate
Inspectorate and Advisory Service was established, within an overall
effort to build up a unitary service. Botswana is also planning to set
up a similar central department, which will be responsible for policy-
making, planning and co-ordination of inspection at all levels.
Zanzibar established an inspectorate unit in 1984, which became a
department in 1992 then a division (within the Department of
Professional Services) in 1996.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
29
A third way of managing an increased workload is to create special
staff for support services, as distinct from supervision. This has clearly
been the case in Botswana, where the in-service officers undertake
this task, and in Namibia, with the creation of the advisory teachers.
Zanzibar also has a group of teacher advisers. In Tanzania and
Zimbabwe the inspectors or education officers, as they are called in
Zimbabwe, are expected to perform both inspection and advice tasks.
Almost everywhere, nonetheless, attention is increasingly being paid
to offering more direct support to schools, through resource centres,
for example.
These changes have taken place within a policy environment
recently characterized by a change of perspective on the distribution
of tasks and authority between the education system and the schools.
More autonomy is being given to schools, and supervision services
are being asked to be more development-oriented and less control-
focused. This has also led to structural transformations, in an attempt
to decrease the distance between supervisors and schools.
2. The overall structure
While the different types of reform, described above, succeeded
to some extent in lessening the workload and simplifying the job
description of individual officers, they also resulted in giving school
supervision as a whole a more complicated structure.
The following overview of the structures of primary-school
supervision indicates that this complexity is mainly a factor of the
degree of decentralization. Everywhere, the distance between the
office and the schools is difficult to bridge. As this study will highlight,
transportation and travel allocation issues therefore become weighty
considerations in the management of these services. At the same time,
efforts are made to bring supervisors closer to the school, through
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
30
the creation of additional administrative levels. In Namibia, for
instance, the idea has been mooted to set up district offices to serve
areas least accessible to the regional offices. The creation of additional
levels has nowhere been accompanied by the abolition of existing
ones, the result being that schools in some cases will be supervised
by officers from different levels, with the ensuing problems of co-
ordination.
In all countries, with the exception of Zanzibar, officers are at
present functioning at least at three levels: central, regional, district
or local. Supervisors, who are actually in charge of visiting schools,
are of course posted at the lowest level. However, in the less
populated countries (Botswana and Namibia), this lowest level does
not correspond to an office as such, but to an area of responsibility.
In Tanzania, a fourth level under the district exists: the ward office,
but so far it plays no official role in supervision.
At secondary level, because services are less decentralized, the
structure is less complex. Information on these structures is available
for Zimbabwe and Botswana. In the case of Tanzania this information
was not collected, while in Namibia no separation exists between
primary and secondary supervision. In Zanzibar, primary and
secondary supervisors belong to the same service, based at central
level. In Botswana and Zimbabwe, secondary-school supervisors
operate mainly from the regional level, and are not further
decentralized. A first reason is evident: the number of secondary
schools is smaller. A second reason is equally important: secondary-
school supervisors are generally subject-specific. This means that
decentralizing them to local level would imply a multiplication of
vast teams in each office, a burden no country can afford at present.
In Botswana, even the regional offices do not yet have a full staffing
of subject supervisors, for this precise reason.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
31
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
32
��������������� ���������������������������������������� �� �
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■ TTTTTanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzania
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��������� ��������
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
33
■ ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe
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■ ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
34
A second explanation for the complexity of supervision lies in
the fact that, in addition to the classical services, specific external
school advisers11 can also be identified. In Botswana, where this
service is well organized, a separate department (the Department of
Teacher Training and Development) has existed in the Ministry of
Education since 1989, which organizes teacher support. Within the
Department, there is an in-service training unit. Originally distinct
units existed for primary and secondary education, but they are now
being merged. Eleven well-funded and well-functioning teacher
resource centres, all over the country, report to this unit: they
organize in-service training and visit schools for teacher support, for
needs assessment, feedback and follow-up.
In Namibia, as we saw above, the Directorate of the Inspectorate
and Advisory Services has a Division for Advisory Services, headed
by a SAT. All regions have a section for Advisory Services, with a
number of advisory teachers. In addition, the National Institute for
Educational Development (NIED), which has the status of a
Directorate, provides support services, by developing programmes
and curricula and organizing in-service training. Its staff go out from
time to time to visit schools.
Zanzibar has a set of officers called teacher advisers. In Tanzania,
on the other hand, there are no specific external school advisers.
Teacher resource centres exist, but they seem to organize the
residential in-service courses only, rather than go out to schools. The
situation is similar in Zimbabwe, where there are no specific external
advisers, but an increasing number of resource centres are being set
up.
11. In this document, we consider ‘external school advisers’ only as the staff who go out toschools to offer advice. This therefore excludes, for instance, teacher trainers, based inteacher colleges, for whom school visits are not part of their regular duties.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
35
There are two further factors, which can add to the complexity of
the supervision structure. As explained above, different types of
schools (primary/secondary) and specific subjects are under the
supervision of different officers, while it is also difficult to
distinguish supervisors from officers performing purely
administrative tasks. In Botswana, for instance, at primary level, the
SEO is as much a supervisor as an administrative officer, but at
secondary level, separate posts exist for administrative and
pedagogical supervision.
3. Official functions
The job descriptions of the primary-school supervisors in all
countries show evident similarities, although the emphasis differs
from one to another and every country has assigned a few specific
tasks. A synthetic description of the main tasks in each of the four
countries is given in a separate box. Several general comments can
be deduced from this overview. Firstly, in all countries supervisors
at district or local level are expected to fulfil an intricate and wide-
ranging set of tasks, which can be summarized under four points:
• control as such (which includes inspection visits, sometimes
expressed as ‘assessment’ or ‘monitoring’);
• support tasks (both informal guidance and more formal in-service
training or meetings);
• some administrative duties, without a linkage to control or support
(such as: the payment of teacher salaries, the administration of a
school feeding programme); and
• a representation or liaison role.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
36
In Namibia, a fifth assignment is explicitly added, namely policy
advice. Zimbabwe allots a similar task exclusively to the central level.
In all cases, the main instrument which allows supervisors to
perform successfully these tasks, is a visit to schools. As we will see
later, because of a combination of practical and budgetary constraints,
school visits are not undertaken as regularly as they should be, and
the whole efficiency of the service suffers.
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
37
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
38
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• ���������������������������� ������������� � ���������������� ���
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
39
• ��� ������� � �� �� ���� �������� �� �� ��� ��� ��������� �� ��� ������
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• ������������� ��������B� ���<��& � ����
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• ��� 3�� *������� �� �#
• ������������������������ ��� � ������������� ����������������#
• ���� �������������� ����� ��� ��������������������� ��#
• � ���� �������� �� ������ ���� ����������
����� � ����������%� � �����������9����������������������
• ��� ����������������� �������������� ���� ������ ����������������������
������� ��#
• ������ 3���� �������������� ��*��������������#
• ��� ����������������� ��� �������������� ��� �� ��� ������� ���������.�
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• ������������� ��������������� 1���������!�����������������������
:B'������ ����������������"#
• ������1������� ����������������������
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
40
Ministries of Education have at least two strategies at their disposal
to simplify the job description and lessen the workload of officers.
Firstly, specific advice-oriented actors can be appointed. This has been
done in Botswana and Namibia, but even then most supervisors retain
a support function. It is indeed difficult for a supervisor not to offer
any advice upon identifying weaknesses in a school. On the other
hand, the combination of advice and control within the same officer
is not necessarily appreciated by teachers. Secondly, specific service
staff can be appointed to handle administrative duties, which would
allow professional officers to concentrate on the core pedagogic
tasks.12 Not one country, however, has created such separate staff.
Only in Botswana, at secondary level, does there exist a separation
between the supervision of schools’ administration and that of
subject teaching.
The burden of administrative duties makes it difficult for
supervisors fully to concentrate on their core tasks. It seems that
priority is being given to the administrative duties, not so much
because supervisors consider them more fundamental, but as these
generally carry an urgency factor. The regional case studies will
illustrate this in more detail.
The distribution of tasks between the different levels (central –
regional – district) and the logic behind this distribution are
somewhat unclear. In Namibia and Botswana, for instance, the
centrally located service has a job description not significantly
different from the district officers. Zimbabwe, on the other hand,
has assigned its central Standards Control Unit a list of tasks which
are more oriented towards system evaluation and information for
12. This was done in Chile, among other places, with success: supervisors are spending muchmore time on their core tasks, and their impact on schools has improved. The strategy isevidently not without an impact on the salary burden.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
41
decision-making at central level. In this case, the distinction between
the tasks of central staff and district staff are quite conspicuous, but
there remains less clarity concerning the task distribution between
regional and district offices and, within this last office, between the
EO and the DEOs.
In all four countries, it is more difficult to argue for a specific role
for the regional level, in contrast to the central and the district offices.
Centrally based supervisors can be assigned responsibilities for the
overall planning of the service, for defining guidelines and for giving
policy advice. Locally or district-based staff needs to do the actual
school visits. But, because of its intermediate position, the regional
level has a less straightforward role and a risk of overlap with both
higher and lower-based staff, especially at primary level. The scenario
where secondary schools are concerned is different, as in most
countries secondary-school supervisors remain based for the time
being in regional offices. The distance then created between primary
and secondary-school supervisors can pose another problem.
4. Relations with other services
Supervision is one of several services aimed at improving pedagogical
practices in the classroom. Ideally, the relations between supervision
and services in charge of curriculum development, examination and
testing, and in particular teacher training, should be close and well
organized. In such a way, supervision findings and recommendations
could feed into teacher training and curriculum development, while
there would be a greater rapport between examinations and the
delivered curriculum. Such a coherent set of interventions would offer
more help to teachers, who are at times confused by the conflicting
advice coming from these different sources.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
42
In order to arrive at that ideal scenario, two broad factors, on
which this study will comment later, are of particular relevance:
supervision visits should collect information relevant to pedagogical
improvement, while supervision reports need to be disseminated
and acted upon by the different recipients. What is also important
are the contacts, both informal and formal, which exist between
these services; in other words the involvement of supervisors in,
for instance, examination writing, achievement testing or teacher
training. The following paragraphs study the nature and extent of
these relations.
■ BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana
���� ������������������� ��������� �� ������� ���!�����������
� �������������"�� 1��� ������������� ���� �� �������
• ����� �����������������=����� ��������������������������������������#
• ������ ���� ��� � �������������*������ ������������������ �����
�& � ���#
• ���*����������� ������������������,��������������������������������
�������� ���������� ����������������������������������.�������� #
• ����� ��������������+*%�����������������������&��� ������ �������� �
������� �� ��������� ��� ������ ��:B'�� ��� �����������
,�� ����� ��� ������� ����������� ��� ��������� ������� ������� � �����
��� ���� ����������������������� �����&�� ����������� ����� ������ ����
����%�'���������������������������� ��� ������������������=������ ���� �����
�������������� �1��� ����������������������� ���������������� ������ �
������������� ��� ��������& �����������������������=�����
■ NamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibia
+� : �� �� �� ���� �� �1 ���� �&��� ������� ��������� �0��� ������
�� ������ �������� ��� ���� �� ���������� ��������� ��� ���� ��� �& �����
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
43
���� �& � ��� �� ��� � ��� ���� ��� ��������� ���� ���� �� ���������
�������� ���������������� �����.���� ���������������� ������������ ��
��������� ���� ��� ����� ���� ������� ��� ��� ���� +������� ��� �� ,������
%�������
■ TTTTTanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzania
�� ��*���������������� ������������������������� ���� �� ���������
������� ��� �1���& � ����������� ���� ���������*� 1�� ����
*� �����*��������� ���� ���� �������������� ����������������������
�� ���� �� ����� ����������������
■ ZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibar
+��������� ������������� ������� �� ������������������������+
�������������� ������� ����������� 3�������*��������� �� ��� ��� ��
���������� ��������� ������� ��%��������������������������������*������
��� ���� ����� ���� � ���� ��� � ���� ���� ���� � ��� �� ��&����1������
����� ��������������������������� ���� ������ ��������& � ����
■ ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe
���� ������������� ������ �� ������� ������������������� �� ����� �������
�& � ������������������������� �1���& � ���� ������ ����������
�� ����� �� /������� � ��� ���� �������� ������ �������� ��� ���� ���� ��
�������������� ����� ��� ����������� ��������������������������������������
����������� 9�� � �� ������� �� ��� ���=���� � ����� �� ����� ����� ��
����������������� ����������� ��� ������������*��������� �� ��$�������
�������������������� ���������������������������������+� �����
�'���������� ���������������� ��������������������������������������������
!���"�� ���� ��������� ��*��� ���� ����� ����� ��� � ������������ �
�����3����������������������� ����������������
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
44
The above overview shows very different situations.
Relationships between supervision and the other pedagogical
services are close and institutionalized in Botswana, supervisors
being members of committees and panels in charge of curriculum
development, teacher training and examinations. In Zimbabwe, their
involvement is less institutionalized, but still quite intense:
supervisors serve as resource persons in training and participate in
writing test items, marking examinations and preparing evaluation
reports. In Namibia, however, the situation tends to the opposite,
with no formal contacts and very few informal ones between
supervisors and other pedagogical support staff. Supervisors are,
for instance, not represented on the examination board, neither will
they be on the Regional Education Forum. At the time of writing the
national report, this forum was to be set up in each region, in order
to promote and monitor educational development. It was to be
composed of representatives of school boards, community leaders,
church bodies, employers, trade unions, teachers’ unions, student
organizations and NGOs, but without inspectors or advisory teachers.
In Tanzania, in principle, supervisors do sit on curriculum panels
and help with examinations, but in practice their involvement in
pedagogical improvement is limited, because of the practical
constraints on their work.
While the Botswana case seems the most amenable to developing
supervision as an integrated component of a pedagogical
improvement service, it is not without problems. With the ever
increasing number of schools and pressure from within the Ministry
and from the public in general for more inspections, SEOs have found
the duties they do in co-operation with, or on behalf of, other
departments to be an added burden which limits their capacity to
supervise schools more effectively. Indeed, it is difficult to argue that
supervisors need to widen their co-operation with other school and
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
45
teacher-support services, while recognizing at the same time that at
present they spend too little time on their priority task: supervision.
This raises a number of questions. Firstly, in which fields should
supervisors, as a priority, be involved? The one field which comes
closest to their core task, supervision, is undoubtedly in-service
training. It could be argued that a good school visit should take the
form of an informal training session of school staff. In addition, many
recommendations, which conclude visits, relate to the need for such
training. Ensuring that supervisors work closely together with other
staff in charge of in-service training, might also help in changing the
image of the supervisor in a positive way. A second question concerns
the nature in which supervisors could be involved in other services.
Should it be left to individuals in, for example, their field offices to
decide in what area to be involved or should the supervision service,
as an institution, ensure that its views and opinions are taken into
account? In a similar vein, the choice exists between relying on
informal contacts or formal bodies. What is more important than
defining answers to these questions, is to ensure that some forms of
contact exist between supervisors, teacher trainers, curriculum
developers and others, through, as a minimum, the exchange of
reports, and, where possible, the organization of team visits.
5. School-site supervision
In all countries, the Ministry of Education has realized that it has
become difficult for supervisors, including those posted at
decentralized levels, to effectively monitor what goes on in schools
and to give consistent support to teachers. The numbers of teachers
and schools per supervisor and the poor communications render it
nearly impossible for a supervisor to spend enough time in each single
school. It is believed moreover that schools need to take more
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
46
responsibility for their own performance and quality and that a
culture of quality assurance can only be developed through promoting
internal school supervision. In view of this, bringing supervision
closer to school, either by clustering schools or by devolving some
supervision and support tasks to the school site and to the school
community, is a general trend everywhere, although to varying
degrees. The actual policies indeed differ quite significantly between
countries.
■ BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana
���� �������������������� �� ������������������������������ ��� �
����� �� ��� ��� ������ �� ������� �� �� ������$������� ���48;���� ���
$������: �� �� ����������� ����� ��� �����������Cthe Head as instructional
leader, together with the deputy and senior teachers, should take major
responsibility for in-service training, through regular observation of teachers
and organization of workshops (…) the Education Officers’ visits to schools
should supplement the school-based in-service training”.�+� ����������� ��
�������� ����&�������������� ����������������������� ��
���� �������� �� ����������� � ���� �������� �������� � ���*�� ����
���� ����!���� ��"� ���� ���������������!������ ��"�����������������
����� � ��������� �� ����� ���� ��� B������ �������� � �������������� � ����
� ����� ������������������������������ ���� ��������������� ����������
����
��� ���� ��������� ���� �� �� ��� ������� ���� ��� ��� ��� %� ��
����������� ��*��� ������ � ����� ���� � ������ � ����� ��� ��������
4DDE� ���������������������� ����� ������������������*��� ��������1
������������������������������� ��� ��� ��� � � �1�� ��� ������ �� ��
����������� !�� �"� ����� �� ��� ��� 3�� ����� �� ����� ����������
����� ������������ ����������� ��� ������������������������ �����
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
47
■ NamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibia
%���������� ���� *������� ��������� ��� �&���� +� � ���� ��������� ��������
�� ��������� ������� �����=������ ��� ������������� ���+��������������
���� ���� 1���������-�� �� .��� ��������� ���������� ��������� ������
�������������������������� ��� ���� �� ����������������� �����������
���������������������������������%��������������� ����������������������
����������
������������������������������������������ ���������� ���� ������
��� ���� ������ �������� ��� ���� '1 � �� ������� -the officially appointed and
recommended governing body.���������������� ������������� ������/� �
��� �� �� ��� �� ������ ��� � ����� ����� ��� ��������� ��� �� �� ��� ��������� +
������� � �����*� 1�� ����������������� ����� ����� ����� �� ������
�������� ����� ����������� ���� �������������������������������
■ TTTTTanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzania
+� � 3 �� ���������� ���� ���� �� �� ���� �� �� � ����� ���� �� �����
��������������%���������������������������� ���������� ����� %+������
� ��� � ���������������� ��������������������� ���������� �� �������
�������������%��������������������������� ��� ��
• ���������������� ��� ���� �� �� ����� ��� ������������������ �� �� ����� ����
����� ���� ����� ������������#
• ������ �� �� � ����� �� ��������� ��������� ��� ���� ������.�
����������#
• �������� �������������� ����������� ��� ������������
%������������� �1�� ������������������� ���������� ���� ��� ������
• �������������� ��� �������������������� ������������ ������ ��������
����������#
• ��� ����������� ��� ����� ��������� �� ����������� ��������� ���������
� ������ ����������������������#
• ����� ��������� ����������������������������
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
48
■ ZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibar
%�������� �� �������� � �1�� ��� ��� ��������� ��� ���� ������� ��� ���
���������������� ���������������������������� ��������
■ ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe
$��������������*��������������������������������������� ���@�������
� � ���� ��������� ���� �� ����������� ��� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� ��� �
�� ��������� ����!��� ��"������� ��������� ������!����� ��"���� �� � ����
�������������������������������� �������� ��� ��� � �������������
������ �������� ������ � ���������� �� ���� ������ �������� ����� *������
����������%������%�� �����)� ���������������������������� ����� ��
���� ������������� ������ ����&���������� ����� �� ������� ������ ����
������������������ ��������������������������������������� �������
������'�� ���'�������� ������������������� ���� �� ���� ����������&������
��������� ����������������������������������������������%�����
���������������������!��*����������������"����%����������������
,���� ����!�����������������"���������������������������*�������� �
� ������
%��������������� ����� ����������� �2�� ����� +� ����� �����������
����� �������� ��������� � ������� ��� 3����� ���� ������ �������� � ��� ��
����� ������������������� ���������� ������������������ ������������
� ���������������� ����&���������������������� �������������������������,������
������������������������� ��� �������������������������������������
With the exception of Zanzibar, everywhere different actors at
school-site level are being asked to play an increased role in teacher
supervision. A central issue is of course who will receive the
responsibility to assess and assist teachers. Two, not mutually
exclusive, scenarios seem to exist. A first alternative consists of relying
on senior staff, with school principals as the main actors, assisted by
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
General overview of supervision and support structures
49
deputies and, at least in secondary schools, department heads. These
department heads have the advantage of being subject specialists,
which is not the case for principals. In large primary schools in
Zimbabwe, heads will be assisted by deputy heads and by teachers in
charge, while in Namibia some schools make use of ‘guardian
teachers’ who work with new appointees. In Botswana in particular,
senior staff in schools are increasingly being offered training in school
management, so that they will be able to play a greater role in
supervising and assisting their staff. A second, less common,
alternative consists of setting up a separate board within the school,
consisting of senior staff and possibly representatives from the
administration. This is the case for instance of the School Suitability
Boards in Zimbabwe.
A comment is useful here: all countries point out that in reality
only the bigger schools are actually implementing a policy of in-school
supervision. In general, effective in-school supervision and support
is only visible in a small percentage of primary schools. In Kwekwe
district, in Zimbabwe, the impact of School Suitability Boards is “felt
most in urban schools, where there was less mobility and hence better
retention of experienced heads”. Indeed, primary schools do not only
face problems of size, but also the lack of sufficient experienced staff
and a quick turnover of teachers. Therefore, many, not to say most,
primary schools continue to operate as before.
A reform strategy, more pertinent to the characteristics of many
such schools, consists of creating school clusters, with or without
resource centres at their core. These clusters, which are being set up
in each of the four countries, aim to share expertise and resources
between schools and to strengthen local capacities for in-service
training. Where such clusters are functioning well, they are received
with enthusiasm by school staff and their potential for improving
quality is recognized. The main challenge is to turn what are still
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
50
somewhat isolated projects into an overall policy. Many, if not most,
resource centres have been set up on the advice of and with funding
by international agencies, as part of donor-funded projects (the
situation in Botswana offers, from that point of view, an exception).
There is an evident need for stronger co-ordination between the
different efforts and, finally, to integrate the school cluster resource
centres into an overall supervision policy. Such a policy should respect
the original mandate of these centres, without turning them into
another administrative level, with the same weaknesses and
constraints as, for instance, the district offices.
The devolution of supervision to the local level can also imply an
increased reliance on school communities. In all four countries, some
structure, representing the community, exists. They carry names such
as Parent-Teacher Associations, Boards of Governors or School
Development Committees. Their official authorities differ: in Tanzania,
the School Committee has quite wide-ranging powers, including in
the pedagogical field. In Zimbabwe, on the other hand, School
Development Committees or Associations have no explicit
supervision or support tasks. In reality, the situation is probably not
very different from one country to another, with communities seldom
exercising whatever powers they might have in supervision and
support. The case study on Kwekwe district in Zimbabwe commented
that “communities are only involved in the physical development of
schools. Reports on teachers were not discussed with communities
and their responsible authorities. Supervisors rarely met communities
when visiting schools.”
The current policy reforms, however timidly implemented, imply
nonetheless a strengthening of in-school and close-to-school
supervision. This has, as far as can be deduced from the studies, not
yet been accompanied by a reformulation of the roles of external
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General overview of supervision and support structures
51
supervisors. Botswana, as was seen, has created a specific category
of teacher-support personnel, the staff development co-ordinators,
who help secondary-school staff identify training needs for a group
of neighbouring schools. The available information on the four
countries points to the need to rethink the overall organization of
the supervision services and to re-assign tasks to the different levels
and actors, starting from the school itself.
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53
II. MANAGEMENT OF SUPERVISION AND SUPPORTSERVICES
1. Basic facts and figures
(a) The present profile of schoolsupervisors
This paper has already pointed out that supervisors are burdened
with too many schools for them to be able to offer effective
supervision of the primary schools within their area of operation.
The potential of the supervision system to influence teaching/
learning practices in schools is a function of the number of schools
to be supervised and the number of teachers to be guided by each
supervisor. However, any judgement on the adequacy of supervision
depends very much on what is expected from supervisors. Having
15 schools per inspector could be considered manageable, if his or
her main role is supposed to be a swift inspection of the school’s
management and administration. But if a supervisor is expected to
offer consistent and continuous support to all teachers, then the ratio
of teachers/supervisor is the one to look at: having about 100 teachers
per supervisor is probably the upper limit. In other words, any
assessment about the numbers of supervisors depends on the role
assigned to the service.
Table 5 presents the number of officers in supervision and support
compared to the number of teachers and schools, and then calculates
the school/supervisor and teacher/supervisor ratios.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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Table 5. Numbers of schools, teachers and supervisors,1997-199813
Country Posts14 Numbers Numbers Numbers School/ Teacher/of staff of of supervisor supervisor
schools teachers ratio ratio
Botswana Primary supervisors 35 718 12,785 20.5 365Secondary supervisors 28 230 6,214 8.2 222External advisers 67 948 18,999 14.1 284All officers 130 948 18,999 7.3 146
Namibia Inspectors 50 1,449 16,759 29.0 335Advisory teachers 148 1,449 16,759 9.8 113All officers 198 1,449 16,759 7.3 85Occupied posts 129 1,449 16,759 11.2 130
Tanzania Primary inspectors 428 11,151 105,916 26.0 247
Zanzibar Primary inspectors 14 161Secondary inspectors 5 64
Zimbabwe Primary supervisors 309 4,670 63,900 15.1 207Secondary supervisors 156 1,531 29,074 9.8 186
One unknown quantity in this table concerns the number of vacant
posts. Only Namibia gave specific information on this issue. While
the inspectorate is almost fully staffed (48 of the 50 posts are filled),
vacancies are a serious problem for the advisory service. About 40 per
cent of the posts (67 out of 148) were unfilled in November 1997. In
Ondangwa West for instance, only eight out of 23 posts are filled.
The total number of teachers to be reached by these advisory teachers
is 4,079, more than 500 per occupied post, rather than 180 when all
posts would have been filled. In Botswana, it seems that two posts
have been left vacant, as there are 37 inspectoral areas at primary
level and only 35 inspectors.
13. Data in italics are taken from the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook and concern 1996 (forBotswana) and 1997 (for Tanzania). For Tanzania, the data had to be computed on thebasis of the information available in the UNESCO Yearbook (which concerns the UnitedRepublic) and deducting data obtained separately for Zanzibar. For Zanzibar, the nationalreport contains only the ratios, not the raw numbers.
14. As identified under Chapter I.2.
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Management of supervision and support services
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It is difficult to compare between countries: officers do not have
the same job description, and, in two countries, Namibia and
Botswana, the role played by specialized advisory staff, who cover
both primar y and secondary schools, needs to be taken into
consideration. This notwithstanding, a few points can be noted:
• Primary inspectors have to supervise, on average, 15 schools in
Zanzibar and Zimbabwe, 20 in Botswana, 26 in Tanzania and 29 in
Namibia. The number of teachers varies from just over 160 in
Zanzibar, 200 in Zimbabwe and 250 in Tanzania, to 335 in Namibia
and 365 in Botswana. However, in these last two countries
inspectors can count on ‘advisers’ to help them.
• At secondary level, there is little difference between Botswana
and Zimbabwe: a supervisor is, on average, in charge of about 10
schools and 200 teachers. Zanzibar is in a much better position: a
supervisor oversees 5 schools only and 64 teachers. However,
these figures are misleading as, at this level, supervisors work by
subject. One should therefore examine the charge of specific-
subject staff. This was done in Zimbabwe and we can note for
instance that there are 14 English subject officers for 4,058 teachers
in that subject (a ratio of 290 teachers per officer), 11 mathematics
officers for 3,490 teachers (a ratio of 317) and 12 Science officers
for 3954 teachers (a ratio of 330 teachers).
There exists also quite detailed information by region
(understandably this is not the case for Zanzibar). In some countries,
this information is available in the Ministry of Education as part of
the ‘normal’ data on education, but in others (Namibia, for example)
a special data collection exercise had to be undertaken. We were able
to compare the presence of supervisors between regions for three
countries. Table 6 gives some details.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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Table 6. Disparities in supervisors’ posting by region15
School/supervisor ratio Teacher/supervisor ratio
Average Lowest Highest Average Lowest Highest
Botswana 20.5 17.5 22 Not available
Namibia 30.2 18.0 43.6 349 220 510
Zimbabwe 15.1 8.2 18.2 207 194 240
Interpreting these data, especially school/supervisor ratios, to
draw conclusions about regional disparities, needs to be done with
care. We do not know the density of the school network, the transport
possibilities or the differences in school size. It is more useful to look
at teacher/supervisor ratios, although care is still warranted. The
differences in Namibia are striking. The ratios vary from 220 teachers
per supervisor (Rundu) to 510 (Ondangwa West). In this last region,
supervisors also have the highest number of schools under their
charge. Windhoek, the capital region, not surprisingly has the lowest
number of schools per supervisor, but still more than the average
number of teachers. In Zimbabwe, the differences are smaller: the
average number of teachers per supervisor varies from 194 to 240.
In addition, we should remember that differences can also exist
within offices, as a result of the criteria used for distributing schools
between officers. This can be on the basis of the number of schools,
but the main criterion can also be geographic-administrative, each
officer being assigned one or more administrative sub-divisions,
which form a geographic entity. The information on the Central
region in Botswana, although not very detailed, shows the existence
of differences within an office: two inspectors oversee between 10
and 19 schools, another two between 20 and 29 schools. However,
15. Note that for Botswana existing posts were used rather than occupied posts, while theopposite is the case for Namibia, which explains the difference with Table 5.
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Management of supervision and support services
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all four have between 300 and 350 teachers. In the Kwekwe district
in Zimbabwe, each DEO is responsible for 22 or 23 schools. The
number of teachers under their charge varies between 266 in the
rural circuits with smaller schools and 455 in the one urban circuit. A
similar situation exists for secondary schools, with the school/
supervisor ratio ranging between 6 and 10 and the teacher/supervisor
ratio between 94 and 282.
The following points emerge from the above paragraphs:
• The number of schools and teachers for which supervisors are
responsible, seem, at first sight, manageable, with a school/
supervisor ratio varying from 15 to 30. Much depends however on
the supervision and support these officers are expected to give to
schools and on their working conditions. For instance, if
supervisors are supposed to have consistent and regular contacts
with schools, and if the distance between schools and the scarcity
of transport renders travelling arduous and time-consuming, the
present number of schools is too high. If, on the contrary, the main
task of a supervisor is to inspect a school once a term, and travelling
and working conditions are not constraining, then the ratio can be
considered acceptable.
• Differences in workload between regions and/or districts and
between officers within districts can be fairly great. Some of these
are not surprising, with urban staff having to oversee more teachers
than rural staff, who experience more transport problems and
work with smaller schools. It is fairly clear however that one
criterion, which could have been used in the distribution of
schools between offices, namely the school’s need for more or less
supervision, is not taken into account. The distribution remains
done on an administrative basis, the underlying assumption being
that all schools without distinction need similar supervision. The
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
58
actual number of staff would be sufficient, if this staff were well
equipped (especially with transport) and if these officers would
focus their attention on the most needy schools.
(b) Profile of supervisory officers
The five countries did not collect exactly the same data on the
supervisors. But what is available offers a general impression of the
profile of the “typical” school supervisor. We will at the end of this
rather dry overview discuss some of its implications. The following
is an overview of the data collected.
(i) By age
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Management of supervision and support services
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16. The table concerns, for Namibia, all supervisors as they are responsible for both primaryand secondary schools, and, for Zanzibar, all supervisors (primary and secondary) andadvisory teachers.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
60
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Management of supervision and support services
61
(ii) By length of service
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
62
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17. Includes all supervisors (primary and secondary) and advisory teachers.
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Management of supervision and support services
63
"�� ���1�"�� ���1�"�� ���1�"�� ���1�"�� ���1� /////���������������������������������������������)�����������������)�����������������)�����������������)�����������������)���������������������� $������ ���$������ ���$������ ���$������ ���$������ ���������������������������������
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18. For Botswana: length of service as supervisor; for Zimbabwe: total length of service.19. For Botswana: length of service as external adviser; for Namibia: first column: total length
of service; second column: length of service as external adviser.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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Management of supervision and support services
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����������+�����+�����+�����+�����+*�*�*�*�*� ��������� �������������2 �������������������� �������������2 �������������������� �������������2 �������������������� �������������2 �������������������� �������������2 �����������78
3 ����������3 ����������3 ����������3 ����������3 ���������� ���������������������������������������� ����������������������������������� ������� ������ ������ ������ ������ ���� !�� ����!�� ����!�� ����!�� ����!�� ���� !�������!�������!�������!�������!�������
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3 �����������3 �����������3 �����������3 �����������3 ����������� ���������������������������������������� !�������!�������!�������!�������!�������
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20. The nomenclature regarding qualifications differs from country to country. More detaileddata can be found in the national reports.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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����������+�����+�����+�����+�����+1�1�1�1�1� ()������� ��������� ��� 2 �����������()������� ��������� ��� 2 �����������()������� ��������� ��� 2 �����������()������� ��������� ��� 2 �����������()������� ��������� ��� 2 �����������
3 ����������3 ����������3 ����������3 ����������3 ���������� ���������������������������������������� �����������������������������������
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Management of supervision and support services
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"�� ���'�"�� ���'�"�� ���'�"�� ���'�"�� ���'� � ��������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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����������+�����+�����+�����+�����+%�%�%�%�%� ��������������������� �������������� ��������������������������� �������������� ��������������������������� �������������� ��������������������������� �������������� ��������������������������� �������������� ������
4� ����4� ����4� ����4� ����4� ���� ����������������������������������� ����������������������������������������
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The typical primary-school supervisor is a man with a lot of
experience, who has made his career in the education service, first
as a teacher, then as a headteacher, to become finally a supervisor.
Such wide experience makes up for what is, in many cases, a lack of
academic qualifications. The question must be asked if this is the most
appropriate profile when we think of the supervisor as a collegial
innovator, someone who will spread examples of good practice
between schools, or if this profile is more adapted to the concept of
a control-oriented supervisor, who puts reliance on his administrative
authority. A related question is: does this profile need to be changed,
through, for instance, reforming the recruitment rules and
regulations. The comparison with the profiles of secondary-school
supervisors and advisory teachers is quite instructive: they are
generally younger, therefore with less experience (especially as a
headteacher) but with higher qualifications. Two factors explain this
difference: recruitment rules coupled with the relatively recent
creation of these posts.
2. Critical management issues
The effectiveness with which supervisors perform their duties,
depends not simply on their own competence and their profile, but
very much on the ways in which their profession is being managed
by the national authorities. Management implies aspects such as:
recruitment rules and career development opportunities; the training
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Management of supervision and support services
69
and support of which supervisors can benefit; and the ways in which
they are being monitored and evaluated.
(a) Recruitment
Table 19 summarizes the recruitment procedures and the
requirements, in terms of qualifications and experience, for each
country.
����������+�����+�����+�����+�����+'�'�'�'�'� 6�� ������������ ���������������6�� ������������ ���������������6�� ������������ ���������������6�� ������������ ���������������6�� ������������ ���������������
����� ������� ������� ������� ������� �� 4�������4�������4�������4�������4�������
K� ��� ��� �&������
)���� '��� ���������� ����� %���������� ��� ��*
!��� ��" �������� ��������� ������5
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)���� '��� ���������� ����� � � F��� ��.��� ���
!����� ��" �������� �� ��� �&������� �
/� ��� �� �����������
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: �� '��� ���������� )����G�5��� ��� ���� ���������G�5��� ��
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2 3� � ���������������� �� �����&������
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2�� ��� L � �������� �� )����� � ������� ����
���������� �������� ���������! ���� ����*
�� ����������"
While examining these procedures and criteria, and looking at
the same time at the actual practices, five issues come to the fore.
Recruitment criteria need to be clear and transparent. In Tanzania,
the lack of unambiguous official criteria guiding the selection of
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
70
candidates is a problem. Moreover, appointees are not always
consulted to find out if they are interested in the post of inspector.
This situation can give rise to favouritism and consequently the
appointment of less competent and less motivated candidates.
Practising inspectors themselves deplore the present situation and
those in the Muheza district suggested different improvements,
including advertising the posts to allow competent and committed
teachers to apply and making the selection criteria transparent. In
the other countries, criteria are clear and the information available
in the case studies in Botswana and Zimbabwe confirms that these
official procedures are indeed respected.
A second issue concerns the definition of criteria and in particular
the relative emphasis placed on experience and academic
qualifications. Several countries (Namibia, Zanzibar) do not expect
an applicant for a post as inspector to have experience as a
headteacher. In Botswana, the same is true for a secondary-school
supervisor, who only needs to have occupied a senior position in
school. The result seems that, once SEOs are recruited from amongst
senior teachers, they are often disrespected by school heads, who
consider them to be their juniors. The fact that some supervisors are
occupying a post with a lower grade than secondary principals,
aggravates the issue. This problem does not exist at primary level in
Botswana, where all supervisors have had to be successful primary-
school heads. On the other hand, the EOs interviewed in the Central
region are concerned about the qualifications required and feel that
there is a need to recruit individuals with at least a degree. This,
however, could well make it more difficult to attract people with
sufficient primary teaching background, as these do not necessarily
have high academic degrees. Tanzania, where in 1997 the minimum
qualification was upgraded from ‘O’ level to Diploma, might face a
similar dilemma in the future. The choice between ‘qualifications’
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Management of supervision and support services
71
and ‘experience’ needs to be guided both by a vision of the expected
role of the supervisors, but also by the need for them to be accepted
and respected by school staff. In the longer term, that choice will
become less and less of a dilemma, with the increased qualifications
of the whole population.
A third issue is that of age: while the official regulations in general
do not demand experience in schools of more than 10 or 12 years,
most supervisors can look back on a much longer career in education.
Maybe the present regulations imply somewhat that promotion to
the post of inspector is a reward for a successful career in schools,
rather than a recognition of particular capacities.
Another concern is with the low number of female applicants. In
various countries, females tend not to apply much, because of the
long distances they have to travel to visit schools and the prolonged
absences from the family. Zimbabwe, which is faced with this issue,
requires heads of offices to write individually to qualified women
inviting them to apply.
Finally, it is not clear in how far competence or excellence in the
previous job plays more than an informal role in the recruitment
procedures. One exception is the Botswana in-service officer, who is
recruited on the basis of exemplary classroom practice. A useful
selection criterion, in the case of supervisors, could be successful
performance as a teacher and as a headteacher. This of course raises
the delicate issue of how to interpret and assess ‘excellence’ and who
will be the judge.
(b) Career development
Promotion possibilities in all four countries are limited, due to
the pyramidal structure. In most cases, the post of supervisor, either
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
72
at primary or secondary level, is the last post in an officer’s career. In
the rare cases where promotion is possible, it will lead to a post
outside of supervision.
There are some specificities in each country. In Botswana, the
decentralization process has brought about some change by enabling
more movement within the service. Senior staff in secondary schools
can be promoted to supervisors without having experience as
headteacher. However, as supervisors, they will then be on a lower
grade and salary scale than some secondary principals, a position
which renders their inspection job very difficult. Tanzania has one
specificity: supervisory officers belong to the same cadre as teachers.
As such, there are no differences in conditions of service, salary
structure or other benefits. This also implies that some teachers can
be of a higher grade than their inspecting officers, a situation similar
to that of secondary supervisors in Botswana. In Zimbabwe, the main
step up the career ladder for a DEO is to become an EO. However, for
this they should be university graduates, and the number of EO posts
is limited: 68, as compared to 241 DEOs, who are not the only possible
candidates. On the whole, therefore, promotion possibilities,
especially within the field of supervision and support, are scarce.
(c) Training
The need for more and better training – both at the beginning
and during their career – is a recurring demand of supervisors in the
Eastern and Southern African region. The following paragraphs give
an overview of the situation in each country.
+�BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana�� ����� ��� ������� ������ ������������� � ���� *������� �� ��
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Management of supervision and support services
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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+�ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe�� ���������� � ������� ��� 3��� � ��*���1� �����
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Management of supervision and support services
75
The overall impression gained from the national and regional
studies is preoccupying: on the one hand, an insufficiency of
induction and in-service training, coupled with worries about its
relevance and quality; and, on the other hand, arguably more crucially,
the absence of a coherent and motivating professional development
programme. Let us look at each of these points consecutively.
A formal induction training programme exists in Botswana and
Zimbabwe and used to exist in Tanzania, until budget cuts led to its
virtual disappearance. Even in the first two countries, not every newly
appointed supervisor attends these courses. Almost everywhere,
however, decentralized offices have put in place some mentor system,
whereby a new recruit accompanies a more experienced supervisor
for a few weeks. Such training is considered by the supervisors to be
both useful and cost-effective. It could be argued that the best training
is offered by the practitioners themselves, but it could also be true
that such training leads to a reproduction of existing practices and
leaves little opportunity for a renewed vision.
While a number of in-service training courses take place, they are
not integrated within an overall capacity-building programme, neither
do they focus sufficiently on supervision issues. Many of those are
ad-hoc affairs, related to the implementation of a particular project.
Supervisors ask for more training, but especially for a better-organized
programme with a more relevant content. At the same time, budgetary
constraints have been especially hard on training, the result being
that a significant number of staff have not had the opportunity recently
to attend any courses.
The impact of much of this capacity building is limited because of
the almost complete absence of training manuals and because no
corresponding training is given to support staff or school heads.
Efforts have been under way to develop, at regional level, such
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
76
materials, with assistance from the Commonwealth Secretariat. Not
in one country can one speak of a comprehensive professional
development programme which integrates training of different types,
with the provision of manuals, supportive evaluation of supervisors
and career development.
(d) Support
Supervisors need a motivating working environment. Regular
training is one aspect, enjoyable working conditions is another. Not
unimportant is the availability of a number of instruments, such as
manuals and guidelines, which help them to fulfil their tasks
effectively and breaks to some extent the feeling of isolation. In all
four countries, some instruments are available, but few go beyond
the rather administrative forms and circulars. In addition, the regional
case studies showed that not all field staff members have these
materials at their disposal. There is a risk in having too many or too
precise standard report forms and/or circulars, namely that
supervisors are put in a straitjacket, which allows for little creativity.
That risk however does not yet occur in any of the four countries,
where the support materials available to supervisors are scarce and
not integrated into an overall framework.
+�BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana�� �������� �� ����1����� ���� ���� ������� ��� ��������� ����
�&��� �� ��������� �� ��� � ��� � � ���� ��� ��������� ������� ������ ,��
��������� ��������� �� ��������������������������������������� *������
����������������=�����������������������+�NamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibia�� ������� � ���������
�������&����������� �������������'� �� �6���� ��� � ������������&�����
����������������������������$��������� ������������ ����������������
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��� ������������ ��������������� =��� ������������ �� ����������������
�� ��������������������������.�� � ��������� ��������������������������
� ������ ���� ��� �������������������� ���������� ���������� �������
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Management of supervision and support services
77
������� ����� �������������������� � ������ ���� ������%������
�����������������������������������������������������������������������
���������� �� ������ ���
+�TTTTTanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzania�� ���������.�� ����1� �� ������������������ ��� ��� �
� ��� ������ �� ��� ����� ��� ������� ���� ��� �� ���� ������ �� ������ �� ���
���������'���������� �� �����������������������������������������Zanzibar
�� �������� +�ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe�� � ����� �� �� �������� �������� �� ���� ��� ���
������������������������� ��� � � ������� �������������� ���������� ��������
���� ����� ���� ���� � H��1��� ������� �� �� ������ ��� ������ ���� ���� ������
������@������������������������������� ����������������������� �� ���
����������� ����������������=���������������������������������������
�� �� �'�� �� ��'�� ���������� ��������� ��������� �� ��� ��� ��� ���
�������� �������� �1���������������
Supervisors could find additional support from meeting and
discussing with their colleagues through professional organizations.
No such organization exists in Botswana, Namibia, Tanzania or
Zanzibar. There has been a demand in Botswana for the constitution
of a body to enable more interaction between officers. In Zimbabwe,
the National Association of Education Officers is a sub-body of the
officially recognized Zimbabwe Teachers’ Association.
(e) Monitoring and evaluation
A first question, when discussing monitoring, concerns the
identity and position of the person who does the monitoring. In
principle, in all four countries, supervisory officers are monitored
by their superior officers. In Botswana, for instance, Principal
Education Officers were recently appointed to monitor and provide
direction and leadership to supervisors. In Tanzania, however, the
situation is somewhat more complicated, as the PSIs working at
district level are technically accountable to the District Executive
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
78
Director, who is accountable to Local Government and thus to the
Prime Minister’s Office. The Ministry of Education is not involved in
that process. However, the Chief Inspector of Schools and the Zonal
Chief Inspectors do evaluate PSIs on a number of professional matters.
Probably more important is a second question: how (through
which process) and on what basis (which criteria/indicators) is staff
performance assessed? The following paragraphs examine these
issues in the four countries.
+�BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana�� ������ �� �������� �������������� ��������������1�� � ���
������ �������� ������ ��� ����������� ��� �&������� ��� ���� ��� ������
��� �������� ����� ���������$��� ������ ���'������!$�'"��,�����������
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� ������������������������������� ����������������� ����� ��������� ����
���������� ����� ������� � ���� ���� �� ���� ��� ��� �� ������ �� ���� ����
�������� ����� �������� ������� �������� ����� ���� ��� �� ��������� �%� ��� � ���� *
������� ��� ������ � ��� ������ �&������������ �������� � ������ ��� ���
����� ����������������� ����� ����� ��������� �������������� ���
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������������������������ ������ ������� ����������� ��� ����
Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia ����� ��� �� ���� ������ ����������� ���� ���� � �� ��� �
��=������� �������������������� ���,������������������ ���������������
��������������������� �������� ������� ���������%���������� ������������
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� ����������� ��������������� ����� ��������������������� � ������ ��
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���������������� �����������������������6� ��������������������
���������: �� �������� �1���� ������������������� ��������1���������
=������������
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Management of supervision and support services
79
+�TTTTTanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzania�� ��������� ��������� ������ ������� ��*������� ����������
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����� �����������������������������
+�ZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibar�� ���� @� �� ��� ��� ������� ��� ����� ���� ����������� ��
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�������� �� �������� ������� ���� *������� �� �� ���� ��� �� ������� ���
�������� ��� ���������� ����������������������
+�ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe�� ������������ �������� ���� ���������*��� 3������� ��
����������� �'�.� ������� ��� � ���� ������'������� ��� �1��� ��� ���� ���
����� ���� ��� ������� ���� ���� ����� �� ������� � ������ � ������ ��� ������
������ ��������� �������� ���� ������������������� ��������������� ���
������������ ������������������� �� ������� ���� � ����������������
�������������������������� ����� ������������� 1����������� ����+
������ ����� ����������������� ������ ����������������� ��������� � ���
=��� ���������� ��� ��� ���� �& � ��� �������� ��� ���� �������� ����� ����
���������
Supervisors, as in many other countries, are assessed mainly on
the basis of the quantity of their work: the number of visits made and
the number of reports written. However, and this is a positive
development, some stress is being put on a few other factors which
give a more complete view of their performance, e.g. their handling
of teacher misconduct (in Botswana) and the guidelines they prepare
(in Zanzibar).
Evaluation is becoming more of a participatory activity than one
imposed from outside by the superior. Indeed, in Botswana, Namibia
and Zimbabwe, supervisors are evaluated by comparing their actual
performance to plans and objectives, which they themselves defined
at the beginning of the year. On the other hand, several officers in
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
80
21. Exchange rates, in February 1998, at the moment of the data collection on this part, wereas follows: US$1 = Botswana P3.82 = Namibia $4.92 = Tanzania Sh627.95 = Zimbabwe$17.
different countries stress the need for more transparency and more
specific guidelines, in order to allow less room for subjectivity and
nepotism.
Finally, the ideal assessment criterion for a supervisor relates
undoubtedly to the impact their visits and activities have on schools’
achievement. For well-known reasons (the difficulty to assess the part
supervision plays in school improvement), few countries anywhere
in the world rely on this indicator. It is therefore pleasant to note
that in one country, Zimbabwe, some reference is made to the
examination results of schools to judge the performance of a
supervisor.
3. Budgetary and financial matters
(a) Salaries and allowances21
The following paragraphs describe for each country, firstly, the
present situation with regard to salaries and allowances and,
secondly, the opinions of the staff who were interviewed in the
framework of the regional case studies.
+�BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana�� � � ���� ��� �� �� ���� ��� ����� �� ��� ���� � ���� ��� �����
���� ������ ������ ���� ���� ���� � � ��� ����������� ��������� �� ����� �� �� ����
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,������ ��*���� ������������ ���������� ��������� ����� ��� ������������
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������ ��� ��� ��� ��������� ���� ������ ��� ���� ��� ������ ������ �� ���� �
������� ����������+������������������������� ����������������� ��� �
��� �������������������� ��!��� 4�;4� �� 8�D5�����1������������ ���� �
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Management of supervision and support services
81
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good����fair� ������������� ������������poor��%��������� ������ ����
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
82
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Management of supervision and support services
83
+�ZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibar�� ���� � � ���� ��� ����������� ��� � ���� �� /� ��� ���� �
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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The level of supervisors’ salaries differs of course with the level
of development of the country and the salaries paid to other public
servants and in the private sector. They are relatively low in Tanzania,
quite a bit higher in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe. In the last
two countries, salaries of education personnel recently increased
substantially, but in part to make up for the fact that they had lagged
behind for a long time. Salaries everywhere depend mainly on
position and experience, with no consideration for performance.
Most interviewed supervisors express some dissatisfaction with
their salaries. This is not simply because they are considered too low,
a complaint not unique to supervisors, but also because of what could
be called management-related problems: some supervisors are paid
less than the staff they have to monitor and advise; others are not
paid exactly according to their present post. On the other hand,
among the interviewed there are practically no complaints about not
being paid on time.
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Management of supervision and support services
85
The official level of allowances is probably sufficient for
supervisors to travel and to find acceptable accommodation, in all
countries except Tanzania, where budgetary problems are more
severe than elsewhere. In the other countries, complaints relate
mainly to the fact that obtaining such allowances, both before
travelling or after visits, is a time-consuming bureaucratic exercise.
(b) Budgets
Where the budget for supervision is concerned, two questions
are paramount: what is the size of the budget, in absolute terms and
in comparison to the overall education budget; and, who controls
the release of the funds, or, in other words, what financial autonomy
do individual supervisors have? The answer to the first question is
everywhere very difficult to find, as there seldom exists a specific
budget for supervision services. Spending on supervision mainly
consists of two items: salaries of supervisors and travel and
subsistence allowances. It should not be complicated – although time-
consuming – to get precise salary data. The budget for allowances is
much more difficult to grasp, as these are generally assigned to
regional offices as a whole, who use them for different purposes.
The following overview shows that there are some differences
between countries, but that, on the whole, information is scarce. The
most relevant data come from the interviews during the case studies,
and represent the opinions of the staff rather than statistical data.
Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia �� ���� ���� ��� ��� ���� ����� �������� ������ � ������� ������� ���
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
86
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Management of supervision and support services
87
Unfortunately, no specific data are available anywhere concerning
the size of the supervision budget, in absolute terms and in
comparison to the overall education budget. However, the bit of
anecdotal evidence which exists, indicates that spending on
supervision consumes only a very small percentage of the total
education budget. The opinions of supervisors point at a more
preoccupying reality, namely that spending on supervision has
suffered disproportionally in recent years from the financial crisis.
This has had severe detrimental effects on the quality of the service.
Concerning the second issue – who controls the release of the
funds, or, in other words, what financial autonomy do individual
supervisors have –, only in Botswana do supervisors receive their
own travel budget, which does not mean that they have complete
financial leeway. But that situation is probably preferable over the
one existing in the other three countries, where regional office heads
have control over the budget and might consider other priorities than
supervision.
4. Working conditions
When examining working conditions, several factors should be
looked at: the availability and quality of offices, office equipment and
support staff, at central and decentralized levels; the housing situation
and the distance between home and office, and, most importantly,
the transport of the staff who have to undertake school visits and
therefore need easy access to schools. The situation differs widely
from one country to the other.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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Management of supervision and support services
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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Management of supervision and support services
91
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A suitable working environment implies, as a minimum, that
supervisors have separate office space and the basic tools to function
efficiently. Probably the most important tools are a computer (or at
least a typewriter), a filing cabinet and a telephone. From that point
of view, and at the risk of simplifying, one could say that working
conditions are distressing in Tanzania, acceptable in Zimbabwe and
rather good in Namibia and Botswana.
In the three latter countries, most staff have a separate office or
at least sufficient office space. Most also have a telephone (quite a
few have a fax), and a filing cabinet, while an increasing number have
a computer, although many, e.g. those posted at regional level in
Botswana, have to make do with a typewriter. The contrast with
Tanzania is striking. There, very few supervisors have what could be
called an office, most working within empty office space, alone,
without equipment, without direct linkage to regional, zonal or
central officers. This is not simply de-motivating, but seriously
hampers the functioning of the service. The absence of a working
typewriter or computer makes report-writing an excessively difficult
endeavour and limits the time which should be spent on other more
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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meaningful activities. It is somewhat startling that such a relatively
cheap item as a filing cabinet is absent in so many offices. Filing
reports, so that they can be used afterwards and can be referred to
when necessary, is almost a pre-condition to ensuring a positive feed-
back to and follow-up on visits.
But the most fundamental issue is of course transport. Recruiting
officers and paying them salaries, without giving them the possibility
to go out and visit schools, is hardly a good investment. All countries,
but especially Tanzania and Zimbabwe, experience constraints in this
regard. Not only is there a lack of vehicles, but the available ones are
in some cases badly maintained or used for other purposes than
school visits. Ensuring the availability of transport is a priority for
any policy aimed at improving supervision services. Attempting to
‘save money’ by cutting budgets across the board can be self-defeating.
Cutting in the transport availability of district staff condemns this
personnel to remain in their offices, unemployed, without the
possibility to visit schools, their ‘raison d’être’.
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93
III. THE ACTUAL OPERATION OF SUPERVISION ANDSUPPORT SERVICES
This chapter paints a picture of the daily work which supervisors
undertake. It concentrates fully on the actors at district or local level,
who are supposed to go out and visit schools regularly, and examines
issues such as:
• how is their work planned?
• how heavy is their workload and what are their main tasks?
• how regularly can they go out to schools?
• once they are in schools, what does such a visit precisely imply?
• what reports are written?
• to whom are these reports distributed?
• what actions are taken, by the schools and the supervisors, after
visits and reports are made?
The case studies, prepared in each of the four countries, provide
the basic material for this part. As explained in the introduction to
this report, the case studies examined the situation of one particular
district or region. These districts cannot be considered to be
representative of the whole country, but they do illustrate a typical
situation within the country. Drawing general conclusions from these
particular situations needs therefore to be done with much care. This
is especially true where supervisors express their personal opinions.
For the readers’ comfort, this chapter will continue to refer to
the four countries, rather than to the individual districts or regions
which the case studies examined. It should be kept in mind, however,
that the situation described is that of one district only and that other
districts might face different circumstances.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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1. Planning and workload
(a) Planning and norms
In all four countries, supervisors define individually their own
work plans, especially for school visits. These plans, which are
prepared annually and monthly, have to be approved by the head of
office, to ensure both availability of funds and synchronization of
supervision activities with other programmes. These plans are seldom
fully implemented, because of the lack of transport, the lack of funds,
the existence of vacant positions and unscheduled activities, such as
meetings and workshops.
The workload of supervisors depends to a great extent on the
number of schools for which they are responsible. For primary
supervisors, the main criterion to distribute schools between staff is
a geographical one, either an existing administrative sub-division
(e.g. a number of wards in Tanzania) or an area specifically defined
for supervision purposes (a circuit in Namibia) or simply a group of
schools. In Botswana, there is also an explicit concern to ensure that
the number of schools is fairly equally distributed. At secondary level
and where advisory teachers are concerned, these are generally
responsible for one or a few subjects within a wider geographical
area.
In two countries, Namibia and Tanzania, the case studies do not
mention the existence of official norms with regard to the number
of schools or teachers to be visited and the number of reports to be
made. In Tanzania, this is felt to be too dependent on the availability
of funds and the urgency of the issues. In both countries, however,
some indications do exist: in the absence of clear norms, regional
offices or individual supervisors sometimes define their own norms,
based on their experience and current practice. In the Ondangwa
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
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West region in Namibia, staff therefore mention different norms:
the number of schools to be visited per term varies between 40 and
100, the number of teachers to be inspected is around 40 per term;
in addition, some supervisors claim that they are expected to
participate in one regional and one circuit workshop per term and to
organize four cluster workshops per year. These indications are
evidently rather haphazard and difficult to respect. In Tanzania,
inspectors believe that they are supposed to inspect about 10 schools
a year.
In Zimbabwe, the issue of norms gave rise to quite some
disagreement among the interviewed supervisors. Three of the six
did not know of the existence of official norms. The three others
gave different answers: the number of schools to be visited in a year
is either 8 or 10, teachers to be visited 24, 30 or 33, reports to be
written 8, 30 or 32. This confusion reflects the real situation, in the
sense that norms do exist but not in a written form. It is understood
within the central Ministry that each school should be visited three
times a year, with each teacher being supervised on each occasion.
However, this is nowhere written down and that of course explains
the lack of clarity among supervisors.
Only Botswana has specified a clear norm: primary-school
supervisors are required to cover 12 schools per year through a full
inspection. The total number of teachers, which will be concerned,
differs according to the size of the schools.
The overall impression is that, with the exception of Botswana,
there is little clarity about the norms which should inform and guide
the supervisors’ work. The result is that it becomes more difficult
for the service to plan its efforts and for the superior officers, such
as the heads of regional offices, to evaluate those. Developing a
culture of accountability, which is certainly desirable, can with
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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22. Is called: ‘teachers’ social problems’ and ‘conducting in-service training’ in Botswana;and ‘staff development’ in Zimbabwe.
23. Includes ‘investigating discipline cases’ for Botswana; ‘workshops’, ‘counselling’, ‘parentmeetings’ and ‘clerks and school secretaries’ for Namibia; ‘school functions’,‘investigations’ and ‘pastoral’ in Zimbabwe.
difficulty be done in the absence of clear performance criteria. In
the same vein, not one of the four countries seems to have defined
any rules or indications about the total time or percentage of total
work to be dedicated to school visits.
(b) Distribution of time between tasks
Supervisors were asked to give a rough estimate of the time they
spent within an average month on different activities, and also to
identify what they consider to be their three priority tasks.
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Tables 22-23������������������������������������������������������ ������
�� ���
����������##������##������##������##������##� =��=��=��=��=������ ������������������� ������������������� ������������������� ������������������� ����������������������������������������������������>�����>�����>�����>�����>������� ������� ������� ������� ������� ���������������������������������������������������������������
���>��>��>��>��> ���������������������������������������� ����������������������������������� !�������!�������!�������!�������!�������
55555 55555 55555
%���������� 78 5> 75
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
97
����������#&������#&������#&������#&������#&� =������ �������� ������������� ���>�� ������������������=������ �������� ������������� ���>�� ������������������=������ �������� ������������� ���>�� ������������������=������ �������� ������������� ���>�� ������������������=������ �������� ������������� ���>�� ������������������
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The most time-consuming tasks of supervisors are office work in
Botswana and Zimbabwe, and school visits in Namibia, where office
work comes second. Together these two tasks take up about half of
the time in Zimbabwe and about 60 per cent in the two other
countries. The remainder of time is almost equally divided between
report writing, attending meetings, teacher training and development
and a set of other minor tasks. It is clear from these data that visiting
schools does not occupy the priority position which one could
expect. Two factors are at play: the overload of different tasks and
the weight of office work. These factors are less important in the
case of advisory staff (see Table 23), especially in Botswana where
the time distribution of the one in-service officer interviewed shows
a clear focus on teacher training and development and on school visits.
As it is somewhat difficult, on the basis of the above data, to see
the time spent on pedagogical and administrative tasks (report writing
and attending meetings could be considered either of both), the same
three countries also asked supervision and support staff explicitly to
24. Includes ‘personnel development’ and ‘examinations’ for Namibia.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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make that distinction (see Table 24). A few examples will clarify the
distinction: administrative tasks include taking care of teacher salaries,
arranging transport and accommodation, sending mail to schools,
typing leave requests and similar forms; pedagogical tasks include
preparation of training materials, writing school-visit reports,
attending meetings to discuss school performance and visiting
schools. The data confirm the image of supervisors’ daily work seen
above: the involvement in administrative tasks takes up more than
half of an inspector’s time in Botswana and Namibia, and just about
half in Zimbabwe. What should be priority, pedagogical supervision
and support, thus occupies second place. The advisory teachers (in
Namibia) do succeed in dedicating most of their time to pedagogical
tasks.
Table 24. Distribution of time between pedagogical andadministrative duties
Pedagogical Administrative% %
Botswana Inspector 38 62
Namibia Advisory Teacher 58 42
Namibia Inspector 38 62
Zimbabwe Education Officer 49 51
Supervisors were also asked to identify what they consider their
most and their least useful tasks. This allows us to compare their actual
work with what they consider essential to achieve their objectives.
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
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��� ����� � ����� ��� ����� ����� +��������� �TTTTTanzania anzania anzania anzania anzania ������� � ��� �� ��� ��
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��� ����� �&���� ���� ������ ��� ���������� ����� ��������� ��� �� ����
���� � ������ �������� �� ������*��������� !����/������ ��� ��� ��� ���� �� ��
�������� �1��� ����� �1��"��%�����������ZimbabZimbabZimbabZimbabZimbabwwwwwe e e e e �����������������������
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,������� �� ������ �Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia ��������� ���� �������� ��� ��� ���������
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�����������1�������(� ��� ����� �� �������������� �� � �1�������� ��
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*���������������BoBoBoBoBotswtswtswtswtswana ana ana ana ana ����������������1�������������� ��������*
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The following emerges from the preceding overview. On the one
hand, there is a preoccupying discrepancy between what supervisors
consider their most crucial duties and the actual time they dedicate
to those. Too much of their time is indeed spent on administrative
and purely practical matters of a rather petty nature, which have very
little impact on the functioning of schools and the quality of teaching.
On the other hand, advisory teachers, where they exist, face a less
worrying situation: the activities which they consider most useful,
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
100
are also those on which they spend most of their time. Even the
more practical issues, which they find less useful, relate more closely
to their work, than in the case of supervisors. Two factors are at play.
Firstly, administrative duties do not occupy a central place in their
job description. But one can say almost the same of supervisors, whose
job description is focused on supervision and support. The second
factor is more important: it seems that advisory teachers can avoid
doing administrative tasks, because they have somebody else to rely
on to do these tasks, namely the supervisors. Supervisors are not in
that position. The creation of a separate category of officers in charge
of teacher advice and development has allowed this staff to
concentrate on their core duty and has probably meant that schools
receive more support. However, it has not led to a lessening of the
administrative workload of the supervisors. Their situation might well
have worsened. The fact that in Botswana and Namibia, the two
countries where pedagogical advisers exist, inspectors spend more
time on administration than in Zimbabwe, where there are no
advisers, proves to some extent this conclusion.
(c) Number of school visits
Knowing that supervisors spend relatively little time on school
visits and that the number of schools under their charge is sizeable,
the question evidently crops up: how many schools do they actually
supervise on average in a month or a year? There are several aspects
to this issue: there is the view of supervisors on how many schools
and teachers they observe, this should be confronted by the opinion
of the schools themselves, and finally some explanations should be
given with regard to the situation we encounter. To complicate
matters somewhat, two countries (Botswana and Tanzania) presented
relevant information in their national report, concerning the country
as a whole, as well as in the regional case study, with some differences
between both.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
102
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
104
�� ��������������*��� � �� ����� ���������������������������� ����������
��� �� �� �� ���� ����� ���� +�4DD<�� ���� ���� �� ������ ���� ��� ���� � ����� ��
5;I� ��������������� ��������������� �����1���������� �� �� �
In all countries, the data show that supervisors do not succeed in
visiting, within one school year, all the schools for which they are
responsible, even less all the teachers. The reasons given by
supervisors do not need much comment: transport problems; too
many schools, partly because posts are left vacant; organization of
unscheduled activities. Teachers and headteachers recognize the
importance of these constraints, but they also believe that the lack of
skills and of training equally plays a role. In a few cases, they mention
that some supervisors prefer to travel to the more remote, but still
accessible, schools, in order to receive more travel allowances.
The advisory teachers in Namibia, who could offer advice to a small
percentage of their teachers only, add that teacher support and
development is a time-intensive activity. This is a point that probably
deserves some emphasis: offering valuable supervision and support
takes time and can scarcely be achieved through hurried visits. The
right criterion on which to judge the effectiveness of supervision is
probably not the number of schools visited, but the content and
impact of such visits. The main problem with this approach is that we
do not know precisely what the term ‘inspection visit’ in the different
countries implies. It might be more useful to make a full supervision
visit to a few carefully selected schools, than to undertake superficial
visits to all schools indiscriminately. It is worth remembering at the
same time that any judgement of the efficiency and sufficiency of visits
should be made in function of the avowed objective of the service.
Administrative control demands shorter visits, but to a larger group
of schools, ideally all schools, than pedagogical supervision and
support.
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
105
There is little doubt that, in present circumstances, the number
of schools and teachers assigned to supervisors and advisory teachers
in all of the four countries, is too high, if one expects this staff to
visit most, if not all, of these schools and teachers regularly and to
offer consistent support and supervision. Two solutions present
themselves. The first one would be to appoint more supervisors and
to improve their working conditions, especially the transport. But
this might be a rather challenging proposal, in view of the existing
budget constraints. A more attractive strategy might reside in
demanding that supervisors concentrate their interventions on the
schools most in need of their support, in other words to develop a
diversified approach, which will serve schools in function of their
needs.
As will be seen in the following section, such a diversified
approach is already being used to some extent, but more as a result
of necessity than policy. Because supervisors are unable to visit all
schools, a selection becomes necessary: one criterion might then be
the needs of the school. Headteachers in urban schools in the
Kwekwe district (Zimbabwe), for instance, explain the rare number
of visits they receive by referring to their rather good performance
and to the fact that supervisors therefore do not feel the need to
come and control their performance regularly. However, it was noted
that in the same district the more remote rural schools are less
frequently visited than the peri-urban schools and this undoubtedly
finds its explanation in transport and budgetary problems rather than
in a diversification policy.
2. School visits
The precise programme and content of a school visit is crucially
important: as mentioned already, the term visit can imply a very brief
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
106
encounter with a headteacher, or a three-day full examination of
school management, teacher performance and parental opinions. To
get a more precise idea of what the term ‘school visit’ stands for, the
case studies looked at several issues: how are schools selected for
visits, how do supervisors prepare themselves and what preparations
do schools take, is notice given to schools, what types of visits exist,
what is their duration and what precisely do supervisors do when in
schools?
(a) Selection of schools
In only one case study, Namibia, were precise details given about
how schools are selected. Different criteria intervene in the case of
the advisory teachers:
• schools which face problems, especially the poor performance of
the school or of teachers;
• upon well-motivated requests by schools;
• to assess the ability of a teacher to be appointed or promoted;
• when schools are adding a new grade or implementing a new
syllabus;
• to serve schools far away from the centre or facing lack of materials.
The criteria used by the inspectors in Namibia are not very
different, although ‘random selection’ is also mentioned. The
Zimbabwe report indicates that ‘problem schools’ and those which
have not been supervised for very long receive priority. In Botswana
and Zimbabwe, the information presented in the preceding section
about the number of school visits, shows a preference to go to schools
which are not very close to the office (as these are generally well
functioning) and those which are not too remote (as they would be
difficult to reach). It is not surprising that transport availability
becomes a core criterion, when it is both a necessity and a constraint.
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
107
It seems from the interviews with supervisors throughout the
four countries, that the selection of schools is to a large degree a
pragmatic matter. When schools experience a problem, and they are
rather easy to reach, they will be visited as a priority. Schools which
seem to function quite well might receive brief courtesy visits, but
not much more. Schools far away will be visited whenever necessary
and feasible. In addition, quite a number of schools which are close,
or on a main road, might regularly have a supervisor come in for a
short visit, when passing by.
(b) Preparation by supervisors and noticeto schools
Once a school has been selected, supervisors prepare themselves
in a fairly straightforward way: they obtain, if necessary, permission
from their superior; they identify what is the main objective, prepare
whatever materials and documents are needed (checklists, standard
report forms) and make practical arrangements. The interviewed
inspectors in the Central region in Botswana indicate that, in addition,
they will take along policy documents relating to the visits’ objectives
(syllabi, code of regulations). They will also consult several
documents related to the schools to be visited. In Botswana this
includes the report of the last visit, the teachers’ timetable and recent
correspondence with the school, which might have prompted the
visit. The schools themselves are not requested for any particular
information. The Namibian advisory teachers and inspectors look at
a more complete file, which contains some information about the
school’s quality, such as pupil/teacher ratio and examination results,
and about individual teachers. In Zimbabwe, the importance of
consulting previous reports is stressed, as this offers the supervisor
an entrance point into the school, by examining the implementation
of previous recommendations. However, the Kwekwe case study
comments that previous reports are seldom available, partly because
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
108
of the poor or absent filing systems and partly because official
regulations do not stipulate that a copy should be kept in the district
office.
One issue, on which disagreement exists, concerns the need to
give schools notice of visits. The practic as well as the opinion of
supervisors and teachers differ from country to country.
+�BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana�� � ������� ����� ������ ��� �&���� ����� �������� ��� �� ��
���������������� ����� �� �������� ������� ���� �������@� ��� �����
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+�NamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibia�� ������� �� ������ ������� � ������ �� ��� ���� �������
����� ���� ������������� ��� ����� �� ������ � �� ���� ���� ������������ ���
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���� ����
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
109
-����� ���.� �������� ������ ����� -������.� �� ������ -����.�� +� ���� � ��� ��
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����Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe � ���������� ��������������� ��� ��� �������?������� �
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���� ��������������������!�������������&"���1�������������������������
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Not one of the four countries has defined an unambiguous policy
concerning giving schools notice of visits. Much depends on a
combination of the personal opinions of the staff and a set of practical
matters.
The personal opinions of supervisors differ in relation to what
they see as their role and the type of visit. When their purpose is
fault-finding through brief spot-checks, giving notice would be
contrary to that purpose. Visits which are meant to gain a complete
overview of the school’s functioning through a full inspection are
generally announced, to allow the school and the teachers to collect
and update all the necessary information. When teachers are visited
to offer them support and advice, they are generally informed
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
110
beforehand, to ensure a mutually trusting relationship and also to
allow the teachers to prepare themselves. Teacher inspections in many
cases are not announced.
The above ‘rules’ only apply insofar as a number of practical
problems do not occur. What is indeed more important than the
convictions of the supervisors are the practical constraints they
experience. Many visits take place unplanned, many planned visits
cannot be held as foreseen, and schools are difficult to contact
because of the lack of means of communication.
It is not surprising that there are differences of opinion between
supervisors, headteachers and teachers. Supervisors are, on the
whole, the least eager to give regular notice. Headteachers are
somewhat ambivalent: they demand in general to be informed, an
understandable attitude, especially if their own performance is being
assessed. They are less insistent on the need for notice when teachers
will be the main targets of the inspection, and are at times even in
favour of surprise visits, which can offer them arguments in their
attempts to discipline and control the teaching staff.
(c) Preparation by schools
If schools receive notice, what preparations do they undertake
before inspectors arrive? In two countries, headteachers gave some
information in this regard. In Botswana, the heads will ask the
teachers to update their records, will collect the necessary
documentation and make a list of priority problem areas. Similar
preparations will be made in Tanzania: school records will be checked
with regard to availability and accuracy; teachers will get their files
in order; the school plan of action will be readied and the school’s
cleanliness looked at. The headteachers believe these preparations
to be especially useful: it offers the school an opportunity to identify
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The actual operation of supervision and support services
111
areas which can be improved, and increases the teachers’ confidence
and thus the benefit they will derive from the supervision.
(d) Types and duration of visits
All countries draw a distinction between different types of
supervision visits. The following Table 27 presents, for each country
and, in the case of Namibia, for separate categories of staff, the
duration of these visits and indicates if they are undertaken by
individuals or teams.
����������#�����#�����#�����#�����#���������� =��=��=��=��=�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7E
(a) BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana, inspector
����������������������������������������������������������������� = ������= ������= ������= ������= ������ �������������������������
?���������� ;�� �� +���� �0�� �
�� �������� 7����5�� �� +���� �
�� ����������� 4�� � +���� �
?�����*������ 4����7�� �� +���� �
������������ 4�� � +���� �
(b) NamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibiaNamibia, advisory teacher
����������������������������������������������������������������� = ������= ������= ������= ������= ������ �������������������������
,���������� 5�� �� +���� ������� �
?�����*������ 7�� �� +���� ������� �
�� ����������� 4�� � +���� ������� �
�������!��� �����������������" 5����1� �� �
26. Interpreting and comparing the duration of supervision visits needs to be done withcare: the same type of visit does not cover everywhere the same activities; disagreementand differences might exist between officers. In all countries, in principle, the timementioned is the time spent in schools and does not include travelling.
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
112
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In all four countries a full inspection, a teacher inspection, a follow-
up visit and a courtesy visit exist. In addition, in Namibia and
Zimbabwe, there are ‘institutional school inspections’, ‘advisory visits’
in Tanzania and Zimbabwe and, of course, in Botswana and Namibia,
where they are the task of separate staff. Botswana identifies also
‘partial inspections’ and Zimbabwe ‘spot checks’.
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The objectives of these visits are different and their duration and
the number of people involved also differ from country to country.
A full inspection visit, as the term implies, will look at all the aspects
of the school, especially its management. It is undertaken in Tanzania
and Zimbabwe by a team, which stays for half a day or one day, and in
the two other countries by one individual supervisor, who, in
Botswana, spends a whole week in the school. For secondary schools
in Botswana, however, all full inspections will be undertaken by a
team. Teacher inspections are everywhere, except in Tanzania, the
task of a single supervisor, staying from 2.5 hours to a day, depending
on the country. Similar remarks can be made regarding follow-up visits
and courtesy visits. The advisory teachers in Namibia generally take
much more time when they are in a school. A panel visit by a whole
team, which admittedly covers several schools, can take up to three
weeks.
The divergence between countries in time spent in schools for a
full inspection can be explained to some extent by the difference in
content and objectives of such visits, between countries. But this also
shows that it is difficult to define an ideal timing and an ideal team
for a full inspection visit. Obviously, school size plays a role. But, in
any case, it could be ambitious, not to say self-defeating, to expect a
single supervisor to gain a full image of a school’s functioning and
quality from a one-day visit, or even to ask the same from a team which
stays for half a day. On the other hand, of course, requesting that
supervisors stay longer than one day in each school will lead to still
less visits to other schools and might also face a few practical problems,
such as lodging. If supervision is considered a mainly control-oriented
exercise, the main objective of which lies in ensuring that all schools
and teachers to a large extent respect the official rules and
regulations, then the present arrangement of relatively short full
inspection visits, interspersed with much briefer courtesy visits,
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teacher inspections and follow-up visits, could be considered
pertinent. But that arrangement poses not simply a problem of
substance (should control be supervisors’ main task?), it is at present
ineffective, as it does not succeed in controlling all schools and even
less the most remote ones, where official rules might be more
regularly flouted. If supervision is seen as a school and teacher
development activity, longer, more intensive and more regular visits
will be needed, but, as was mentioned already, these should be
concentrated on the least effective schools. Advisory teachers in
Botswana and Namibia are to some extent already following this path.
(e) The activities of a supervision visit
The content of a visit depends in part on the type of visit. The
following paragraphs describe what takes place during a full
inspection visit.
In all four countries, this type of visit follows more or less the
same pattern. If the supervisors arrive early in the morning, they might
attend the opening of the school and give a short speech. In all cases,
the first important meeting is with the head for a briefing regarding
the objectives of the visit and to make practical arrangements. The
seven headteachers interviewed in the Central Region in Botswana
indicate that they are not asked to make any suggestions to the
inspectors on how they should proceed with the visit. In the Muheza
district in Tanzania, this was the case for only 5 out of 20, the
remainder were asked for their input ‘sometimes’ or ‘always’. The
headteacher briefing could be followed by a short staff meeting,
although this is only mentioned in Botswana. In the other countries,
the supervisors will immediately proceed with the collection of
relevant information and with classroom observation. The
information to be collected includes, to use Zimbabwe as an example,
data pertaining to the general administration of the school, the type,
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quality and quantity of infrastructure, lesson delivery, resource
provision, numbers of pupils and teachers, and past performance in
examinations. Classroom observation includes checking pupils’
exercise books and assessment records and is followed by a discussion
with the individual teacher to give him or her advice. Supervisors
seldom visit all classrooms. In principle, facilities are also inspected,
although in Botswana headteachers indicate that this seldom takes
place. At the end of the visit, a staff meeting is held with all teachers
and a debriefing meeting with the head. Headteachers commented
that such after-inspection discussions are very useful, as they help to
identify areas where immediate action can be taken by the school
staff themselves.
In not one of the four countries does a full supervision visit
include a discussion or a meeting with the parents. Such meetings
might well happen from time to time, especially during courtesy visits,
but it seems that they take place systematically only in Zimbabwe.
They do not figure on the agenda of a full inspection, but form part
of the schedule of an institutional inspection and a courtesy visit.
Visits by advisory staff follow a different pattern from a full
inspection. They focus more on the teachers, or on a single teacher,
than on the school. They will spend little or no time with the
headteacher, focusing their attention on the teacher in the classroom.
The process is also more participatory, with discussions between the
teacher and the adviser, both before and after the lessons observed.
In Botswana, for instance, the in-service officer mentions that the
teachers are asked to indicate areas where they want to be observed
and that they will participate in the observation, by highlighting what
they see as their weak and strong points. Some-secondary school
teachers mentioned however that they are not always informed
beforehand of the visit of an in-service officer, which makes it more
complicated for the teachers to prepare themselves.
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3. Reports
(a) The regularity of report writing
In all four countries a lot of stress is put on reports. In Zimbabwe,
a circular by the Chief Education Officer states: “Much value is attached
to report writing, as the report is a permanent record and, in the
majority of cases, is the only means by which the Ministry gets to know
about the state of education provision in the schools.” In principle,
every visit leads to a record, if not necessarily a report. Indeed, brief
courtesy visits are probably too poor in substance to warrant a report,
but brief comments are made in the school’s logbook. Supervisors in
Tanzania, Botswana and Zimbabwe confirmed that, for most other
visits, reports are systematically made. In the Kwekwe district in
Zimbabwe, the case study commented that reports tend to
concentrate more on school heads and on teachers, on individuals
therefore, rather than on institutional aspects. In Namibia, a majority
of both inspectors and advisory teachers said that they always, or very
often, write reports, but a few indicated that they do so seldom or
never for courtesy visits, for institutional school inspections and for
advisory visits. Some claim that writing a report for every visit is too
time-consuming and that maybe three-monthly summary reports are
a better solution.
In principle, standard report forms exist in each country. This does
not mean that they are also available to and used by all supervisors.
There is not much information on this issue, but what is available is
somewhat distressing. In the Ondangwa West region in Namibia, only
about one-quarter of the interviewed advisory teachers knew of the
existence of standardized forms and used them.
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(b) Content of reports
Only the Zimbabwe case study offers detailed information on the
content of reports. Each report starts with some basic data on the
individual or the school to be inspected. This is generally followed
by an identification of the visit’s purpose (‘to assess the competence
of the classroom practitioner’ or ‘to assess the administrative ability
of the head and to assist where possible’). Then follows a description
of the workload and responsibilities of the teacher or headteacher
and a comment regarding his or her suitability for this job. The main
part consists of an evaluation of the performance, which will be more
pedagogical where teachers are concerned, and pedagogical as well
as administrative for heads. Regularly, reference is made to facts to
underlie the evaluation: the marking of pupils’ exercise books, the
number of staff and parents’ meetings held and so on. Where criticism
is given, generally this is accompanied by more positive, encouraging
comments. In the case of the report on heads, the standard report
form contains, for that purpose, a section entitled ‘Noteworthy
achievements’. The report ends with conclusions and
recommendations. The nature of these recommendations, and the
way in which supervisors will follow up on them, are crucial to the
impact of a supervision visit and to the satisfaction of schools and
teachers with the whole supervision service.
Before reports are finalized, they are generally discussed informally
at the end of the school visit, with the headteacher and the concerned
teachers. In the office itself, discussions will be held with colleagues
and the superior officer: the district education officer in Tanzania,
for instance, or in Namibia the senior advisory teacher and/or the
circuit inspector.
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(c) Filing and distribution
One copy of the written reports is kept in the district office, where
the supervisor is based, for filing. This however is not the case in
Kwekwe district in Zimbabwe, apparently because the district office
was not explicitly mentioned in the relevant official circular. This is
deplorable, because it undermines supervisors’ efforts to follow up
on previous visits. It had already been noted that in some cases,
especially in Tanzania, the lack of filing cabinets makes it difficult to
keep reports for a long time in a useful state.
Another copy should in principle be sent to the headteacher and,
where it relates to teacher inspections, generally also to the individual
concerned. In Tanzania, school reports are filed and kept in the
headteacher’s office and teachers can only consult them after a special
meeting with the head. It seems indeed, from the anecdotal evidence
available, that most schools receive reports, although the time taken
for a report to arrive can be long. In the Central region in Botswana,
all but one primary school received the report within a month, but
in one secondary school it had taken more than a year for a full
inspection report to arrive. A comparable situation is reported in the
Zimbabwe case study: all heads received the reports, some within
two weeks, others – especially in the more remote schools – had to
wait for two months.
Reports are distributed to some other officials, in Namibia, for
instance, to the Regional Director and, in some cases, the Regional
Planning Officer. In Zimbabwe, copies are also systematically sent to
the Ministry of Education’s headquarters, where, as is known, the
Standards and Control Unit will analyze them.
There is some controversy about the usefulness of sending reports
to School Boards or similar bodies with parents’ representation. The
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interviewed school headteachers generally agree that teacher
inspection reports should not be made available to these bodies,
because, to quote the Zimbabwe report, “such reports were on
professional issues which communities had nothing to do with”. In
Namibia, two other points are mentioned: distributing reports might
create conf licts; Board members should be able to read and
understand the reports’ content. Most supervisors, heads and
teachers agreed that reports which put more emphasis on institutional
issues (school enrolment, infrastructural and financial matters,
relations with the community, school calendar and organization)
could usefully be communicated to the Board. The reasons given are
that parental involvement should be encouraged, that the reports
could enhance collective responsibility and might create a sense of
responsibility among the community. In addition, it is useful that the
community be kept informed of some matters. It is not clear, from
the scant information available, in how far reports are actually
distributed to the school board or committee. Officially, this seems
to be the case only in Tanzania, where, in principle, boards will be
informed of matters related to their role and function and an
executive summary is presented together with the detailed report,
for their information. In the other countries, schools might transmit
the report or some of its findings to the board, but in how far this is
done, remains unclear. In Botswana, most secondary schools do
discuss supervision reports with the board, because these reports
are more institutional, while primary headteachers prefer to keep
the reports more confidential.
4. Follow-up, including use of reports
Reports should lead to actions, both by the school and by the
supervisors. The nature of this follow-up depends of course in part
on the quality of the report’s recommendations. Equally important is
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the margin of manoeuvre of schools and supervisors, which is a
function of their autonomy, their authority and the resources available
to them. The following paragraphs will first give some attention to
the nature of the recommendations, before examining in how far
and in which ways action is taken on them.
(a) Recommendations
When asked about the usefulness of recommendations,
headteachers in Botswana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe underlined the
importance of two factors: the relevance of the topic addressed and
the precision of the recommendation. Headteachers in Botswana in
this regard listed the following among the useful suggestions: ‘the
school to supply mathematical instruments to students’, ‘directions
on how to make comments in students’ continuous assessment files’,
‘advice on keeping pupils’ records’, but found ‘introduction of English
as a medium of instruction in Standard 2’ a recommendation of little
value, because of the lack of trained teachers and materials. (It is
encouraging to note that more than half of heads did not identify
any useless recommendations). The teachers’ list of helpful advice
included: ‘provision of in-service for teachers’, ‘teachers to be
deployed to level appropriate to their skills’, ‘regular marking of
pupils’ work’ and ‘team teaching’, but found advice regarding
discipline in large classes to be unpractical. School heads in Tanzania
considered all recommendations to be of value, and identified a fairly
large list of areas where such advice is particularly useful, going from
‘staff and staff welfare’ over ‘school community relations’ to
‘evaluation of lessons’.
Through these and other comments from school staff, it can be
deduced that recommendations become more appreciated the more
precise they are, through for instance identifying an actor and a
deadline for the implementation of a particular proposal. There are,
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it seems, two types of recommendations which are particularly
appreciated by school staff:
• those with an obvious pedagogical impact, which can be
implemented by the school or the teacher at little cost and fairly
easily, and are precise in their formulation;
• those which are being addressed to a higher instance (the district
office, the regional office or even the Ministry) and from which
school staff will benefit.
Recommendations which show little appreciation of the real
situation and daily constraints met by teachers, are considered
unhelpful.
(b) Follow-up by the school
Three questions arise when examining the response given by the
school to reports: what is actually done to the report itself; with whom
are its findings and conclusions discussed; what action is taken?
Reports are generally filed by the headteacher, which in most cases
implies that they are not freely available to the individual teachers.
One school in Botswana displays a copy in the staff room and in the
library, for the teachers’ use. All heads, who were questioned in
Botswana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, discuss full inspection reports
with all their teachers during a staff meeting (this question was not
raised in Namibia). Specific teacher supervision reports will lead to
a meeting with the interested teacher only. In the Central region in
Botswana, four of the seven heads also arranged for a special separate
discussion on full inspection reports with the School Senior
Management and a few discussed with the Board of Governors. In
Tanzania and Zimbabwe, a discussion with the board or the school
development committee is more regular, but limited to issues of
interest to them.
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A majority of schools takes some action on the reports’
recommendations, but the level and coverage of this follow-up differs
from country to country and from school to school. In Zimbabwe, all
headteachers claim that they attempt to develop with their teachers
action plans to implement the recommendations. Four out of six
interviewed supervisors, however, noted their dissatisfaction with
the action taken by schools. In Botswana, the situation differs very
much between schools: some heads ‘always’ take action, others do so
‘most of the time’, and a few only ‘sometimes’. The action taken can
be to call specific meetings, to visit some teachers more regularly in
their classroom and to discuss with them in order to motivate them,
and to develop action plans. All but one of the seven headteachers
from the Central region in Botswana indicated that they prepare a
specific action plan to put some recommendations into practice.
Teachers confirmed this. In Namibia, the interviewed headteachers
attested that their satisfaction with teachers’ implementation of
advice is poor: in the case of about two-thirds of teachers, they are
‘totally unsatisfied’ or ‘rather unsatisfied’. They believe that in general
standards do not improve, in part because teachers know that follow-
up actions by supervision and support staff will not take place. The
point is crucial: expecting from school staff commitment to taking
action should be accompanied by a similar commitment among
supervisors.
(c) Follow-up by the supervisors
Headteachers and teachers show on the whole little satisfaction
with the follow-up undertaken by supervisors themselves. In
Botswana heads complain that follow-up visits are only undertaken
after a long time and are superficial. Teachers are still more critical:
the report says that they are totally unsatisfied. Namibia’s data are
similarly discomforting: none of the supervisors – this is the point of
view of heads – undertakes ‘regular’ follow-up visits, most only do so
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‘from time to time’ and a few ‘never’ do. The result is that 5 of the
11 headteachers in the sample are either ‘totally unsatisfied’ or ‘rather
unsatisfied’ with actions taken by the administration. They claim that
only rarely do supervisors act on recommendations in reports. On
the other hand, they recognized that, where some follow-up was
undertaken, it led to clear improvement. In Tanzania, school staff finds
the actions of supervisors to be insufficient and ineffective, and they
quote three reasons: the lack of follow-up visits, the fact that
supervisors do not succeed in solving practical problems such as the
scarcity of equipment, and the fact that they rely on Ward Education
Co-ordinators, who seldom have the knowledge or the authority to
amend problems. Supervisors confirm that, although follow-up visits
are planned for, the number of visits and other activities undertaken
to implement recommendations is insufficient, for which they blame
mainly financial constraints.
In Zimbabwe, the interviewed supervision staff were asked how
regularly they undertake follow-up visits: one answered ‘never’, three
‘irregularly’ and two ‘regularly’. Shortage of transport and of funds
were the main reasons why follow-up was not systematic. Three-
quarters of the 12 school heads confirmed this lack of follow-up and
cited the same factors. It is somewhat surprising that five out of the
six officers are satisfied with the level of follow-up action taken at
administrative level, while – as we saw before – four of them are
dissatisfied with the way schools react. Headteachers have quite a
different opinion: most, as indicated above, claim to undertake various
steps after an inspection visit to implement its advice, while more
than 40 per cent of them are unhappy with the administrative follow-
up. In rural schools, that figure is much higher, which reveals a
worrying disparity between regions. Some heads complained that
‘recommendations made by one supervisor are completely ignored
by the next one’.
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IV. OVERALL ASSESSMENT
1. Impact on school functioning and quality
To gain a balanced picture of the impact of supervision on the
functioning of schools and the quality of teaching, it is necessary to
distinguish between the opinions of supervisors themselves,
headteachers and teachers. In addition, a difference needs to be made
between their opinion on the supervision service as a whole, in its
present state, and their feelings about the impact of the particular
activities of supervision and support staff, especially school visits.
Not all countries have systematically collected all of these different
viewpoints, but sufficient information is available to gain an overall
impression. It should be kept in mind that opinions have been
collected from among a small sample of staff in each of the four
countries and that they reflect the specific situation and characteristics
of the district or region in which they are posted.
(a) Impact of school visits
Let us look first at supervisors’ opinions about their visits. The
11 advisory teachers interviewed in Namibia feel that their work has
had an impact on schools, as they note visible improvement in several
schools over recent years. In Zimbabwe, three out of six supervisors
consider their impact on schools to be ‘very strong’, one ‘strong’ and
two ‘fair’. They say their recommendations are generally implemented
and, as a result, performance of heads and teachers has improved.
They also believe that the reports of visits are used by higher
authorities and therefore influence positively the development of
schools.
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More important than the opinions of supervisors themselves, are
those of headteachers and teachers. The graphs on the following pages
summarize the answers to a question addressed to the sample of
school heads in each of the four countries. They were asked to
evaluate the impact of a supervision visit on 11 or 12 different aspects
of the school, on a scale from 1 (negative) over 2 (none), 3 (limited),
4 (fairly positive) and 5 (positive) to 6 (strongly positive). From the
average scores presented in the graphs it can be deduced that the
interviewed heads are (or at least declare to be) rather satisfied with
supervision visits. On almost all aspects the impact is assessed to be
between fairly positive and positive. In all four countries, the impact
is felt to be especially strong on teacher performance (lesson
preparation and delivery) and on teacher presence. There is, except
in Namibia, a less positive evaluation where teacher motivation is
concerned. The score is generally lowest regarding availability of
teaching/learning materials and school infrastructure, issues on
which supervisors can make recommendations, but take very little
action. Impact on issues related to management by the headteacher
is considered to be fairly high.
Teachers’ opinions were not collected as systematically as those
of headteachers, except in one country, Botswana. There, teachers
are, as a rule, more critical than headteachers in their assessment of
the impact of visits, with two notable exceptions: they consider that
supervision has a very high impact on classroom delivery and a high
one on teacher motivation. Remarks made by teachers in the other
countries show, as in Botswana, satisfaction with the effect of visits,
but on a level lower than that of headteachers. It is appropriate to
mention here that headteachers probably have other expectations
from supervision than teachers. They might want visits to be in part
oriented towards teacher control and discipline, not exclusively
towards pedagogical development, the main concern of teachers.
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In Tanzania, some additional information was available, collected
through two other research projects. An inspection-impact study on
secondary schools, undertaken as part of the English Language
Teaching Support Project (ELTSP), concluded that, ‘the inspectors have
played an important part in the progress and success of ELTSP’.
Secondly, a survey among teachers, undertaken by the inspectorate,
revealed that teachers were of the opinion that some inspection visits
led to improvements, in areas such as:
• the preparation and use of teaching materials;
• the use of English in the schools;
• evaluation of pupils’ work;
• general school administration.
Figure 11. Headteachers’ responses on the impact ofsupervision on schools: average scores
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The data presented in Figure 11 and other – more anecdotal –
evidence allow us to conclude that visits are generally well
appreciated by headteachers and teachers. However, a few
amendments should be added to this positive image.
Not all types of visits nor all activities within a visit, are equally
well appreciated. In Zanzibar, teachers prefer visits which examine
the school as a whole over the individual teacher inspection. In
Zimbabwe, on the other hand, school heads considered teacher
inspections to be the most useful, as they necessarily focus on what
is the core of the school’s quality, namely what occurs in the classroom.
This difference in opinions seems to confirm what has been noted
before, namely that teachers and headteachers both appreciate visits,
but for different reasons. The headteacher sees teacher supervision
as helpful to his or her management of the school. It can be an
additional tool in attempts to ensure discipline among teachers and
to assert headteacher authority. The teachers feel that institutional
inspections can help them in arguing for changes, where necessary,
in the way the school is run. This points to a wider issue: a supervision
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visit is never a neutral act. It is an intervention, if not an invasion, in
a school’s daily life, which the different actors will try to use for
their own benefit maybe more than for the wider benefit of the
school.
Headteachers in Zimbabwe make the following distinction: they
approve most of teacher inspections, followed by full and institutional
inspections, and courtesy visits, which – because of their informal
character – allow for a free exchange of opinions and views between
supervisors and school staff. They make a negative assessment of spot
checks and follow-up visits; spot checks, because of their almost
intrinsic fault-finding character, and follow-up visits, because these
are seldom clearly linked to the preceding visits and therefore lose
their sense of being. In Tanzania, general supervision visits and
courtesy visits were considered most useful, as well as inspection of
physical structure of the school, which is an especially worrying issue.
In Botswana, full inspections were considered by heads and teachers
alike to be of most assistance.
Within a visit, the post-supervision meeting with the staff is singled
out as the most helpful part, because it allows staff to share ideas and
discuss their experiences and viewpoints with each other and with
supervisors. As such, supervisors might gain a more precise, more
balanced view of a school’s functioning. In addition, classroom
observation and staff development activities, formal as well as more
informal, are well appreciated. It seems therefore that supervision
which allows for teacher participation and focuses on teacher
development is felt by teachers to be of most assistance.
Another point worth raising is that not all schools appreciate visits
in the same way. The data in Figure 11 are averages which hide quite
important differences of opinion. These differences will obviously
relate to the particular supervisor. The impact study on English
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language teaching in Tanzania, referred to above, showed
dissatisfaction with some inspectors. Teachers’ main complaints were
that they demoralize teachers through harsh comments and that they
give impractical advice. Each school also has a different experience
and a different opinion. To some extent, this is the result of their
location. The Zimbabwe case study includes some data to illustrate
this. Urban schools on the whole evaluate the impact of supervision
visits much higher (5.4) than peri-urban (4.2) and rural (4.3) schools.
Rural schools complain especially about the short duration of visits,
as much time is taken up by travelling from office to school and back.
This is particularly deplorable, as those schools employ most of the
newly appointed, inexperienced teachers. Urban headteachers, while
generally satisfied with supervision visits, feel that they are
experienced and qualified enough to take over part of the supervision
tasks. They claim, at the same time, that a long-term beneficial impact
can only be achieved through allowing for more in-school supervision.
(b) Impact of the supervision service
While visits as such are considered in many cases a valuable and
helpful exercise, this does not imply that there will be overall
satisfaction with the functioning and effectiveness of supervision and
support services. One of the main complaints of all groups is that
supervisors do not visit schools regularly enough. Another is that
follow-up on visits is unsystematic and deficient. For an overall
evaluation, several factors, which go beyond an assessment of visits,
need to be looked at, in particular:
• the time supervisors spend on administrative and other activities
which have little, if anything, to do with school quality;
• the workload of supervisors and the ensuing regularity of visits;
• the feedback on visits by different actors (supervisors and the
other staff in the education management system);
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132
• the extent and nature of other development-oriented activities in
which supervisors are engaged, such as in-service training, meetings
and workshops, and the impact of those on schools.
The following paragraphs examine the situation of each country
in more detail.
+�BotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswanaBotswana�� ����� ���� ��������� �� ������ �� �� ��� ������ ������
����� �� ������������������������ ���������������������� ���������� ����� �����
������������������� ������1� �����������������������������������������
������� ��� 1��������������������������������� ��� �������������� 1�
�� ��� ��������� �� ������������ ��������������*������������������������
������ ���� ��������/��1��������� ��� �������� �������� ������ �� ���� ��
���� �������� ����� ����� �����3��� � ���� � ��� ��� ���� �� �� �������
����������������� �������������������� �� ������� ��� ������ ���1�
������� ���� ������� �������.� �������� ��������� ����� ���������� ���
���������������������������1�������������������/���������������������� ��
���������������.�������������� ��� ����������� ��� ����� ������ ����� �
������� �������/������ ���� ����������
������ ��������������� �����������������������������Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia ���
���������� �������� ���� 1����������������� ��� ������������������ ���
����� ��������� ������������������ ��������������� ���� �������������� ��
��� ����� �� ������ ��� ����� �������� )��� ������� ������ �����*��� ���
�� ���� ���� ��������?������� �������������� ������ ������������ 3���� ����
������� ������ �������� �� ��*��� ��� �� � �1��� %�������� ���� ����
������������ ������&������� ���� ��� ������������������ ��������� ��
������������� �������������� ������������������������������������� ������
��� ��� ����� �� � ���� %��������� �� � �� ����� ����� ���������� �����������
������ � ��,������� �������� 1�������� ������������������ �����
��������������� �����������
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Overall assessment
133
+�TTTTTanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzaniaanzania�� �������������������������������������������������� ����� ��
��� ��������� �� �������� ��������� �� ����� ��� ����� 1�� ���� ��������*1��
�� ������ ������������� 3 ����� ��������������������1���������
� ����������������������� ���������������������� �������� ��� �����
���������������1������������*���� ���� ����/���� ����������� ����
�� ������ �&�������� ������� ����� ����� ����������� ������� ��� ��1��� ��
����������������������������������� �� ���������������������������
�� �����������=����� ��������������������� ����������������� ���� �����
����������� �� ������� �� �� ����� ����� ���� �� ���� ������� � ��� ��� �
�/������� ���������������������������������������6������������� 1�
�������� ������������ ������������ �������������� ����� ���
6��1��������� �������������� ���������������������� ���������� ����
���������ZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibarZanzibar��������������������� ������������ �� ��� �������
�� ����� ���������� ����� ���������������������� ������ �� �����
�� ������ ��� �&������ ����� ���������� @�������� ���� �� ��� �� �������� �
����� ������ ������������� � ���� � ��������� � �1���� ������� ��� ��� ���
����������� ���� ����� ����� ������
����Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe ��������������������������� ������� ����������� ���������
��������������������������������������� ��� ���������� ������������
���������� ���������� ������
• �����������������������������������������������#
• � 1������������� ����1�������������#
• ������������������������������������������#
• ���������� � � ���������������������������#
• ��� 3��*��������� �#
• ������������������.������ �� ������!��� ���������� ���"�
The overall picture gained so far is a little confused, for different
reasons. Supervisors, headteachers and teachers do not have the same
opinions, as they do not share the same expectations. Schools also
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
134
differ in their experiences, and the averages hide significant
disparities, which depend to some extent on the school’s location
and evidently on the personality of the inspecting officer.
There are some conclusions that come quite clearly to the fore.
Supervisors are – not unexpectedly – more satisfied than school staff.
They feel that their interventions can be of help and give examples
of how some schools have changed because of their work. At the
same time, they recognize nevertheless the limits on what they can
achieve, but put the responsibility for this outside of their own hands.
Headteachers and teachers are more critical towards the
supervision service. They appreciate certain activities, in particular
school visits with an evident pedagogical character, but they feel that
the impact of the service on what goes on in school is weak. They
realize that the reasons are diverse, but feel that some of the
responsibility is the supervisors’ own. While supervisors do work in
constraining circumstances, their attitudes are not always helpful and
their interventions too control focused. It is noteworthy that there
exist differences in opinion between headteachers and teachers, the
latter group being more critical in general, but much depends on the
objectives of the supervisors: when they focus on control of school
management, they are more easily accepted by teachers than when
they concentrate on teacher inspection.
All actors – teachers, headteachers and, somewhat less strongly,
supervisors themselves – deplore one main weakness: more attention
needs to be given to the follow-up on recommendations. A school
visit, a teacher inspection, a training course, a meeting with school
leaders should also be stages in a cycle which leads towards school
improvement. In many cases, they are one-off events, which might
lead to a report, but to nothing much more. This probably is the
biggest disappointment to supervisors and school staff alike.
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135
The following section will look in more detail at the challenges
which supervision and support staff face in order to offer more
effective and enduring assistance to schools and teachers.
2. Main challenges
The problems experienced and challenges faced by the four
countries are different in nature and in extent. While problems of
management and even structure of the service are of more concern
in Botswana and Namibia, a more basic problem, namely poor working
conditions, is top of the agenda in Tanzania. Some issues, for instance
the lack of continuous training programmes, are common to all
countries. The following paragraphs review, in detail, the main
concerns identified by each report, including through the case
studies.
Botswana Botswana Botswana Botswana Botswana ��� �������� ��������� �������������������� ���� ������� ��
������� �������� ������ ��� �������� ���� ������ ��� �� ���� ����� � �� ���
������ �3�������������� ��������������������� ����������������� ������ ��
�����=�������� ������������ �����������������������������������������������
����������=����� ���������������������������� ������������ �������������
�������� ��������� ����� ���������!������������� ������������� ����� �
� ��� �������� �������"� ��� �������� ����� ������ �� ����� ��� �����������
������ ����� ������ ��� 1�����*��� ������������������������������ ��
���������� ��� ���� ���������� �� ������ �� � � ��� ����������� ����� �� �
����� ��*������� ���� ��� ��� �������� �� ����������� ��� ��� ����� =�����
,�� �������������������������� ��*��������������������������� ���� ��� ����
�������������&�������� ������������� ������
�� �� �� � ������ ������� ��� �� �� ���� ������ ��� � �����������
�� ������� ����������� ��� ������� ������� �����������������������
�� ������ ��� ������� ��� ������ ����������1 ���������������������
�������,����������������� ������������ �1����� ������ �������������������
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136
�� ��������� %���� �� � ������ �� �� � ������ ?������� ���� ��� ������ �� ��� ���1�� �
����� ������������ ��*������������������������ ���������� �=������������
� �1������� ���������� ��*�������������������%�������� ����� ����� ������� ��
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� �1���� ���� 3��� ������*���� ��� � ������� ���� � ��� �� �� ������� �������
� 1�� � ���� ���� ��� ����� � ��������� ?��������� ���� ��� ���� ������������� ��
����������� ����� ���� �� ���� � � � 1�� ����� ���� ������� ������ ������
�� ���������� ��� �� ����� ��� ��� ��� ��������� ���� �������� ��������� ��
��������������������� ��������������
• ������������������������ �������� �������������������������#
• ��/� ����� ������� ���������������� ������ ����������������������
������� ���
+�Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia ����� ��������������� ���� �������� �� �1������*��� ��
������� �������� �� ������� ������� �������� ���� �������� ���� �
��� ����,������������������������������������������� ���� ��������� ���
�������=������������� ������ � � ���� ������������������ �������3�� ���
�� ����� ����� �� ��� �������� ���� ���������� ��� ���� � �1���� ��*��� ���� +
������ ���)���� �� �� � �������������� ����� ������������ ��*������
���� ���� ��������� ����������������� � ���������������.�� �������
�������������=��� ����� ��� �����
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�� ������������������� �������������������� ����������������&�����'����
�������������������1���������������������� ������������ ��� ���� ����
������ ���� ���������� ��� ��������� �� ���� ������ � ��� �� � �� ����� � ��� ������
� �� � �� ����� ����� �������� ��� �������� ��� ��� � ��� ���� ����� ��
/� ��� ��������&��������+� �������������� ��� ����������������������
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���� ������� �� ������� �& ���� ��� �������������
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Overall assessment
137
���� �� �� ��� ������ ��� ���� ��� �� ��������� � �1�� ���� ���
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�� �� �� ��*��� ������ ������ ������� ������ ������� ��������� �
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+�: �� �� ���������������������� ������������ ������������� ����������
� �1��������������������� ��� �� ���������������������������������������� ��
������������������������� ����������������������� ��������� ���������
TTTTTanzania’sanzania’sanzania’sanzania’sanzania’s���������� ��������������������������������� ���������������
��������� ����� ��� ���� ����� �� � ����������� ��� � � �� ����� ���� ���
���������� ������ ����� 3 ��� ��� ���� ���� 1��
'����� ������� ��� �� � ������ ��� ��/� ���� �� ��� ����� ��� ���
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� ����������� ���������������������������� ��������������� �����
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�*� �������������������� ��������������� ���������������� ��������
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��� ��� �������������� ������� �1���� ����� ���������������1�
6��� ��������� ��� ���� ���������� ������� ��������� ����� �������������
������� 1�������?���������������������� ������������ ��������������� ��
� ������� �������� ������ �������������������� ���� ������� �������
��� ����������� �1������ �� ����������������� ��������� ������ �����.
����� ����%���������������� ������� 1������������������ ����
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�������� ������������� ���� ����� ��� �1���� ��� ������� �� ��� � ���� ��
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
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27. At the time of writing, 10 different agencies managed resource centres, including UNICEF,the World Bank, Dutch, Irish, Danish and British agencies and District DevelopmentCouncils.
���� ������� ��� ����������������� ��� ��� ����������������� ����� ���
� �����/� ��� ���� �� ���� �� ����� ��� *������� �� ��� ���� �� ���
/� ��� ��� ��/�������� !����� -'.� ������ �������� "� �4DD<���������� ���
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� ����� �������������������� �������������������� ��*��������������������
��� ���� -�� ��� �.� ��������� �� ���� �� ����� ����������������� ������ ����
$������������������������ ��������������� ������7< �:����*��� ��
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�� ��� ���� � �������� ������� ��� �������
Zanzibar Zanzibar Zanzibar Zanzibar Zanzibar ���������� ���������� ����������
• ����� �1������������� ������� ����#
• ����� �1�����������#
• ������������� ���������� ��������������������������#
• ������ ������1�� ����������������������������� ��� ���������������
��� ����������������������� ��������#
• �����������*��� ��������������������������������� �� �1����������*���
������ ����������������������� ������ ������������������'��������
��� ��������������������� �����������
����Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe ��������������������� ��������������������������������
����� �� ����� � � ������ ������� ���1�� �������� ��*��� ��� �
������������������ ����������������������������&�� ����,�����������������
��*��� ���������������������� 1�� ������������������� �� ��������
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��������������������� �������������������������� ���������� �����������
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139
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�� �� ��� -����� ���� ��.�� ������ 1��� �� ����� �������� ��� ����� ��� � ����� ��
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
140
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�������
Supervision services in the four countries face a myriad of
problems, and simply listing these, as was done above, could easily
lead to a sense of discouragement. It is useful therefore to distinguish,
within this long list, what can be considered as root causes from what
are more results. Drawing up such a framework is not simply helpful
from an analytical point of view, but is also a pre-condition to drawing
up any plan to redress and reform the supervision system. The root
causes for the present weakness of the supervision service can be
classified in three categories: a lack of resources; inefficient
management; and an organizational structure not adapted to the
present realities.
The lack of resources has multiple implications. The number of
supervisors has not kept pace with the numbers of schools and
teachers; as a result, the school/supervisor and teacher/supervisor
ratios are high. Every single officer at primary level is responsible for
some 20 or more schools and hundreds of teachers. This workload
becomes more difficult to manage if it is combined with a lack of
financial resources to travel and with material resources (filing
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Overall assessment
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cabinets, typewriters, telephones) of poor quality and insufficient in
number. Most supervision offices in Tanzania suffer from this almost
complete absence of resources and have become ghost-like in state.
Elsewhere, the situation is less worrying: although the numbers of
staff are comparable to those in Tanzania, they can work with better
and more resources. But this should not lead to complacency
anywhere, as the supervision and support service remains under-
financed in all four countries. The impact of this neglect is at times a
somewhat isolated and de-motivated staff, who face a heavy workload
and feel to be operating against the odds.
Management problems are experienced in several areas of
management: selection and recruitment; training; career development
and incentives; and support and evaluation. These are not unrelated
to the lack of resources, as management obviously becomes more
intricate in an environment of scarcity. But some inefficiencies cannot
be explained by lack of resources, but seem the result of
inappropriate decisions or a wider neglect. Solving these
inefficiencies could actually help in overcoming the resource
constraints.
Identifying the ‘right’ recruitment criteria is not an easy matter.
Qualifications and experience both seem important, but at primary
level, many of the most experienced teachers do not necessarily have
a strong academic background, because they entered the teaching
profession a long time ago, when qualification requirements were
rather low. This is still the scenario in Tanzania, but seems no longer
to be the case in the other countries, where primary-school
supervisors generally have both a strong background and
qualifications, higher than the teachers they supervise. Tanzania, in
any case, is also making its recruitment criteria stricter. At secondary
level, the situation is more complicated: supervisors are generally
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recruited from among subject specialists, few have experience in
school management and they occupy a post at the same grade as the
secondary-school principals. Many principals therefore do not
consider supervisors as their superiors and refuse their advice. Maybe
one should think about creating a specific cadre of school
management supervisors, as distinct from subject inspectors, with
recruitment criteria and a post of a grade adapted to their more
demanding job description. A somewhat different problem,
mentioned explicitly in Namibia and Tanzania, concerns the non-
respect of existing rules and norms, which puts into discredit not
only the individual staff member, who benefits from this anomaly,
but the whole service.
There is little need to comment in detail on the fragility of training
for supervisors. In all four countries, there are concerns with both
the organization and the content of training courses. When such
courses are organized, they are ad hoc rather than forming part of an
overall programme of professional development, and seldom seem
to address the real needs of supervision staff. In Tanzania, in recent
years, less and less such courses have taken place, while in the three
other countries supervisors take part from time to time in training
workshops, but these have insufficient linkage to their daily practice.
A further management problem concerns the lack of career
development opportunities: for most supervisors, their present post
is the culmination of their career, a reward for many years of service
in schools. This evidently risks to turn the supervision service into a
conservative body, with little motivation to innovate and look for new
challenges. Changing this reality is not evident, as it is linked, on the
one hand, to the recruitment criteria and, on the other hand, to the
hierarchical structure of the education management system.
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Arguably more easy to redress are the weaknesses in the support
given to supervisors and in their evaluation. While in all four countries,
some official forms exist which help inspectors in performing their
tasks (such as: standard report forms, circulars and guidelines),
nowhere does this support take a more comprehensive form, through
for instance manuals, regular meetings, newsletters and so on. The
issue of evaluation has two aspects. On the one hand, in some cases,
most clearly so in Zimbabwe, there is an absence of clear norms on
what is expected from officers. This is detrimental not just to their
evaluation, but also to the planning of their own work and to their
accountability. On the other hand, most norms, which have been
formulated, relate to the number of visits and reports, and much less
to the quality and the impact of the supervisor’s work. Quantitative
norms are of course much easier to assess, but they could give the
wrong message, asking supervisors to undertake as many visits as
possible rather than to ref lect on the impact their various
interventions could have on schools. Judging the quality of their work
by examining the ways in which schools improve is more intricate,
but ultimately more beneficial: it could make supervisors jointly
accountable with schools for the quality of the teaching and learning,
thus closing the gap which now exists between the school and the
supervisor. Zimbabwe is to some extent going in that direction.
The organizational problems which the service experiences, relate
to four points. Firstly, in a number of countries, parts of the service
are still relatively young or have undergone change recently, and their
present structure lacks clarity (in Namibia) or logic (in Botswana).
Secondly, co-ordination is difficult, especially between the
supervision service and other services which work towards
pedagogical improvement, such as teacher training, curriculum
development and examinations. The linkage with the upper levels of
the administration is similarly elusive, while the relationship between
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supervisors and the newly established teacher resource centres is
weak. The follow-up to school visits suffers from this lack of co-
ordination. Recommendations made in inspection reports and
addressed to the administrative and/or pedagogical authorities,
remain words in the wind, which frustrates the school staff as well
as the supervisors. School staff are at times left with a sense of
confusion, when the advice coming from different corners does not
go in the same direction. A third issue, with regard to the organization
of the supervision and support service, concerns the very demanding
job description of supervisors, who are asked to handle a load of
administrative and pedagogical tasks.
The fourth point in this regard might well be the most worrying.
In all four countries, supervisors feel constrained, even frustrated,
by their lack of autonomy and authority to take action, especially on
their own recommendations. School heads are in a similar situation.
Overcoming these constraints implies, however, a profound change
in the management system and culture and, but less crucially, a
strengthening of management capacities at district and school levels.
As long as this is not the case, supervisors at times use their lack of
authority as an excuse for inaction.
The results of these varied problems are that supervisors face a
heavy workload, with few resources. This leads to a lack of motivation
and has a negative impact on the actual operation of the service.
Inspectors, who do not have the resources or the time to give detailed
and profound support to schools, quickly, as a defensive reaction,
take on control-oriented and critical attitudes, which are poorly
appreciated by school staff. Planning their work becomes more
difficult, if they do not have access to their own transport and have
regularly to undertake administrative tasks, with little connection to
their work. In the same vein, supervisors do not seem to identify clear
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priorities, neither concerning the type of inter ventions nor
concerning the particular schools to be visited.
The overall conclusion seems to be that there is insufficient close
contact – through school visits, seminars, courses and so on –
between supervisors and schools. Especially, follow-up actions on
visits or reports are scarce. It is not surprising then that many schools
feel that the overall impact of the supervision and support service
on what goes on in school is weak.
3. Present reforms and trends
Education managers and decision-makers are conscious of the
weaknesses of the existing supervision services. They are making
attempts to improve on that situation: some reforms are being
implemented on a nationwide scale, others on a pilot-basis, while
still others have only been announced, so far. The overall picture
emerging is nevertheless encouraging, as changes are occurring in
three main areas: the management, the organization of the service
and its actual operation.
Management reforms
All four countries are fully conscious of the perverse effects of
some existing management rules and practices. There are indications
that policies are being reformulated and that some practices have
changed, relating to recruitment; training and support; the
preparation of job descriptions; and evaluation and monitoring
procedures. In Tanzania, the 1995 Education and Training Policy
emphasizes the demand for recruitment procedures to be more
transparent and to be the result of stricter procedures. However, so
far this has remained a policy declaration. In Zimbabwe, recruitment
has become more transparent, through systematic advertisement of
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vacant posts, interviews of candidates, and the convening of a
Promotion Committee involving all regional directors.
Everywhere the need for more and better-organized training and
professional support to supervisors is recognized. The Revised
National Policy on Education in Botswana recommended that “a
comprehensive training programme should be implemented as a
matter of urgency”. The 1995 Education and Training Policy in Tanzania
did similarly. All four countries are involved in a programme to
develop training materials for inspectors, in the framework of the
working group on Teacher Management and Support, set up within
the Association for the Development of Education in Africa, with
support from the Commonwealth Secretariat. Namibia, through the
compilation of a manual for school principals and the organization
of several management courses, also aims at enhancing the support
available to education personnel, in schools and in offices. The overall
impression gained from the reports remains somewhat pessimistic:
no consistent, sustainable and regular national training programmes
exist, while international or regional ones are not yet covering more
than a few supervisors.
Both Botswana and Namibia see the need to define more clearly
the tasks of the different categories of supervision and support staff.
In Namibia, this forms an integral part of a Performance Management
System, which should clearly set out the tasks of the different officers
and the criteria on which they will be evaluated. This will help in
monitoring their work and in giving them support.
Organizational reforms
The second set of reforms concerns the organization of the
supervision services, the way in which these services are structured
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and the responsibilities given to the different levels and actors. Four
aspects can be identified.
Firstly, there exists a willingness to co-ordinate more strongly
existing services at a central level. In Botswana, the Revised National
Policy on Education has recommended that “the inspection of schools
should be under one department of inspection formed from an
enhanced amalgamation of the existing departmental inspectorates”.
Namibia is also planning to change its central structure, by integrating
three Directorates (Inspectorate and Advisory Services, Education
Programme Implementation and Special Education) into one. This
office should be better staffed, so that it can play the co-ordinating
role it is expected to.
Secondly, to allow for a closer and more regular supervision of
schools, these are brought together into clusters and officers are given
the responsibility for one such group of schools, with their office
sometimes being located at that level. In Namibia, within the existing
Okahao circuit for instance, three school clusters have been set up.
In Zimbabwe, the larger Kwekwe district has organized its schools
into 21 clusters. The purpose of such clusters is not simply to facilitate
the planning and to increase the coverage of external supervision
and advice, but especially to strengthen support activities between
the schools. In Zimbabwe, this clustering forms part of the Better
Schools Programme, which has also organized management training
for senior staff in schools and links school clusters to district resource
centres. To some extent, such clusters existed already in Tanzania in
the form of wards, the smallest administrative division. Ward
education co-ordinators, however, do not have the necessary skills
or background to play the role of a supervisor. Suggestions are
therefore made to retrain them so as to strengthen their supportive
potential to schools.
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Thirdly, and following logically from the above, there is an
increased stress on in-school supervision and support. In Botswana,
two recommendations of the Revised Policy emphasize the need to
decentralize support tasks, in particular staff development and in-
service training, to the school level. To enable senior staff to play
this role, the Secondary Schools Management Development Project
(SSMDP) was implemented between 1993 and 1996 and is now
institutionalized as part of the Ministry’s official programme. The
establishment of Staff Development Committees in secondary schools
goes in the same direction. They carry out needs assessment and draw
up programmes for school-based training, using expertise from within
or outside the school. A project similar to the SSMDP, for primary
education, started in October 1997. Thirty primary-school heads are
following a two-year intensive training course in the UK. On their
return, they will be based at Education Centres and be responsible
for the staff development of a cluster of schools. Their role will be
similar to that of the School Management Adviser, working at
secondary level. In Zimbabwe, the Ministry is in principle fully in
favour of strengthening in-school supervision. In this regard,
headteachers of both primary and secondary schools have received
or are receiving training in school management. In principle, each
school has a board with members of the administration and teacher
representatives. This board supervises, assists and advises teachers,
and also has to assess and recommend them for promotion. In
Kwekwe district, these boards were functioning well in urban
schools, where staff are more stable. The Zimbabwe report noted
regularly that urban schools consider their need for control through
supervision to be limited, because of their good performance and
the quality of their teaching staff.
Fourthly, the civil society and particular school communities are
gradually being given an increased role in monitoring the functioning
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and quality of schools. Tanzania is the country with the longest
tradition in this regard: the 1995 Education and Training Policy of
Tanzania again stressed the decentralization of school management
to the school committees, which have mandatory powers to supervise
several aspects of school functioning. In Namibia, the authorities also
attempt to get civil society involved in education management, but at
a regional level rather than in the management of individual schools.
Each regional Council is expected to monitor, promote and oversee
educational development in the Region. It should, therefore, establish
a Regional Education Forum, which will advise regional education
authorities, oversee school operations and protect the education
interests of the communities. It should be composed of
representatives of school boards, community leaders, church bodies,
employers, trade unions, teachers’ unions, NGOs and student
organizations. As was seen earlier, in all four countries, there is quite
some disagreement about the role and authority of individual school
boards, for instance regarding their access to supervision findings.
Reforms in the daily operation
A third set of reforms concerns the actual operation and the focus
of supervision activities, in particular of school visits. In Zanzibar,
where structures and management have undergone little change,
reforms have been introduced to the inspection process, to improve
its impact on schools. Firstly, inspectors work more as a team rather
than as individuals. Before, secondary-school inspectors worked
separately from primary, who were in charge of their district only.
Now, they can form teams and visit both primary and secondary
schools. Secondly, there is a focus on school evaluation and less on
individual teacher inspection. Thirdly, openness and transparency are
encouraged in all school affairs and in supervision. This implies that
all schools are notified two weeks beforehand of the date of
inspection. As a result, where these reforms are actually being
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School supervision in four African countries: challenges and reforms
150
implemented, teachers are beginning to consider inspectors as
sources of help rather than of criticism. In Zimbabwe, there is a similar
trend towards more openness and transparency. While inspection
visits were previously unannounced and had the clear objective of
discovering wrongdoings, pre-informed visits have now become the
norm. While the right to conduct unannounced inspections still
exists, the avowed purpose of the expected visits is to give support
in an amicable spirit. The Ministry itself has also made its own
procedures for recruiting and promoting staff more transparent. More
inspections are now also undertaken by teams, with a focus on whole-
school improvement rather than on individual teacher inspection.
Supervision findings could be used to improve individual schools,
but are of equal value as an assessment of the functioning of the whole
system. Only in Zimbabwe however does the service have, as a specific
objective, system reform and improvement, through the methodical
use of reports. The central Standards Control Unit every year visits a
sample of schools within one region, for a global evaluation. It
examines curriculum implementation and innovations, management,
relations and development programmes. Reports, with strong
recommendations, are sent to the Regional Director and these same
recommendations serve the system.
One final trend, which seems more the result of practical
constraints rather than a well-designed policy, lies in focusing
supervision and support interventions to the schools most in need
of these. Reference was already made to the opinions of urban
headteachers in Zimbabwe, who do not feel regular external control
to be indispensable to their rather well-functioning schools. The
challenge now is to turn an existing but very ad-hoc practice into a
well thought-out policy. A diversified supervision system, which
concentrates on the most remote and isolated schools and on the
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least experienced or weakest teachers, is a promising way out, not
only to solve several practical problems, but also to guarantee a better
impact of supervision services on schools.
It needs to be stressed, finally, that a reform programme which
wants to overcome the many challenges facing supervision and
support services in the Eastern and Southern African region, will need
to be accompanied by a strong commitment to offer these services
the necessary minimum basic resources to function. Without such
commitment, any reform programme risks to have a very limited
impact.
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Special Adviser to the Minister of Education, Ministry of Education, Science,Sports and Culture, Tokyo, Japan.
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Published in the series:Trends in school supervision
School supervision in fourAfrican countries:
Vol. II: National diagnoses(Botswana, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe)
Anton De Grauwe
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Published by:International Institute for Educational Planning/UNESCO
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© UNESCO 2001
International Institute for Educational Planning
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Trends in school supervision
School supervisionin four African countries:Volume II
National diagnoses
BotswanaNamibiaTanzaniaZimbabwe
International Institute for Educational Planning
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5
CONTENTSPages
Presentation of the series 7
Chapter I. Botswana 11List of abbreviations 14List of tables 15Introduction 17I. General overview of supervision and support
structures 21II. The management of supervision services: basic facts
and critical issues 33III. Actual operation – Report of a case study
on the southern part of the Central region 49IV. Overall assessment 62Conclusion 71
Chapter II. Namibia 73List of abbreviations 76List of tables 77Introduction 79I. General overview of supervision and support
services 84II. The management of supervision services: basic
facts and critical issues 93III. Daily operation of supervision and support
services – results of a case study in the OndangwaWest Region 110
IV. Overall assessment 113
Chapter III. Tanzania 147List of abbreviations 150List of tables 151Introduction 153I. General overview of supervision and support
services 158II. Management of supervision services 168
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Contents
6
III. The daily operation of supervision services –report of a case study in Muheza district 179
IV. Overall assessment 195
Chapter IV. Zimbabwe 207List of abbreviations 210List of tables 211Introduction 213I. General overview of supervision and support
services 223II. The management of supervision services: basic facts
and critical issues 235III. The daily operation of a supervision service
in Kwekwe district 255IV. Overall assessment 285Conclusion 301Appendix I 303
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7
PRESENTATION OF THE SERIES
This publication forms part of a series on ‘Trends in school
supervision’, which accompanies the implementation of an IIEP
project on ‘Improving teacher supervision and support services for
basic education’. The project, which began in 1996, is one of the main
research components of the Institute’s Medium Term Plan 1996-2001.
The Institute wishes to express its sincere thanks to BMZ (the German
Federal Ministry for Technical Co-operation) and to UNICEF for their
support in the implementation of this project.
Earlier research, at the Institute and elsewhere, has pointed to
the need, in an era of increased decentralization and school
autonomy, to strengthen the skills of personnel involved in
supervision and support at local level and in schools.
Two related points are worth mentioning here, as they form both
the background to and the rationale for the IIEP’s concern with this
area of management. Firstly, professional supervision and support
services for teachers, although existing in almost every country for a
long time, have been ignored, increasingly so since resources have
become more scarce. This neglect has, until recent times, been
reflected by a similar indifference among researchers. Secondly, one
important reason why the quality of basic education has deteriorated
in many contexts is precisely related to the weakening of these
services.
The IIEP project, developed against this background, consists of
research, training and dissemination activities. Its specific objectives
are to assist countries in diagnosing and reforming the existing
services of supervision and support, and to identify promising
strategies for their reorganization and strengthening. The series of
publications, of which this monograph forms a part, is the result of
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research, implemented in several regions, to address a number of
questions, such as:
• How are supervision and support organized in different countries?
What have been the major trends in their recent evolution?
• What are the principal problems which supervision and support
services are presently facing in terms of: organizational structures;
overall management; and daily functioning?
• To what extent and under what conditions do these services have
a positive impact on the quality of the teaching-learning processes
in schools?
• What are the major innovations taking place, mainly in respect of
the devolution of supervision and support to the school-site level?
How do these innovations operate? What are the main results?
In order to formulate answers to these questions, the project
elaborated the following operational definition of school supervision
and support services: all those services whose main function is to
control and evaluate, and/or advise and support school heads and
teachers. The focus of the project is on external supervision and
support, that is to say on the work of inspectors, supervisors, advisers,
counsellors, etc. located outside the school, at local, regional or
central levels. A common characteristic of these officers is that regular
visits to schools are an essential part of their mandate.
However, many countries, in their attempts to reform and innovate
supervision, are increasingly relying on in-school or community-based
strategies (such as resource centres, school clusters, in-school
supervision by the principal or by peers, school-based management)
to complement – if not to replace – external supervision and support.
The project therefore also pays attention to a number of such
innovations and, in more general terms, the strengths and weaknesses
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Presentation of the series
of strategies, aiming at the reinforcement of internal quality-control
mechanisms.
This series ‘Trends in school supervision’, thus consists of a variety
of titles: national diagnoses on supervision and support, comparative
analyses of the situation by region, case studies on innovative
experiences, monographs and discussion papers on specific
management issues. It is hoped that this series will fill a gap in
education research as well as be an inspiration, in particular to policy-
makers intending to reform supervision, and to supervisors who want
to improve on their practice.
Other titles in the series include:
• Ali, M.A. 1998. Supervision for teacher development: a proposal for
Pakistan. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for Educational
Planning.
• Carron, G.; De Grauwe, A. 1997. Current issues in supervision: a
literature review. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
• Carron, G.; De Grauwe, A.; Govinda, R. 1998. Supervision and
support services in Asia. Volume 1: A comparative analysis. Volume
II: National diagnoses (Bangladesh, the State of Uttar Pradesh in
India, the Republic of Korea, Nepal and Sri Lanka). Paris: UNESCO/
International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Fergusson, V. 1998. Supervision for the self-managing school: the
New Zealand experience. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
• Gurr, D. 1999. From supervision to quality assurance: the case of
the State of Victoria, Australia. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute
for Educational Planning.
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School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
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• Khaniya, T.R. 1997. Teacher support through resource centres: the
Nepalese case. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for Educational
Planning.
• Perera, W.J. 1997. Changing schools from within: a management
intervention for improving school functioning in Sri Lanka. Paris:
UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Wilcox, B. 2000. Making school inspection visits more effective: the
English experience. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
Acknowledgements
This publication could not have been written without the
invaluable advice and continued guidance of Mr G. Carron.
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Chapter I
School supervisionin Botswana
A. MakgothiM. BangaleK. MotlotleO. Pansiri
F. Stoneham
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CONTENTS
Pages
List of abbreviations 14
List of tables 15
Introduction 17
I. General overview of supervision and supportstructures 21
1. Historical background of supervision and support 232. The overall structure of supervision and support 253. Official functions of the different services 284. Relations with other pedagogical services5. Classical supervision and support services within
a broader perspective:school-site support andsupervision 30
II. The management of supervision services: basic factsand critical issues 33
1. Basic facts 332. Critical management issues 373. Budgetary and financial matters and working
conditions 44
III. Actual operation – Report of a case studyon the southern part of the Central region 49
1. Planning and workload 502. School visits 533. Feedback and reporting 584. Follow-up 60
IV. Overall assessment 621. Impact on school functioning and quality 622. Challenges to supervision and support 643. Present trends and challenges 68
Conclusion 71
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADEA Association of Development of Education in Africa
BIPP Botswana In-Service, Pre-Service Project
BOG Board of Governors
CD&E (Department of) Curriculum Development and Evaluation
CEO Chief Education Officer
CJSS Community Junior Secondary School
CRT Criterion Referenced Testing
CTO Central Transport Organization
DPSM Directorate of Public Service Management
DVET (Department of) Vocational Education and Training
ERTD Examinations, Research and Testing Division
NDP National Development Plan
NPE National Policy on Education of 1977
ODA Overseas Development Administration
O & M Organization and Methods
PEIP Primary Education Improvement Project
PEO Principal Education Officer
PTA Parent-Teacher Association
REO Regional Education Officer
RNPE Revised National Policy on Education
SADC Southern African Development Community
SEO Senior Education Officer
SMA Schools Management Adviser
SMT Senior Management Team
SSMDP Secondary Schools Management Development Project(Programme)
SSS Senior Secondary School
TSM (Department of) Teaching Service Management
TT&D (Department of) Teacher Training and Development
UPE Universal Primary Education
USAID United States Agency for International Development
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Distribution of primary schools by region 33
2. Distribution of secondary schools by region 34
3. Distribution of primary SEOs by age 34
4. Distribution of primary SEOs by length of service 35
5. Distribution of primary SEOs by qualifications 35
6. Distribution of secondary SEOs by age 35
7. Distribution of secondary SEOs by length of service 36
8. Distribution of secondary SEOs by qualifications 36
9. Distribution of in-service education officers by age 36
10. Distribution of in-service education officers by length ofservice 37
11. Distribution of in-service education officers byqualifications 37
12. In-service training of primary SEOs 41
13. Average percentage of time devoted by supervisorsto various tasks 52
14. Impact of full inspection 63
15. Main problems mentioned by selected heads in theCentral region 67
16. Measures for improvement suggested by selected headsin the Central region 67
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INTRODUCTION
Country background
Botswana, a landlocked country in Southern Africa is an arid land
prone to drought. The Kgalagadi Desert occupies about 60 per cent
of the land to the west. The population is 1,450,000, concentrated
along the eastern part of the country. The western and north-western
parts are very sparsely populated, posing a challenge in the provision
of services such as education.
Botswana has enjoyed peace and political stability since
independence in 1966. Prudent planning and strict financial discipline
have seen Botswana emerge from being one of the poorest countries
on the continent in 1966 to a lower middle-income country in 1997.
The GDP stands at US$4.6 billion and a per-capita GDP of US$2,980
today at the time of writing. Botswana’s engine of economic
development is diamonds while copper, nickel, cattle and wildlife, as
well as tourism are also significant contributors.
A brief history of education in Botswana
The first formal schools were established in the mid-nineteenth
century by missionaries. In the latter half of the nineteenth century
tribal chiefs mobilized resources in the form of education tax to
establish tribal primary schools. The colonial government started
making nominal contributions to education in 1904. In 1935 the
Education Department was established by the Protectorate
administration. In general, development of education was very slow.
Up until 1940 there were no post-primary institutions. Schools were
found only in the major villages. These schools were under-resourced
and the quality of education was poor.
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School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
After independence in 1966, Botswana experienced rapid
development in the education sector. In 1967 there were 252 primary
schools enrolling just over 70,000 pupils. In the following 30 years
the number of schools almost tripled, to 718 primary schools in 1997
with a total enrolment of over 320,000. The Net Enrolment Ratio,
which stood at 54 per cent in 1976, increased to 94 per cent in 1997.
Expansion at secondary was even steeper: there were 9 secondary
schools with 1,027 students at independence, and in 1997 there were
230 secondary schools with 109,663 students.
The structure of the education system is as follows: the primary
cycle (seven years) and the junior secondary cycle (three years) make
up the period of Basic Education. After basic education, students have
the choice between senior secondary (two years), followed by higher
education, or three-year vocational training. The age for enrolment
into the first year of primary, Standard 1, is six years. A special
dispensation is made for children in the more remote parts of the
country to start school a little later. The reason for this is that in these
parts a school might be a long way from home and only older pupils
would be able to walk this distance.
Responsibility for primary education is shared between the
Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing (MLGL&H) and
the Ministry of Education. The MLGL&H, through the local authorities,
is responsible for providing physical infrastructure and school
supplies such as textbooks, stationery, furniture and equipment, other
materials and school meals. The Ministry of Education provides the
professional inputs such as teachers, supervision and support,
curriculum and examinations. The Inter-ministerial Committee on
Primary Education, co-chaired by the Permanent Secretaries of the
two Ministries ensures co-ordination of activities in primar y
education.
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Introduction
At primary-school level there is an acute shortage of classrooms.
Many classes are taught outside, under a tree or wherever shade can
be found. In such cases, and as long as it does not rain, a ‘shift’ system
operates, with one class being inside for one week and outside for
the following week. One of the worst cases was a primary school
visited recently in Maun, the gateway to the Okavango Delta. At this
school there were 31 classes and only 10 classrooms. At this school
all Standard 2 pupils are taught outside throughout the year. When it
rains there are no lessons for classes without a room.
Prior to the 1994 Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE)
primary-school teachers were trained at Certificate level. Minimum
entry into teacher training was a pass at junior secondary level. Pre-
service teacher training has undergone qualitative improvement;
trainee teachers are now recruited from senior secondary graduates
and are trained up to Diploma level. The output of qualified teachers
has also increased.
In-service training has been strengthened to take place regularly
at school, regional and national levels. Eleven education centres have
been strategically located across the country to support in-service
initiatives and to act as resource centres for teachers.
Child-centred learning was adopted in the early 1980s as the
pedagogical approach that can best enhance the quality of learning.
Programmes were developed that have the child at the centre of
learning. An example of these is the ‘Breakthrough to Setswana’, a
novel approach to language teaching, which relies strongly on the
use of the national language.
The Botswana Teacher Competency Instrument (BTCI) was also
developed to help supervisor y staff (education officers and
headteachers) improve their supervision and support in order to help
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teachers move away from teacher-centred, knowledge-based learning
to that which is child-centred.
Financing education in Botswana
Government has always attached great importance to the
development of educational opportunities. A demonstration of this
is that in the past 20 years education has consistently received 19 per
cent to 25 per cent of the recurrent budget. In the financial year 1996-
1997 education’s share was 22.6 per cent of the recurrent budget.
The evolution of development expenditure in education over the
last 20 years has reflected a shift in priorities. Access to primary
education was a priority after 1976 as government strove for universal
access to primary education. Once this was achieved, emphasis shifted
to universal access to junior secondary education. Expenditure
during NDP 7 (1991-1997) was consistent with this trend: education
was allocated US$250,000,000 (at 1991 prices) of the development
budget. The share for primary education was 18 per cent, while
secondary education received the largest share at 39 per cent. For
NDP 8 (1997-2003) government will spend about US$627 million (at
1997 prices) of the development budget on education. This will
constitute 19.7 per cent of the entire development budget. The
greatest beneficiaries of this allocation are secondary education
(32 per cent), vocational education and training (23 per cent) and
primary education (21 per cent). During NDP 8 priorities are to
maintain 100 per cent access to Basic Education (primary and junior
secondary education), increase transition to senior secondary
education from the present 30 per cent to 50 per cent, and increase
access to vocational education and training. The improvement of
facilities in primary schools has also assumed priority.
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I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SUPERVISION ANDSUPPORT STRUCTURES
1. Historical background of supervision and support
At independence in 1966 there was a small cadre of school
inspectors whose responsibilities covered both primar y and
secondary schools. Their emphasis was more on fault finding than
guiding and supporting teachers in their work.
The 1970s witnessed the emergence of a new generation of subject
advisers/inspectors whose role was to provide in-service training,
guidance to teachers and support in curriculum development.
Inspection played an important but minor role in their work. The
title Inspector was replaced by Education Officer (EO) to reflect the
new roles.
Once this new corps of education officers became established,
the primary and secondary-education levels were separated into
Department of Primary Education and Teacher Training and
Department of Secondary Education, in the mid-1970s.
In the case of primary education, officers were decentralized to
local level. Each officer was responsible for a cluster of schools in a
given Inspectorial Area. A Regional Education Officer (REO)
supervised a group of education officers. This arrangement brought
supervision and support closer to the schools.
The education officers in the case of secondary education became
subject specialists, with their responsibilities including syllabus
revision, production of instructional materials, prescription of
textbooks and equipment, setting of examinations, inauguration and
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chairing of subject panels. The primary-school officers carried out
similar duties for their level.
The rapid expansion of secondary education from the mid-1980s
had two structural implications. On the one hand, there was an
attempt to decentralize supervision through the creation of regional
offices. However, this attempt has not been fully successful, because
this move was not accompanied by a significant increase in the
number of officers. On the other hand, the workload of individual
subject specialists increased and it became difficult for them to cope
with the many tasks that had grown around each subject. This
complexity of functions carried out by the subject specialists called
for a variety of expertise that could not realistically be found in one
person. The need arose to devolve some of the responsibilities and
functions to other persons or departments with expertise in those
areas.
When the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation
(CD&E) was established in 1978, the curriculum-related functions
transferred to this new department. Later on, in 1989, the Department
of Primary and Teacher Training was separated into two: the
Department of Primary Education and the Department of Teacher
Training, since 1992 called the Department of Teacher Training and
Development. The responsibility for pre-service and in-service
training was transferred to this Department.
The Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) of 1994 has
mandated that a Department of Inspection be established whose
purpose would be quality assurance in the education system. This
department would cover inspection at all levels – primary, secondary,
vocational education and training and teacher training. This new
Department of Inspection was, at the time of writing, still to be
established. It is envisaged that it will be staffed mainly by officers
from the Departments of Primary and Secondary Education.
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2. The overall structure of supervision and support
At central level, supervision and support of teachers is provided
by three departments, namely the Departments of Primary Education
and of Secondary Education in charge of supervision and the
Department of Teacher Training and Development, in charge of
support. Each Department has its own structure, reflecting in part its
historical development.
Department of Primary Education
At central level, the Department is headed by the Director of
Primary Education and consists of various sections. The next level of
supervision is that of the Regional Education Offices. There are six
regions in the country, each consisting of four or more Inspectorial
Areas. The REO is overall responsible for all primary education
matters in the region. He/She also liaises with the Department of
Teaching Service Management (TSM) for the deployment of teachers
between regions.
Supervision and support at local level is provided by a Senior
Education Officer (SEO), in charge of an inspectorial area. In all there
are 37 Inspectorial Areas in the country. The SEOs conduct inspection,
pastoral visits as well as some in-service training. Another important
function of SEOs is liaison with District/Town Councils on matters
pertaining to infrastructure and supplies. They also recommend to
the regional education officers (REO) the deployment of teachers
within their Inspectorial Area.
Department of Secondary Education
At secondary level, all officers act as subject advisers and this
explains to a large extent why the decentralization policy has been
implemented with less success than at primary level. Until 1990, all
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secondary-school supervisors worked in the Ministry Headquarters.
Decentralization in order to provide more effective service and
supervision became an affirmed goal of the Ministry at the end of
the 1980s.
Attempts at decentralization started in 1990 with the establishment
of three regional offices. Today there are five such offices, headed by
a regional education officer. In principle, each office should have a
full set of subject specialists, but this is by far not the case. Currently
there are 31 inspectors or senior education officers in the Department.
Twenty-one are based at headquarters and only 11 in the regions.
The number at Department headquarters amounts to two officers
per core subject (Setswana, English, science, social sciences,
mathematics, agriculture) and one for each optional subject (design
and technology, home economics, art, computer studies, commercial
studies, etc.). Senior education officers at both headquarters and
regional office are involved more with inspection and less with
providing support in the form of advisory visits.
That practical progress in this direction has been extremely slow
is due to lack of posts and ‘manpower ceilings’. The result is that
senior education officers in the regions are too few to form effective
inspection teams and are more often than not called upon to join in
inspections organized from headquarters.
Department of Teacher Training and Development
The establishment of the Department of Teacher Training and
Development in 1989 was an important development in providing
support for teachers. Within this Department there is the In-Service
Training Unit. Initially there were two teams of In-Service Officers,
one primary and another for secondary. The two services are now
being unified.
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The in-service education officers are based at 11 Education
Centres throughout the country. These officers conduct needs
assessment of schools in the area and then plan and conduct in-service
training on the basis of the assessed needs.
The RNPE has introduced many innovations in terms of new
content and new methodologies. It falls on the in-service education
officers to provide the training required for the teachers to cope with
the new changes.
3. Official functions of the different services
Department of Primary Education
The main supervisory actor is the senior education officer (SEO)
in charge of an inspectorial area. The main functions of the
inspectorate fall into the following categories:
(a) Professional function
The SEOs conduct inspection of schools in their areas. They give
teachers advice on instructional matters based on the gaps observed
during lesson observations. Training needs are also identified during
the inspection and school-based staff development arranged. Heads’
leadership capacity is assessed and supported in the same way.
(b) Administrative function
There are also important administrative functions performed by
the SEOs. These relate mainly to personnel management –
maintenance of teachers’ records, transfers, engagement of untrained
teachers, deployment of teachers, recommendations for promotion
and disciplinary action.
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(c) Liaison function
The SEOs represent the Ministry of Education in meetings of local
authorities such as Full District/Town Council meetings, various
committees of the local authorities, e.g. District Development
Committee, Education Committee, Planning Committee. At these
meetings they advise on matters of infrastructure, school supplies
and education policy.
Department of Secondary Education
The overall duties and responsibilities of the secondary-school
department as defined in the Scheme of Service are:
• improving the quality and productivity of the secondary-education
personnel;
• maintaining and continuously raising the standards of academic
performance;
• promoting professionalism among teachers and education officers;
• ensuring that curricula are adequately followed;
• implementing and maintaining the approved national policies on
secondary education;
• evaluating the impact and relevance of policy;
• administering the relevant provisions of the Education Act and
other regulations pertaining to secondary education.
The main activity through which to attain these objectives is
through school visits. In addition to school inspection, senior
education officers also carry out a number of other functions, which
include:
• co-ordination of subject-specific activities such as curriculum
implementation and promotion of activities such as fairs,
exhibitions and associations;
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• provision of in-service courses;
• deployment and management of teachers in their respective
subjects;
• preparation and marking of examination papers.
To fulfil its tasks, the Department is divided into:
(i) Inspectorate and Field Services Section;
(ii) Management and Training Section;
(iii) Finance Audit Section.
The function of the Inspectorate and Field Services Section is more
inclined towards supervision and control, while the Management and
Training Section plays a supportive role in order to develop and
support school heads, deputies and senior teachers. This is a newly
created section which will continue the work begun by the Secondary
School Management Project which was concluded in December 1996.
The Finance Audit Section consists of a small team of auditors which
exercises control over school finances by monitoring books of
accounts and presiding over the hand-over exercise that takes places
at the departure or transfer of a school head.
The auditors and inspectors do at times carry out joint inspections
of schools, although more often than not they operate independently.
The importance of including finance in the whole school inspection
is recognized; however, the small number of auditors currently makes
it impossible to put this into practice.
Department of Teacher Training and Development
The main responsibility of this Department is to offer support and
advice to schools and teachers. While in-service education officers
for both primary and secondary schools complement each other, a
distinction can be made. At secondary level, they are subject
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specialists. Their principal duty is to monitor and seek ways of
improving standards of teaching and departmental administration
within their specific subject areas. Where primary schools are
concerned, officers work mainly in three areas:
(i) Breakthrough to Setswana: a project supporting teaching
methods for early literacy in the primary schools;
(ii) Media: offering support to schools in information technology,
development of teaching aids and media-related activities;
(iii) Curriculum: all in-service education officers support curriculum
implementation and management development training.
4. Relations with other pedagogical services
Officers in both the Department of Primary Education and that of
Secondary Education have some say in the delivery of related
pedagogical services, such as curriculum development and
examinations. Their involvement can be through formal structures
or through more informal contacts.
At primary level, and as far as teacher training is concerned,
officers participate in advisory committees of colleges of education
which periodically review the colleges’ curriculum, and in working
committees for the co-ordination of teaching practice. More
informally, they identify teachers’ training needs and communicate
them to TT&D.
Officers also participate in subject panels responsible for the
development of syllabus design, textbooks and teacher guides. In
addition, they are involved in item writing, pre-testing and
supervision of the conduct of examinations.
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Secondary-education officers, because they were at some time
solely responsible for all aspects of their subjects, have continued to
have even closer links with the departments that have assumed some
of these functions.
They sit, together with, for example, in-service officers and teacher
trainers, on Curriculum Panels co-ordinated by the Curriculum
Development Unit. In this capacity, they are heavily involved in the
development of syllabi, instructional materials, the selection of
textbooks and the implementation of new curricula.
They continue to play a role in in-service training: they are often
called upon to resource workshops organized by either the CD&E or
TT&D and, in addition, they also run their own workshops. This
occurs particularly in subjects without in-service officers.
Despite the devolution of the function of examination to another
department, SEOs continue in the role of Chief Examiner in their
respective subjects and are responsible for the co-ordination of
setting and marking of examination papers.
With the ever increasing number of schools and pressure from
within the Ministry of Education and from the public in general for
more inspections, SEOs have found the duties they carry out on
behalf of other departments to be an added burden which limits their
capacity to supervise schools more effectively.
In-service training has become the main responsibility of the
Department of Teacher Training and Development. Its staff link with
CD&E officers, ERTD officers, teacher-training colleges, University of
Botswana’s Faculty of Education, Departments of primary and
secondary.
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At regional level, in-service committees have been set up, made
up of people from government and NGOs, with representation of
teachers, headteachers and members of the Primary and Secondary
Inspectorate.
5. Classical supervision and support services within a broaderperspective: school-site support and supervision
The Botswana Ministry of Education has recently embarked on
different initiatives to strengthen supervision and support at school
level, in response to international and national findings which
advocate that change should start at that level.
More authority is being given to the school head and senior staff.
The revised national Policy on Education identifies as one of its aims
(Recommendation 105) the empowerment of primary-school heads
to enable them to function better as instructional leaders. It reads:
(a) the Head as instructional leader, together with the deputy and
senior teachers, should take major responsibility for in-service
training of the teachers within their schools, through regular
observation of teachers and organization of workshops, to
foster communication between teachers on professional matters
and to address weaknesses;
(b) the Education Officers’ visits to schools should supplement the
school-based in-service training and should be geared more
towards a general ‘performance audit’ of the school as well as
management training of heads.
In order to strengthen the management and instructional
leadership capacity at secondary-school level, the Secondary School
Management Development Project (SSMDP) was conceived. It
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targeted school heads, deputies and senior teachers for training in
management, staff development and instructional leadership. The
project ran from 1993 to 1996, supported by the British ODA.
Sustainability was built in by involving and training citizen
counterparts to work along the British technical advisers. Several
structures, among them regional SMAs, school clusters, regional
libraries, local resource persons, and regional strategic planning
committees were also put into place. A similar project for primary-
school headteachers was launched in October 1997 and its
implementation took off mid-1998.
Secondary schools are now expected to do their own school
development planning. In this regard, groups of schools have
nominated a teacher to be a Staff Development Co-ordinator, linked
directly with in-service education officers. They work with groups
of neighbouring schools and have as main tasks to identify staff
development (training) needs and to organize relevant programmes.
Most secondary schools have a small budget for such programmes.
Additional support for schools takes various forms:
• through whole school staff development planning, organized by
the In-service Department;
• through school based support;
• through school clusters;
• at Education Centres where teachers can work on their own often
with their pupils.
The success of School Development Planning differs from one
region to the other. Regions with a good number of secondary schools
generally have strong staff development committees. The whole
process of school and staff development planning is still to be instilled
across primary schools.
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Communities play a relatively minor role in primary schools,
where they are represented through the traditional parent-teacher
associations. Their importance is greater at junior secondary level,
especially in the Community Junior Secondary Schools through locally
elected Boards of Governors (BOG). When these schools were
established in the mid-1980s, boards of governors were introduced
to help in their management. The concept was to establish a
partnership between government and communities in an attempt at
democratizing education. The members of the BOG are elected at a
meeting by members of the public to represent the interests of the
community in the management of the school. They are important in
ensuring that pupils receive the education that is their right. So, BOGs
are an important supervision structure in the community schools.
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II. THE MANAGEMENT OF SUPERVISION SERVICES:BASIC FACTS AND CRITICAL ISSUES
1. Basic facts
Tables 1 and 2 show the distribution of schools by region, and,
for primary education, by inspectorial area. In principle, a primary
inspector is in charge of about 20 schools, with some variation in
function of their size and location. Not all posts are filled at the
moment. At secondary level, the arrangement is different. Officers
are responsible for certain subjects, either within the regional office
where they are posted or at central level. There are at the time of
writing a total of 31 secondary inspectors, only 11 of whom are posted
in the regional offices. On average, taking into account only the posts
actually filled, there were in 1997-1998 about 20 schools and
335 teachers per primary inspector and about 8 schools and 200
teachers per secondary inspector (this last comparison is misleading
as inspectors, as mentioned above, are responsible for subjects rather
than schools). There are 67 officers in the TT&D Department, which
are responsible on average for 14 schools and 260 teachers.
Table 1. Distribution of primary schools by region
Region Number of Number of Average number of schools inspectorial areas schools per inspectorial area
North 4 69 17
Central North 5 111 22
Central South 7 131 19
South Central 10 180 18
South 7 149 21
West 4 78 20
Total 37 718 19
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Table 2. Distribution of secondary schools by region
Region Number of Number of Number of Totalgovernment SSS government-aided SSS1 CJSSs
North 5 1 41 47
North West 2 1 26 29
North Central 6 0 45 51
South Central 6 1 49 56
South 4 1 42 47
Total 23 4 203 230
Tables 3 to 11 offer a profile of the three types of officers –
primary, secondary and in-service. For each group, data are given on
age, length of service and qualifications. As far as age is concerned,
about half of primary SEOs are over 45, this is the case for only about
a quarter of secondary SEOs and in-service education officers. There
is a clear relationship with length of service in their present post. In-
service education officers – a post created rather recently – have all
less than 10 years’ experience. This is the case for 25 out of 35
primary SEOs and 25 out of 28 secondary SEOs. Primary SEOs have
less academic qualifications than their colleagues, who for the
greatest part have either a bachelors’ or a master’s degree.
Table 3. Distribution of primary SEOs by age
Age range Male Female Total
35-40 4 2 6
41-45 5 (1) 6 (1) 11
46-50 4 2 6
51-55 5 (1) 2 (1) (2) 7
56 + 3 (3) 2 (3) 5
Total 21 (5) 14 (1) (6) 35
REO in brackets
1 Government-aided Senior Secondary Schools are Mission Schools fully funded bygovernment.
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Table 4. Distribution of primary SEOs by length ofservice
Length of service Male Female Total
0-5 8 7 15
6-10 7 3 10
11-15 3 3 6
16-20 1 3 4
Total 19 16 35
Table 5. Distribution of primary SEOs by qualifications
Male Female Total
Certificate 1 1 2
Diploma 9 1 10
Bachelor’s Degree 10 9 19
Master’s Degree 1 3 4
Total 21 14 35
Table 6. Distribution of secondary SEOs by age
Age range Male Female Total
31-35 2 0 2
36-40 5 6 11
41-45 (1) 5 3 7 (1)
46-50 (2) 4 2 (1) 6 (3)
51-55 1 0 1
Total 17 11 28
REO in brackets
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Table 7. Distribution of secondary SEOs by length ofservice
Length of service Male Female Total
0-5 7 10 17
6-10 8 0 8
11-15 2 1 3
Total 17 11 28
Table 8. Distribution of secondary SEOs byqualifications
Qualifications Male Female Total
Diploma 1 1 2
Bachelor’s 7 6 13
Master’s 9 4 13
Total 12 11 28
Table 9. Distribution of in-service education officers byage
Age range Male Female Total
31-35 7 7 14
36-40 13 19 32
41-45 2 5 7
46-50 1 4 5
51-55 2 3 5
56 + 2 2 4
Total 27 40 67
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Table 10. Distribution of in-service education officers bylength of service
Length of service Male Female Total
0-5 17 14 31
6-10 10 23 33
11+ – 3 3
Total 27 40 67
Table 11. Distribution of in-service education officers byqualification
Age range Male Female Total
Certificate 1 9 10
Diploma 1 3 5
Bachelor’s 15 11 26
Master’s 9 17 26
Total 27 40 67
2. Critical management issues
(a) Recruitment
Recruitment for the public service including the Ministry of
Education is done through the Directorate of Public Service and
Management. In the past it was often the practice for the Ministry of
Education to identify competent teachers or school administrators
and directly to transfer them into its various supervisory departments.
Officers appointed to In-Service Teacher Support functions were
selected on the basis of the recommendations of the immediate
supervisors. Competent subject teaching (for secondary) or being
an effective teacher (for primary) were considered more important
than their potential as trainers. Nowadays, for both supervision and
in-service officers, a system of open advertisement and oral interview
prior to selection pertains.
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Primary-school supervisors are recruited from the primary
schools. Candidates should have been successful primary-school
heads for a period of not less than three years. The age profile of the
primary SEOs illustrates their long experience. Prospective
candidates should have at least a Diploma in education.
At secondary level, the officers are recruited from among senior
teachers, deputies or school heads in secondary schools. Applicants are
required to have a junior degree and teaching qualification, a minimum
of eight years’ teaching experience and should have held a position of
responsibility within the school. Recruitment of SEOs is often very slow
and attracts only applicants from the ranks of senior teacher. Heads and
deputies are not attracted to the post because they already operate at
equivalent or higher salary scales than the senior education officer. Once
senior education officers are recruited from among senior teachers, they
are often disparaged by heads who regard them as their juniors who
have no practical experience in running a school. At present, even senior
teachers do not necessarily show interest in these posts. The reason for
this is that conditions of service for teachers have improved and
opportunities for progression in teaching are better than in the SEO
cadre. It is, therefore, no longer attractive for teachers to join the SEO
cadre. Recently, 14 posts of SEO have been advertised to fill positions in
the regions. The response has been limited and has not attracted
candidates of the calibre required.
The in-service cadre is attractive to officers because the job affords
them ongoing professional training through interacting with various
groups of teachers and other stakeholders in education. Problems of
recruitment are nevertheless encountered because the Teaching
Service Management, from where candidates come, offers to a certain
extent better salaries and promotional aspects compared to the Public
Service posts, to which they are appointed.
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The staff interviewed as part of the case study in the Southern
part of the Central district, on which Part III will report in detail,
expressed their satisfaction with the recruitment procedure: the
inspectors saw an advertisement, applied, were interviewed and
offered the post, while the in-service officer was selected on the basis
of exemplary classroom practice. Their main suggestion concerns the
need to recruit better-qualified individuals.
(b) Career development
The teachers in primary, secondary and teacher-training
institutions are employed by the Directorate of Teaching Service
Management (TSM), a Department of the Ministry of Education.
Education officers in the different departments are employed by the
Directorate of Public Service Management (DPSM). The two groups
are employed and governed by two separate statutory instruments.
One advantage that public officers however enjoy is that of movement
from TSM to DPSM and vice versa without any loss of service years.
But this cannot help the fact that officers in all three departments
have relatively few promotion possibilities. The career structure of
each department of the Ministry of Education is contained in a
Scheme of Service which outlines progression from education officer
to director (head of department). As one climbs the career ladder,
posts – and promotion possibilities – become fewer. The Department
of Primary Education, for instance, is characterized by a pyramidal
structure:
Director E2
Chief Education Officer D1
Principal Education Officer I D2
Principal Education Officer II D3
Senior Education Officer D4
Head Teacher (Primary) C1
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Promotion possibilities within the Department of Secondary
Education have hitherto been even more limited since regional
education officers were usually drawn from the ranks of heads of
large senior schools and not from within the Department. A small
number of senior education officers have therefore sought
promotion by applying for positions outside the Department. In
pursuance of its policy of decentralization, the Department now plans
to re-deploy some senior education officers to the regions and retain
a few as principal education officers at headquarters to co-ordinate
the subject activities at national level. To this end, six senior education
officers have been promoted to principal education officer level.
In theory dismissal rules exist but in practice these have proved
difficult to enforce, because of the existence of grievance procedures,
which appear to render dismissal rules ineffective. A public officer
can spend any length of time being unproductive and yet no dismissal
is executed. Much as this sustains the country’s cordial industrial
relations, it often works against productivity, which is the
government’s corporate strategy for improving the public service.
(c) Training
Training for the inspectors both at primary and secondary level is
limited and unco-ordinated. Officers in the In-service cadre can count
on a better organized and more diversified programme.
There is no specific training plan for the officers in the Department
of Primary Education. However, of late some induction has been
conducted for new recruits, but it is rather ad hoc. The inspectors
interviewed in the case study, had all received a one to two-weeks’
induction, but called for a longer period, including capacity building
in areas such as management, handling cases of misconduct,
confidence-building and inspection procedures. In a similar way, in-
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service training lacks organization. Occasionally some inspectors
participate in a two-weeks’ training course at the Institute of
Development and Management, others are sent to the UK for a three-
months’ course on inspection, but on the whole all feel the need for
more such training. Table 12 shows that about two-thirds of primary
inspectors have received no in-service training whatsoever.
Table 12. In-service training of primary SEOs
Male Female Total
No training whatsoever 15 9 24
2 Weeks IDM 4 2 6
3 Months UK 2 3 5
Total 21 14 35
At secondary level, an informal induction usually takes place and
consists of the following aspects:
• a short attachment at headquarters (whenever possible);
• briefing and distribution of inspection guidelines and checklists
by the Principal Education Officer II (academic);
• attachment to a mentor for the first few inspections.
Officers are nominated from time to time for various in-service
training courses, including on educational management, computers,
HIV awareness and counselling. No formal training programmes exist
specifically for supervision and inspection, although an annual
evaluation and planning workshop for all inspectors usually provides
a forum for presentation of professional papers and discussion.
Senior education officers themselves express the need for more
formal training programmes in the area of school supervision and
inspection. The supervisors interviewed in the Central region added
some details. They felt that such training should focus on innovations
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that have recently been introduced into the schools, on teacher
management issues which have recently been decentralized and on
financial management. They were also candidates for more specific
supervision-related training, including on school visits and report
writing.
In-service education officers and staff development co-ordinators
receive ongoing professional support. Training programmes range
from short to long-term training and cover the following areas:
• Using computers in education;
• Production of visual aids;
• Reprographics in education;
• Resource-materials development;
• Curriculum-based training;
• Leadership, management and supervisory skills development
training;
• Training in emerging issues, e.g. HIV/AIDS, Population and
Sustainable Development, Environmental Education.
In addition, the CD&E and ERTD provide training to the same
officers so that they, in turn, can support schools in introducing
curriculum changes.
Newly recruited in-service education officers go through an
intensive induction training programme which includes attachment
to other departments of the Ministry of Education. An Induction
Training Manual has also been produced by serving officers.
From time to time, the three groups of officers – from primary,
secondary and in-service – receive training together, at times with
staff from the University of Botswana. This is particularly so in the
new topical areas of Environmental education, Population and
Sustainable development, to mention a few.
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(d) Support for supervisors
The support available to supervisors takes two forms. On the one
hand, some guidelines and checklists for the conduct of inspections
are kept on computer and are made available to inspection teams when
needed. Secondly, the annual planning meeting referred to earlier
provides a forum to ensure co-ordination and consistency in the
operation of the inspectorate. There is no professional organization
for supervisors within the Ministry of Education: generally speaking,
the Botswana Public Service is not characterized by the existence of
either formal unions or informal associations. However, the need for
a professional forum, where officers from various departments could
share ideas, has been voiced by some officers.
(e) Monitoring and evaluation
Recently principal education officers have been appointed both
in the Department of Primary and Secondary Education in order to
provide direction and leadership for the inspectorate cadre. They
now monitor the work of the Inspectorate.
The evaluation and supervision of the officers follows the normal
hierarchical procedures: e.g. heads of schools are supervised by senior
education officers, who, in turn, are supervised by regional education
officers. The supervisors release a monthly itinerary for approval by
their REOs. Emphasis is on school inspection and close monitoring
for the maintenance of standards in schools. The supervisors in the
case study indicated that the REOs appraisal of their work is based
on the number of schools inspected, the quality of reports produced
and other noteworthy contributions, such as their handling of
misconduct cases and the support they give to schools to obtain
materials. Officers are appraised through a system of Confidential
Reports which is used in the whole of the public service. No special
code of ethics exists other than the Public Service Code.
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The in-service officers are assessed on the basis of a number of
targets and performance indicators. However, because of the often
heavy workload these targets are frequently not met. They are
monitored at two levels: by an immediate Supervisor who is based at
the duty station and by the co-ordinator at the Departmental
Headquarters based in Gaborone. In-service officers prepare and
submit activity reports at the end of every school term. Generally,
reports cover the following aspects: officers’ target set, performance
indicators, and an appraisal of activities.
3. Budgetary and financial matters and working conditions
Budget and financial matters
It is rather difficult to identify, within the education budget, the
precise amount of spending on supervision and support services.
Budgets are distributed among departments and offices, which have
supervision as only one of their tasks. It is very difficult to know if a
budget line, such as ‘transport and subsistence’, was used for school
visits or for other purposes.
Supervisors’ salaries are comparable with those of other public
servants of the same level. As they get promoted, only their post is
considered, not their educational attainment (e.g. Diploma, Degree).
The career ladder of inspectors, heads and deputy heads is as follows,
from the highest to the lowest post:
Principal Education Officer I D2 Head SSS D2 Principal Education Officer II D3 Deputy Head SSS D3 Head CJSS D3 Senior Education Officer D4 Duty Head CJSS D4 Education Officer C1
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The salary of a regional education officer (Primary) is equivalent
to that of a deputy head of a secondary school and a salary scale lower
than that of a regional education officer (Secondary). A senior
education officer can earn less than the head or the deputy head of a
senior secondary school. As alluded to earlier, this promotes the
perception of inspectors as officers, junior to school heads and with
little impact on their functioning.
All the inspectors who were interviewed, with the exception of
the REO, complained about their salaries, which they thought poor,
especially in comparison with officers in other ministries and with
colleagues in, for example, the colleges of education and secondary
schools. They noted the difference between primary and secondary-
school inspectors: the former are consistently paid more than the
staff they supervise, while the same is not always true for the latter.
All finally indicated that they are paid on time.
Travel and accommodation costs incurred by senior education
officers in the course of normal duty are met by the Department. The
norm is to travel in government vehicles, however when officers are
required to use their private vehicles they may claim ‘mileage’ for
the journey. This amounts to P1.51 and P0.93 per kilometre on gravel
and tar road respectively. Accommodation costs are usually met
through a travel advance, made available to the officer and called
‘imprest’. A subsistence allowance of P75 per night may also be
claimed when officers are not accommodated in hotels. Officers in
the Central region did not fully agree on the issue of allowances: some
considered them too poor, others sufficient or good. This might be
linked to officers’ location: those based far from the regional office
had difficulties in transmitting travel claims. In the same region, all
primary inspectors have their own travel budget, however the cry is
invariably that this allocation is too little, as shown by this response:
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“The office has run short of funds several times. One has to limit
trips to avoid over-expenditure. I also experience serious
restrictions.”
Working conditions
At headquarters, office accommodation in a modern new Ministry
of Education building is adequate. Some offices are rather small for
various subject officers who keep large amounts of teaching material.
Almost all supervisors are housed by government through the
‘Housing Pool System’.
Regional offices, on the other hand, do face acute problems in
securing both office space and living accommodation for their
officers. Senior education officers and regional education officers
normally depend for accommodation on Rural Administration Centres
(RAC) controlled by the local authority. Quite often they would be
thought of last. Where there are no RACs, private accommodation
can be rented. In the case study, half the supervisors had been
provided with accommodation, while the rest rented privately. The
majority of officers live within 5 kilometres of their workplace, while
two lived 20 and 30 kilometres away, respectively, and take 20 to
40 minutes to reach their offices. The Ministry of Education does
not own any office buildings in the regions. Primary offices in the
regions very often do not have sufficient facilities such as computers,
photocopiers and proper office furniture. Generally, secondary
education and in-service officers are better provided in terms of
computers and other office equipment.
The situation in the southern part of the Central region was as
follows: while all inspectors indicated that they had their own office,
none of them was happy with its state. Their offices had the basic
materials: all had typewriters, filing cabinets and a telephone, either
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in satisfactory or excellent condition. None, however, had a computer
or a stationery cupboard and only one inspector had a photocopier.
There is great disparity in the provision of support staff: one inspector
has six staff, another two have five, the REO has two and one inspector
has only one. Their situation seems to be better than in other regions
or at central level, where at times no specific service staff are allocated
for the Inspectorate and most officers have, of necessity, learned to
type up their own reports.
Transport
Transport at headquarters is generally provided though requisition
of vehicles from the Central Transport Organization (CTO), a process
which is fraught with administrative delays. Most of the primary
senior education officers have their own office transport. However,
those in the regional offices also depend on scarce CTO pool vehicles.
In the case of secondary education, the regional education officer
has official transport and SMAs also have their own transport, making
school visits easier. The SEOs do not have transport and again have to
rely on pool vehicles from the CTO.
As far as the situation in the southern part of the Central region is
concerned, three of the six officers have their own vehicle, which,
they complain, are in a poor condition. The in-service officer has no
transport and relies on the inspectors. Another inspector depends
on loans from the Central Transport Organization. “When transport
is not available, work comes to a standstill”, lamented this inspector.
The REO also depends on loans from the CTO which are not always
guaranteed.
On the whole, most of the inspectors in this area are rather
unsatisfied, while one was totally unsatisfied, with their working
conditions. Reasons for the dissatisfaction were listed as follows:
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• lack of supplies and resources such as photocopiers, duplicators,
computers;
• lack of space;
• lack of support staff.
One inspector expresses these frustrations as follows: “With no
typist I often engage temporary assistance for which some money is
made available at least. With regard to the crowded office, you find
teachers waiting in the passage which is also used by other
departments and the public. The unsatisfactory condition of the
typewriter delays production of reports. Presently it has broken down
and typing has stopped. And, how can a field officer operate
effectively without a vehicle for the station?”
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III. ACTUAL OPERATION – REPORT OF A CASE STUDYON THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE CENTRAL REGION
Introduction: background, sample and methods of survey
This case study was conducted in the southern part of the Central
region. The regional headquarters is located in Serowe, which is the
base of the primary school regional education officer (REO), the
secondary-school REO and the In-service Centre. Serowe, a peri-urban
centre, is also the administrative headquarters of the Central District,
the largest District in the country.
For purposes of the study 10 schools were selected by random
sampling from a computer database, with only one adjustment being
made to avoid including two rural schools from the same
neighbourhood. To cover the whole of basic education (primary and
junior-secondary levels), five primary schools and five junior
community secondary schools (JCSSs) were selected.
The schools represent a variety of settings, rural, semi-urban and
urban, and with distances ranging between 116 kilometres to
3 kilometres from the inspector’s and in-service office. All schools
were either along the main tarred road connecting to Serowe, the
regional centre, or were within 30 kilometres from this road. This
meant the schools were within easy access to the regional centre and
to the inspector and in-service offices responsible for them.
Data were gathered from six officers working in this area: the
REO, one In-service Officer and four inspectors. The inspectors came
from the following villages: two from Serowe, one from Palapye
(which is 45 kilometre from Serowe, the regional centre) and one
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from Mahalapye (which is 110 kilometre from the regional centre).2
There are no secondary-school inspectors in this area, only the REO.
A questionnaire was administered to these six officers. This was
followed by a general discussion to try and get the full flavour of
conditions of work and to assess the feelings of the officers about
their work and conditions under which they operate. A questionnaire
was administered to five primary-school headteachers and two junior
secondary-school heads. The other junior secondary heads were not
available, either attending a regional heads’ workshop or otherwise
engaged. Finally, focus group discussions were held with all teachers
in all the sampled schools.
Two of the six officers (including the REO) are men. One of the
officers is between 30 and 39 years of age, two are in their forties
and three in their fifties. One has more than 20 years’ experience,
three between 10 and 19 and two less than ten. The REO and the four
inspectors have had some experience as a headteacher. One has a
Diploma, four a B. Ed and one a Master’s.
1. Planning and workload
All inspectors indicated that schools are allocated based on a
geographical area; at the same time there is an attempt to rationalize
the number of schools per inspector. Two inspectors have more than
20 schools to supervise, two others only between 10 and 19. The
number of teachers is for all four between 300 and 350. The REO and
the in-service officer are, in principle, responsible for all 131 schools
and all the teachers in the area.
2. One inspector from Palapye was on compassionate leave due to the death of her husband.She is, therefore, not included in the following statistics.
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Primary-school inspectors are required to inspect 12 schools per
year, but the number of teachers varies according to the size of the
school. The in-service officer did not specify her requirement. All
inspectors indicated that normally they are able to meet these
requirements, as far as school visits are concerned, but that they can
supervise only about two-thirds of their teachers. The reasons for
failure to do more include:
• disruption of schedules by national activities such as elections and
visit by the President, Ministers, etc.;
• long distances between schools in the sparsely populated country;
• conflict between school visits and administrative duties;
• vacant inspector positions; one inspector had to look after a
second inspectorial area, including carrying out teacher-
management duties;
• in large schools they are unable to see all teachers.
The six officers were asked, firstly, to identify the tasks that take
up most of their time; secondly, to list those tasks they consider least
important; and, thirdly, to give an approximate time-budget. The tasks
that take up most time were outlined as follows, in decreasing order:
For the REO:
• review and action on inspection reports
• monitoring inspectors’ activities
• consultation/advisory meetings with other stakeholders such as
local authorities.
For the inspectors:
• attending to office administration and teacher-management issues;
• inspecting schools and writing reports;
• meetings, seminars, conferences.
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For the in-service officer:
• conducting workshops;
• monitoring and follow-up activities;
• working with individual teachers.
All the supervisors also indicated that they consider the tasks listed
above as the ones they should be performing, although not
necessarily in this order of importance. Some of the less useful tasks
were:
• attending meetings outside the Department, e.g. drought relief,
District Development Committee;
• being transport officer;
• attending workshops and conferences;
• officiating at Parents’ Days.
Table 13 reflects the answers given by the supervisors on the
question: how much time is spent on each of their tasks?
Table 13. Average percentage of time devoted bysupervisors to various tasks
Activity Inspection In-service
School visits 20 30
Report Writing 8 15
Office work 42 -
Attending meetings 10 5
Investigating discipline cases 12 -
Teachers’ social problems 5 -
Conducting in-service training 3 50
Total 100 100
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Supervisors moreover indicated that, on average, they spend
62 per cent on what they consider administrative issues and 38 per
cent on pedagogic tasks.
2. School visits
(a) The views of the supervisors
Planning and preparation
All inspectors have annual plans and monthly itineraries prepared
by themselves and approved by the REO. In selecting schools for visits,
those with problems are given first priority and others are
systematically visited based on periodicity. Generally, plans are
followed faithfully but they may be disrupted by activities such as
elections, by visits of senior government officials, by the need to
attend to teachers’ personal problems, and by unplanned meetings,
workshops and conferences.
In planning their visits, the information on schools available to
the officers plays a big role. Although at present they do not have a
computerized database, each one has detailed information about
each of their schools. This information covers its name, when it was
established, the enrolment each term, how many pupils transferred
in and out each term, the numbers and names of teachers, how long
each teacher has been at the school, when it was last visited or
inspected, etc.
Supervisors indicated that they prepare for visits by:
• informing the school;
• checking the report of the last visit;
• setting out the objectives of the visit or identifying the precise
reason;
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• collating various materials needed (checklists, instruments);
• finding policy documents needed for the visit, depending on the
objectives (Code of Regulations, syllabuses, teachers’ timetable);
• practical preparations: luggage, food, accommodation.
The in-service officer identifies, in addition, the specific needs of
the teachers to be assisted.
Pastoral visits and full inspections are always announced. However,
some informal visits are not announced. All inspectors agreed that it
was good to give advance notice of visits, the advantage being that
teachers are able to prepare a list of the problems and constraints
that they wish to discuss. Prior notice has also some disadvantages.
Schools adopt an artificial tone which does not portray their usual
life in terms of cleanliness, classroom appearance and they prepare
for the visitor rather than showing their daily work. The in-service
officer however felt strongly that unannounced visits frighten
teachers.
Types and implementation of inspection visits
Supervisors make a distinction between five types of visit:
Full inspection five days mostly individual
Partial inspection two to three days individual
Teacher inspection one day individual
Follow-up visit one to two days individual
Courtesy visit one day individual
In addition, there exists what is called a ‘pastoral visit’, which is
quite informal, usually to welcome new teachers to the area.
All inspectors indicated that they have guidelines for visits which
they follow closely, but the in-service officer indicated that she did
not have any guidelines.
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Following is a brief description of two typical visits: a full
inspection visit by an education officer, and a classroom visit by the
in-service officer.
A full inspection visit consists of the following stages:
• inspector meets head and members of School Administration,
sometimes receives progress report;
• short staff meeting to inform teachers of expectations;
• visit to classrooms to observe individual teachers’ delivery, check
instructional records and resources;
• post-lesson discussion with individual teachers, inspector gives
advice;
• checks school administration records;
• checks pupils’ exercise books and continuous assessment records;
• check on school buildings, facilities and resources;
• staff meeting with teachers.
A classroom visit by the in-service officer can be divided into three
phases:
Pre-conference: Getting information about the class; getting the
teacher to reflect on strengths and needs in the teaching; the teacher
is asked to indicate some areas in which she wishes to be observed.
Observation: This is done by both the teacher and the adviser,
looking at specific areas the teacher has identified and any relevant
information that may crop up.
Post-conference: The teacher clarifies what she has observed: her
planning, teaching, contributions made by pupils, activities given to
pupils, etc. depending on the areas she has identified. The adviser
clarifies what she has seen, starting with strengths and then, lastly,
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the needs which can be planned for. After having discussions, the
teacher and the adviser agree on aspects to be improved. Where there
is need, a demonstration is given. They agree on a date for follow-up.
(b) The views of the school staff
Planning and preparation
Headteachers indicated that on average 40 per cent of their
teachers are visited per year. There are some striking disparities as
all teachers were seen in one school and none in another.
Headteachers considered the number of visits insufficient. Teachers
indicated that the schools were visited less than twice a year, which
they also feel is inadequate.
All headteachers indicated that they are given notice of visits for
full and partial inspections, but not always for courtesy visits. Notice
arrives between a week and a month in advance. All say that they
inform their teachers. A few teachers in a secondary school indicated
that they are not always aware of visits and sometimes meet the in-
service teacher in the classroom. Headteachers stated that it is good
to receive advance notice because they can then prepare for the visit.
They will ask the teachers to update their records, they will collect
the necessary documentation and make a list of problem areas. One
head stated : “I advise teachers to continuously prepare as usual and
not to put on an untrue reflection of what normally takes place.”
Teachers also cited the following advantages of giving advance notice:
• it ensures teachers are present;
• it gives teachers time to prepare and update records;
• it offers them an opportunity to list items for discussion.
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Headteachers also think a few spot visits (unannounced) are
advantageous. They indicated that inspectors, in any case, usually do
not request information before the visit.
Types and implementation of inspection visits
Headteachers make a distinction between five types of visit:
Full inspection three to five days primary school: one
inspector secondary school:
a team of eight to ten
Partial one day one inspector or one or
two advisers
Follow-up no indication usually one inspector
Courtesy visit brief one inspector
Teacher inspection one day one inspector
Information gathered from headteachers indicated that courtesy
visits were by far the most common, followed by teacher inspections
and then full inspections. Most schools had received at least one visit
during Term 1 of 1998. For one school, the last visit took place during
Term 3, 1997, and another school, which is only three kilometres from
the inspector’s office, indicated that it was last inspected in 1994.
All the heads indicated that supervisors give a briefing at the
beginning of a visit in order to give the objectives of the visit. They
indicated that supervisors never ask for suggestions from the head
on how to proceed. Teachers also concur that they are briefed at the
start of a visit.
Typical visits, as described by the school staff, differed little from
the procedure outlined by the supervisors. Some additional points
mentioned by some heads:
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• inspection of facilities was not done;
• there was no discussion with parents;
• the inspector ran a workshop after the inspection;
• the inspector met with the Departmental senior teacher and gave
advice.
Head teachers indicated that during full Inspection inspectors
engaged in the following activities:
• examining records;
• classroom observation;
• discussions with the head;
• discussions with the staff as a whole.
However, they did not meet with the community. During follow-
up visits, inspectors had discussions with the teachers and the head.
3. Feedback and reporting
Most headteachers and teachers indicated that they receive a quick
oral feedback through discussions after lesson observations and at
the staff meeting at the end of the inspection. This is considered
useful as it allows teachers a chance to air their views. One head
however indicated that she has never experienced this type of
discussion.
All but one headteacher had received full inspection and
individual teacher inspection reports within a month. One secondary
school complained that it had taken a year before it received the full
inspection report.
Most heads indicate that they file inspection reports. One school
displays a copy in the staff room and the library for the use of teachers.
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There was a difference of opinion on whether to send reports to
the Board of Governors (BOG). In secondary schools, where there is
more emphasis on reporting on the whole school rather than on
individual teachers, the heads felt that all stakeholders should have
access to the full report. Primary-school heads felt that the reports
should be confidential. Teachers felt that general reports should be
shared with BOG/PTA, but not individual teacher reports.
All heads indicated that they discuss the reports at full staff
meetings where input from teachers is received. About half of the
heads discussed the report with the school senior management team
and one out of six also with BOG.
Some questions were asked about the nature and usefulness of
supervisors’ recommendations. Most found these useful; however,
one school indicated that they are not helpful and added: “we carry
them out just for the satisfaction of the supervisor”. Following are
lists with examples of recommendations which headteachers and
teachers found useful or of little value. Those which were found to
be particularly useful seem to be directly related to the teaching/
learning process or show a direct experience of the classroom
environment.
Recommendation that headteachers found useful:
• use of variety of teaching methods, remedial teaching, use of
library;
• advice on keeping pupils’ records;
• stating objectives for lessons;
• suggestion that the school supply mathematical instruments to
students;
• direction on how to make comments in students’ continuous
assessment files.
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Recommendations that teachers found useful:
• provision of in-service training for teachers;
• attachment to Teaching Aid Production Division;
• teachers to be deployed to level appropriate to their skills/calibre;
• remedial teaching;
• improving tidiness of pupils’ work;
• following objectives for the lesson;
• regular marking of pupils’ work;
• team teaching.
Recommendations that heads found to be of little value (60 per
cent of heads were silent on this issue):
• coding of syllabus objectives (this probably has to do with the
newly introduced Criterion Reference Testing at the end of primary
schooling);
• introduction of English as a medium of instruction in Standard 2
while materials are not available and teachers are not trained in
this aspect.
Kinds of recommendations that teachers found to be of little value:
• recitation as a teaching method;
• discipline in large classes: advice given is not practical;
• different subjects sharing display area in the classroom.
4. Follow-up
Six headteachers answered the question in how far they undertake
follow-up activities: three said they do so most of the time, two always
and one sometimes. The recommendations are put into practice by
calling meetings and by motivating teachers through visits to their
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lessons and discussions. In addition, all but one headteacher indicated
that they do develop specific action plans to implement
recommendations. The teachers confirm this: in all but one school
they indicated that specific plans are made.
The headteachers indicated that they are rather unsatisfied with
follow-up activities by supervisors themselves, since these come after
a very long time or are superficial in nature. Full inspection reports
were said to be useful in the running of the school, but not partial
inspections. Most of the interviewed teachers indicated that they are
totally unsatisfied with follow-up activities.
The supervisors recognize that their impact on schools is not as
beneficial as it could be. They feel that several improvements are
needed to offer them greater possibilities to be of help to schools.
They list the following:
• better transport provision;
• better provision of resources by local authorities for the renovation
of schools, teachers’ accommodation and instructional materials;
• reduction of the number of schools per inspector;
• provision of caravans for accommodation when visiting rural
schools, where the inspector has to sleep in a classroom;
• appointment of officers to handle administrative work;
• training for inspectors;
• better office and residential accommodation.
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IV. OVERALL ASSESSMENT
1. Impact on school functioning and quality
The impact of supervision evidently depends to a large extent on
the possibility for supervisors to visit schools regularly. At primary-
school level, two conditions should make regular and frequent visits
possible. Firstly, each senior education officer has a compact number
of schools (average 19) to look after. Secondly, most officers have an
official vehicle they can use to visit schools. However, officers in the
more sparsely populated parts of the country have to travel vast
distances between schools, often under very difficult road conditions.
Sometimes these roads are impassable in the rainy season. These
factors make frequent visits difficult.
Visits to primary schools are mainly of two types – one-week full
inspections and one-day advisory or follow-up visits. Because each
senior education officer has relatively few schools to supervise, they
are in principle able to visit each school in two school terms and
conduct full inspections regularly every two years. The senior
education officers get to know their schools intimately. They get to
know all the teachers as well. Not every SEO is in the same
advantageous situation: some, as mentioned above, face quite difficult
working conditions, while in other cases, posts are vacant and one
officer has to take care of two inspectorial areas. The result can be, as
was shown in the case study, that some schools are left unvisited for
quite some time.
At the secondary-education level, the problems are more
widespread and take on a structural character. The officers are too
few. The secondary-school level is complex because of subject
specialization necessitating more officers. These officers are very
poorly represented at regional level – usually about four – and are
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under-resourced in terms of transport. These factors militate against
regular visits to schools. As a result the officers are not closely in
touch with their schools and their impact is therefore much
diminished.
The case study examined in more detail the types of supervision
activities with the greatest impact. All headteachers and teachers
agreed that full inspection had the most impact. Aspects of
supervision that heads found particularly useful were (in order of
preference): classroom observation, advice on teaching methodology
and staff development. The teachers identified (in order of
preference): assessment of resources in the school, lesson observation
and on-the-spot advice. All concurred that not enough is done on
these aspects.
Table 14 shows the opinions of headteachers and teachers on the
impact of a full inspection, from none to very high, on the different
aspects of a school.
Table 14. Impact of full inspection
Area Headteachers Teachers
Administration Fair Limited
School infrastructure None – limited None
Availability of instructional materials Limited Limited
Teacher presence Fairly high None – limited
Lesson preparation Fairly high High
Classroom teaching and delivery Fairly high – high Very high
Student presence Fair Fair
Student performance Fair Limited
Relations between staff Fairly high Limited
Teacher motivation Fair High
Staff development Fair Fair
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2. Challenges to supervision and support
Recruitment and training
Because the primary-education inspectorate is much older and
more established, it has almost its full complement of officers at
district and regional level. The same is not true at the secondary level.
A lot more officers are required per region because of subject
specialization. Poor recruitment into this cadre is compounded by
two factors: firstly, the manpower ceilings imposed on the Ministry
by development planning and, secondly, recruitment and career
issues. The best people to enter into this cadre, the heads and
deputies of secondary schools, are not attracted because their salaries
are already at the level of senior education officers and there are very
limited prospects for progression. The teachers who still find it
attractive to apply for positions of senior education officers are usually
not sufficiently experienced.
The absence of a comprehensive training programme for senior
education officers also undermines the development of this
supervisory service. To date, training has been ad hoc and without
focus, consequently it has not had a significant impact on the service.
Working conditions
The officers in primary and secondary education are sufficiently
well financed to meet recurrent expenses. Their biggest problem is
lack of adequate and appropriate office accommodation and
transport, in the case of secondary education. This seriously
undermines effectiveness and morale. The officers in the southern
part of the Central region commented on the paucity of transport
facilities and on the need to foresee accommodation, e.g. in the form
of a caravan for officers who are visiting isolated rural schools.
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In-service officers, on the other hand, are reasonably resourced –
they have a facility they can call their own in the form of Education
Centres. Their transport problems are not as bad.
Workload and job satisfaction
As mentioned earlier, there appears to be no problem with
workload and job satisfaction within the primary education senior
education officers.
The multiple functions that secondary senior education officers
carry out impose a big workload. This burden diminishes their ability
to supervise and support teachers. Their difficulties with recognition
by school heads further undermine their morale, which does not
enhance their job satisfaction.
Disparities and co-ordination between services
The inconsistencies and inequalities outlined above between these
different services that provide supervision and support further
weaken their effectiveness. Some departments are adequately staffed
while others are not. Some are adequately resourced by way of
infrastructure and transport while others are not. Some have attractive
conditions of service and others not. A crucial problem is that the
regional demarcations of the three services do not coincide, resulting
in difficult co-ordination.
Insufficient visits
Even if officers succeed in visiting schools twice yearly, as is the
norm, teachers find this to be insufficient. In any case, many
supervisors do not succeed in respecting the norm.
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In the case study, the headteachers as well as the teachers
complained about the irregularity of visits. The headteachers believe
that supervisors have too many schools to reach in one year and do
not have enough manpower. The teachers have a more critical opinion
and add to this first reason, three others:
• supervisors do not know their job descriptions;
• they need training;
• they like visiting remote schools so they can claim travel allowance.
Attitudes of supervisory staff
For supervisory officers to be effective, they must be perceived at
school level as truly supportive. The old-style inspector who is out
on fault finding has no place in efforts to improve quality of teaching
and learning.
The tension between secondary senior education officers and
school heads is fuelled by the perception each group has of the other.
The senior education officers want to see themselves as senior (and,
therefore, superior?) to school heads, while school heads see them
as junior officers. Unless these attitudes are dispelled, the
effectiveness of the senior education officers will be greatly
undermined.
Lack of follow-up
A number of headteachers in the Central region were asked to
identify what they saw as the main problems with inspection and in-
service officers and to suggest measures to improve on the
effectiveness of these services. The results are presented in the
Tables 15 and 16.
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Table 15. Main problems mentioned by selected heads inthe Central region
Inspection In-service
Inspectors overloaded resulting in Teachers called out of classrooms toolimited number of inspections often for workshops
Visits are irregular In-service is irregular
No follow-up made Advisers are located far from schools
Inspection reports not made No follow-up after workshopsavailable to schools quickly enough
Inspectors unable to influence Too many schools per adviserprovision of infrastructure andinstructional materials
Table 16. Measures for improvement suggested by selectedheads in the Central region
Inspection In-service
Employ more inspectors Identify real needs of teachers
Strengthen in-school supervision Make follow-up visits and fewer schoolsper officer
Regular visits to schools and more More in-school advice for teachers andfollow-up school-based workshops
Provision of infrastructure and Advisers should brief heads on the kindslearning materials should be of services they can offerconducted by Ministry of Educationinstead of local authorities
What can be noticed is that, in addition to some problems
mentioned above, such as the irregularity of visits and the overload
of work, many of their references concern the lack of follow-up and
the different ways this is being experienced: the fact that inspection
reports arrive with delay, the great distance between schools and
supervision and support staff, the relative powerlessness of
supervisors to influence provision of infrastructure and learning
materials. The measures of improvement, suggested by heads, focus
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on the same issue. The teachers, when asked a similar question,
recognized a similar list as concrete measures to improve supervisors’
work:
• increase the number of inspectors;
• increase number of advisers – one for each subject area in a region;
• more frequent visits to schools;
• provide transport for supervisors;
• reports should be made available immediately after an inspection/
advisory visit;
• regular follow-up visits.
3. Present trends and challenges
The National Commission on Education of 1992 identified many
of the problems outlined in the above section and made several
recommendations. The comprehensive implementation of these
recommendations should result in improvement in teacher
supervision and support. Implementation has already started and
progress has been made in some areas.
The Secondary Schools Management Development Project ran as
a project from 1993-1996 and is now institutional as a programme. It
did a lot in reshaping secondary-school heads’ attitudes and values
through advocating participatory management and transparency.
Recommendations 104 and 105 of the Revised National Policy on
Education (RNPE) emphasize the need to decentralize staff
development and in-service training to the school level. The Senior
Management Team in the school (head, deputy, senior teachers) is
required to take the lead in school-based, school-focused staff
development programmes as the most effective form of support to
teachers. A consequence of the SSMDP, coupled with this
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recommendation, is the establishment of staff development
committees in the schools. They carry out needs assessment in the
school and draw up programmes for school-based training, using
talent within the school or inviting expertise from outside if it does
not exist in the school.
The Botswana In-Service, Pre-Service Project (BIPP) will further
strengthen school-based in-service training. The SSMDP has been a
successful concept and is now being replicated at primary-education
level with the PSMDP which started in October 1997. Some 30 primary-
school heads were selected and sent for a two-year intensive training
programme in schools management development. When they return
they will be based at Education Centres and each will have a cluster
of schools to work with along the lines of the secondary schools’
SMAs.
The establishment of a separate Department of Inspection as
articulated in Recommendation 116 will enhance the career
development of senior education officers as school inspectors. Salient
points of this Recommendation are:
“(a) The inspection of schools should be under one department of
inspection formed from an enhanced amalgamation of the
existing departmental inspectorates.
(b) The extent and limitations of the level of responsibility of the
inspector in relation to the teacher, the head and other officers
should be clearly defined.
(c) All members of the Inspectorate should receive training on
appointment and regular in-service training. A comprehensive
training programme should be implemented as a matter of
urgency.”
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The implementation of these recommendations will
comprehensively address many concerns raised above by the senior
education officers.
Decentralization as conceived in Recommendation 117 envisages
a regional representation of the Ministry of Education that would
harmonize all the Ministry’s departments at regional level. It calls for
all departments of the Ministry to be under one leadership in the
region. It perceives all departments operating from under one roof.
This would make it cost-effective to provide support service such as
equipment, support services, transport and office space. The
departments will begin to relate better with each other instead of
being independent entities that duplicate resources and effort.
Through the ADEA’s working group in the teaching profession,
whose lead agency is the Commonwealth Secretariat, SADC countries
have embarked on a project – SADC teacher management and support
project. They have developed modules for the training of school
inspectors. What remains is to identify a lead institution within the
region within which this training would be institutionalized. Once
this is achieved Botswana would be able to implement
Recommendation 116(c).
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CONCLUSION
As the education system continues to expand the need for
strengthening supervisory and support services also increases. When
new schools open, new and inexperienced heads are appointed. They
need support with their own development so that they can have the
capacity to supervise and lead others. Each year many new teachers
join the service on completion of training. In the first few years in
the service, as the teachers try to find their way, a lot of support is
necessary. In Botswana the many demands made on the teacher as a
result of the innovations that come with the RNPE demand that the
support services be strengthened to effectively render the required
service.
As the system grows supervision can no longer be effective from
the centre, it will need to be decentralized right down to school level.
This calls for intensified training of the inspectorate and the school
heads.
The potential of boards of governors and PTAs as supervisory
structures is not fully exploited. If it were it would further enhance
the efforts of the traditional structures of supervision.
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Chapter II
School supervisionin Namibia
H.C.H. Van SchalkwykA. Ilukena
D. MukuwaF. Voigts
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CONTENTS
Pages
List of abbreviations 76
List of tables 77
Introduction 79
I. General overview of supervision and supportservices 84
1. Historical background 842. The overall structure of supervision and support 853. Official functions of the different services 884. Relations with other pedagogical services 895. Classical supervision and support services within a
broader perspective: school-site support andsupervision 92
II. The management of supervision services: basicfacts and critical issues 93
1. Basic facts and figures 932. Critical management issues 1103. Budgetary and financial matters 113
III. Daily operation of supervision and supportservices – results of a case study 118
Introduction 1181. Basic data 1222. Planning and workload 1243. School visits 1284. Reporting 1335. Follow-up, including use of reports 136
IV. Overall assessment 1391. Impact on school functioning and quality 1392. Synthesis of main problems 1423. Present trends and innovations 144
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BETD Basic Education Teachers' Diploma
CEO Chief Education Officer
CIE Chief Inspector Education
CHO Chief Hostels Officer
DEPI Directorate Educational Programme Implementation
DIAS Directorate of Inspectorate and Advisory Services
DIR Director
DNEA Directorate of Examinations
EO Education Officer
HO Hostels Officer
IE Inspector Education
IH Inspector Hostels
NIED National Institute for Educational Development
PADE Postgraduate Diploma In Education
PMS Performance Management System
SEO Senior Education Officer
SIE Senior Inspection Education
SIH Senior Inspector Hostels
TRC Teacher Resource Centre
UNAM University of Namibia
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Schools, learners, teachers and support staff, 1996 81
2. Class sizes and percentages of females, 1996 82
3. Average annual enrolment increase 82
4. Teacher qualifications, 1996 83
5. Number of posts on the establishment by region, 1997 97
6. Number of posts filled (staff actually appointedor acting in positions) by region, 1997 98
7. Average number of schools and teachers per post on theestablishment by region, 1997 99
8. Average number of schools and teachers per filled post byregion, 1997 100
9. Supervision and support staff by gender and region, 1997 101
10. Supervision and support staff by post and age, 1997 102
11. Age distribution of all supervision and staff by region, 1997 103
12. Years of total working experience of supervisionand support staff by post, 1997 104
13. Years of supervision and support services experienceby post, 1997 105
14. Total years of working experience of supervisionand support staff by region, 1997 106
15. Years of supervision and support services experienceby region, 1997 107
16. Level of education of supervision and support servicesby post, 1997 108
17. Level of education of supervision and support servicesby region 109
18. Financial conditions: opinions of advisory teachers 114
19. Working conditions of supervision and support staffin Ondangwa West 117
20. Time-budget of advisory teachers 126
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21. Time-budget of inspectors 128
22. Regularity of reporting 134
23. Satisfaction with follow-up 137
24. Areas covered by supervision, as assessed by schools(in percentages) 139
25. Impact of supervision on different aspects of school life,as assessed by schools (in percentages) 140
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INTRODUCTION
Namibia was one of the last African countries to gain its
independence, in 1990. It is very sparsely populated: just over one
and a half million people occupy an area more than three times the
size of the United Kingdom. The population is ethnically very
diversified, which has an evident impact on the language situation:
ten African and three European languages are fairly widely used.
The Constitution of the Republic of Namibia ref lects the
expectations of the people concerning education as follows:
“Article 20. Education
(1) All persons shall have the right to education.
(2) Primary education shall be compulsory and the state shall
provide reasonable facilities to render effective this right for
every resident within Namibia, by establishing and maintaining
state schools at which primary education will be provided free
of charge.
(3) Children shall not be allowed to leave school until they have
completed their primary education or have attained the age of
sixteen (16) years, whichever is the soonest, save insofar as this
may be authorized by Act of Parliament on grounds of health or
other considerations pertaining to the public interest.
(4) All persons shall have the right, at their own expense, to
establish and to maintain private schools, or colleges, or other
institutions of tertiary education, provided that:
(a) such schools, colleges or institutions of tertiary education
are registered with a government department in accordance
with any law authorizing and regulating such registration;
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(b) the standards maintained by such schools, colleges or
institutions of tertiary education are not inferior to the
standards maintained in comparable schools, colleges or
institutions of tertiary education funded by the state;
(c) no restrictions of whatever nature are imposed with respect
to the admission of pupils based on race, colour or creed;
(d) no restrictions of whatever nature are imposed with respect
to the recruitment of staff based on race or colour.”
Namibia is divided into thirteen political regions and seven
education regions, with a Head Office in Windhoek.
Just after independence in 1990, Namibia embarked on a
comprehensive reform of its education system. Before independence,
educational provision was unequally divided over the different parts
with an unequal distribution of resources. Upon independence, the
education system was unified and many structural and educational
changes have since been effected.
Within the Ministry, three divisions were set up with a role in
offering supervision and support:
• The Directorate of Inspectorate and Advisory Services (DIAS),
which is mainly responsible for supervision and support. It was
not active until 1996 and still faces problems of understaffing.
• The National Institute for Educational Development (NIED),
established in Okahandja, 80 kilometres from Windhoek and serving
as a research body for the Ministry.
• The Directorate Educational Programme Implementation
(DEPI) is the principal organ for ensuring that national guidelines
and policies are adhered to and that the goal of equity, particularly
between the regions, is being achieved.
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In addition, every region has resource centres where teachers,
inspectors and subject advisers can have meetings, workshops, etc.
The financial situation of the Ministry of Education may be
described as satisfactory although money for development will always
be a constraint. The total budget of the Ministry for the 1996-1997
fiscal year was N$1,051,511,000. As the number of students was 471,148,
the average expenditure per learner was N$2,076.
Growth in the provision of education after independence can be
seen in the increase of the number of schools from 1,325 in 1992 to
1,435 in 1996. The largest growth was between 1995 and 1996 when
57 new schools were opened.
Table 1 gives a clear indication of the number of schools, learners
and support staff (clerks, secretaries and cleaners).
Table 1. Schools, learners, teachers and support staff,1996
Region Schools Learners Teachers Support staff
Total % Female Total % Female Total % Female
Namibia Total 1,435 478,534 50.7 16,679 60.5 2,708 53.0
Katima Mulilo/Caprivi 40 33,448 48.5 1,497 35.7 231 86.1
Rundu/Okavango 238 45,874 48.8 1,802 37.2 123 32.5
Ondangwa East 349 118,201 51.9 3,053 65.6 455 27.0
Ondangwa West 345 134,894 51.2 4,094 69.1 380 52.4
Khorixas 107 34,431 51.2 1,398 58.4 371 56.1
Windhoek 141 77,894 50.5 3,240 68.1 716 52.9
Keetmans-hoop 109 2,601 50.0 1,465 50.0 395 68.1
Special schools 6 1,091 43.5 130 70.0 37 48.6
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A clearer picture of the distribution of learners and class sizes is
provided by Table 2. The average class size is acceptable by
international and regional standards, at both primary level (34 pupils
per class) and secondary (32 per class). Females represent on the
whole more than half of all students and their share increases the
higher the grade, until junior secondary.
Table 2. Class sizes and percentages of females, 1996
Total Primary Secondary Othergrades
Total Lower Upper Total Junior Senior
Namibia 478,534 372,256 244,238 128,018 104,480 80,353 24,127 1,798Total learners
% Female 50.7 49.9 48.8 52.1 53.8 54.5 51.4 43.9
Class groups 14,336 11,013 7,319 3,694 3,219 2,429 790 104
Average 33.4 33.8 33.4 34.7 32.5 33.1 30.5 17.3class size
Table 3 highlights the increase in enrolment of learners from 1992
to 1996. The average annual growth rate was about 2 to 2.5 per cent,
slightly lower than the population growth.
Table 3. Average annual enrolment increase
Total Primary Averageannual
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 growth rate %
Learners 439,325 450,639 474,343 472,228 478,534 2.2
Males 213,775 220,177 232,683 232,551 235,714 2.5
Females 225,550 230,462 241,660 239,677 242,820 1.9
The need for support services (inspectors and subject advisers)
is clear when a study is made of the professional and academic
qualifications of teachers in government and private schools
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(Table 4). Almost 30 per cent of teachers do not have teacher training,
while the formal qualifications of 35 per cent are rather low: less
than Grade 12 (the end of senior secondary).
Table 4. Teacher qualifications, 1996
Total Teachers without formal Teachers with formalteacher training teacher training
Total Total Less Grade More Total Less Grade Morethan 12 than than 12 than
Grade or 1-2 2 years Grade or 1-2 2 years12 years of of 12 years of of
tertiary tertiary tertiary tertiaryeducation education education education
Total 16,679 4,700 2,355 2,109 236 11,979 3,633 6,830 1,516teachers
% 100.0 28.2 14.1 12.6 1.4 71.8 21.8 40.9 9.1
Government 15,774 4,532 2,292 2,036 211 11,237 3,537 6,458 1,242teachers
% 100.0 28.8 14.5 12.9 1.3 71.2 22.4 40.9 7.9
Private 905 163 65 73 25 742 96 372 274teachers
% 100.0 18.0 7.2 8.1 2.8 82.0 10.6 41.1 30.3
When Namibia became independent in 1990, English was adopted
as the official language. This issue held serious implications for
education. In November 1991, the Ministry of Education and Culture’s
Language Policy for schools was first published. From 1993 to 1996,
the phasing-in of English as the main medium of instruction was
introduced in Grades 4-7 for promotional subjects. From 1994 to 1998,
the other subjects were reformed. All of the above was the work of a
committee situated in NIED and known as the Curriculum
Coordinating Committee. The reform in the Junior Primary division
(Grades 1-3) is running concurrently with all of the above. This reform
started in 1995 and was completed in 1997 by the Lower Primary Task
Force.
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I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SUPERVISION ANDSUPPORT SERVICES
1. Historical background
Before independence, there were 11 different second-tier
authorities, each with their own policies, norms and resources and
their own supervision and support services. This arrangement stopped
with independence, when a national strategy was developed to get
to equity as far as the norms for provision were concerned. The
distribution of teachers, inspectors and subject advisers in the regions
was made more equitable, but was still mainly determined by the
available finances.
After independence, several changes were made with regard to
the establishment of the Ministry. This led to uncertainty amongst
staff members about their employment. The National Institute of
Educational Development was formed to do research and to develop
programmes (curricula, etc.). The Directorate Inspectorate and
Advisory Services (DIAS), which should have been directly
responsible for assisting the teacher in the classroom and the
principal to manage the school, was not activated until 1996. At this
moment, inspectors and subject advisers are not yet properly
organized.
The main issues remain, on the one hand, ensuring equity, and, on
the other hand, strengthening co-ordination in a country which had
been characterized by the existence of fairly independent and
unequal authorities.
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2. The overall structure of supervision and support
Supervision and support to teachers are offered at three levels:
the Head Office, the Regional Office and the school itself.
(a) In the Head Office, three directorates have a role to play:
• Directorate National Institution for Educational Development
(NIED):
It is responsible for research and the programmes related to
schools as well as the monitoring of the implementation of the
programmes.
• Directorate Inspectorate and Advisory Services (DIAS):
It is basically responsible for assistance to advisory teachers and
inspectors in the regions concerning policy, co-ordination and
running of schools.
• Directorate Educational Programme Implementation (DEPI):
It is basically responsible for the implementation of programmes
and, at present, for the monitoring of the implementation of the
IGCSE programme. It also assists teachers in the classrooms.
In other words, NIED develops programmes, curricula, etc. and
inspectors and advisory teachers implement these in the regions.
NIED also plays a role as far as the monitoring of the implementation
is concerned. DIAS is responsible for implementation of programmes
in the schools and for improving the standard of teaching in the
classroom.
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At this stage, proper co-ordination and co-operation between the
different directorates does not exist, but it is on the Ministry’s
programme to clarify this matter.
(b)Each Regional Office is headed by a Director and counts three
sections with responsibility for teacher supervision and
support:
• Section Advisory Services:
Education Officers give subject advice to teachers. They assist
teachers in the teaching process in the classroom. They ensure proper
implementation of programmes developed by NIED. They are
indirectly, via the regional director, in contact with Head Office.
• Division schools and hostels’ management:
(i) Inspectors of Education:
They are mainly responsible for the management of schools and
hostels and their target group is the principal and the rest of the
top management of the school or the superintendent of the school
hostel.
(ii) Hostels Officers:
They assist the chief Hostel Matron in the household division of
hostels to create a ‘home away from home’ atmosphere.
• The Teacher Resource Centre section:
Centres are unevenly distributed over the country and only assist
teachers, inspectors and subject teachers near to the centre.
Within some regions, district offices were created to serve those
areas which are least accessible to the services provided directly from
regional offices. These seven offices differ in type and quantity of
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staff according to their location and to the size of the population to
be served. Each office is headed by a District Education Officer.
(c) The school:
The principal, together with the Heads of Department, is
responsible for the implementation of programmes at school level,
ensuring high-quality teaching and creating a learning-teaching
atmosphere.
Hierarchical relationship of staff employed:
NIED HO RO HO RO HO ROINSPECT- INSPECT- SUBJECT SUBJECT HOSTELS HOSTELSORATE ORATE ADVISER ADVISER
CEO CIE CEO CEO CEO SIH
SEO SIE SEO/SIE SEO SEO IH IH
EO IE IE EO EO CHO HO
CEO Chief education officerCHO Chief hostels officerCIE Chief inspector educationDIR DirectorEO Education officerHO Hostels officerIE Inspector educationIH Inspector hostelsRO Regional officeSEO Senior education officerSIE Senior inspector educationSIH Senior inspector hostels
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3. Official functions of the different services
The following are the main official tasks of the different services:
• Directorate National Institute for Educational Development (NIED)
– the evaluation, design and development of curricula for the
education system;
– the enhancement of professionalism and quality of teaching
personnel and other resources;
– the rendering of a general administrative support service.
• Directorate Educational Programme Implementation (DEPI)
– the training, development and assessment of schools’ and
hostels’ personnel to ensure the efficient and effective
management of the educational programmes and services;
– the provision of professional leadership and guidance in the
management of the Inspectorate and advisory services to
schools;
– the rendering of diagnostic, counselling and educational
psychological services to all learners;
– the determining of policies and the development of programmes
to establish and maintain opportunities for children with special
needs.
• Directorate Inspectorate and Advisory Services (DIAS)
– the training and development of schools’ and hostels’ managers
to improve the management effectiveness in educational
institutions;
– the formulation and development of management policies,
procedures and manuals;
– the administering and co-ordination of the National School
Feeding Programme (NSFP).
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– the development and setting of national standards for better
teaching in schools;
– the monitoring of development and the enhancement of the
quality of educational programmes;
– the in-service training of school personnel to achieve set
standards.
• Teacher Resource Centres
– assistance to teachers to be more efficient in their classes;
– assistance with regional courses;
– collecting and storing of publications, documents and other
educational resources needed by schools.
The government-paid inspectors and subject advisers are also
responsible for supervision and support to private institutions which
are subsidized by the government.
4. Relations with other pedagogical services
Teacher pre-service and in-service training is in the hands of the
University of Namibia (UNAM) and the Regional Colleges of
Education.
The University of Namibia works both for pre-service and in-
service courses:
(a) The following pre-service courses are presented by UNAM:
• four-year B.Ed course;
• HED Sec. that is to be phased out.
(b) UNAM also contributes to in-service training in the following
areas:
• PADE (Postgraduate Diploma in Education);
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• every year, personnel of UNAM visit schools to do in-service
training concerning subject contents;
• Ad Ed (Advanced Diploma in Education).
The Regional Colleges of Education offer the following courses:
(a) Pre-service training:
• Basic Education teacher’s Diploma (three years) (BETD). NIED
plays an important role in curriculum research and development
for this BETD course. When properly structured, EPI will also
play a role.
(b) In-service Training Courses:
• Four-year courses for unqualified and under-qualified teachers.
Pedagogical research: UNAM has its own research division which
is working closely with other universities and NIED, but with little
interaction with other Departments in the Ministry.
Examinations
The Directorate of Examinations (DNEA)’s main objective is to
establish a national examination system. It administers all external
national examinations. As far as primary schools are concerned, the
Ministry has approved measures to implement a national Grade 7
external examination.
The Examination Board is the policy-making board with regard
to examinations. Members are from the following cadres:
• The Permanent Secretary (chairperson) (1),
• Regional Directors (7),
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• Under Secretaries (2),
• Representative of the Polytechnic (1),
• Representative of UCLES,
• Representative of the Windhoek College of Education,
• Teachers Unions (3).
There are no representatives from the inspection services.
At central level, on the whole, there are therefore rather few
linkages between supervision and support action and those in charge
of other services aimed at pedagogical improvement. NIED’s
involvement is more pronounced that that of the DIAS or of DEPI.
At regional level, closer co-operation has been sought. Each
Regional Council is expected to monitor, promote and oversee
educational development in its region. In order to fulfil this
responsibility, each council should establish a Regional Education
Forum. The function of such a forum is to advise regional education
authorities; oversee school operations; and protect the education
interests of the community. The forum should be composed of
representatives of School Boards (one representative from every
Constituency or Inspection Circuit); representative(s) of community
leaders; a representative of church bodies; a representative of
employers (business); a representative of workers (trade unions); a
representative of teacher unions; a representative of students’
organizations; non-governmental organizations; and any other co-
opted members. One councillor should be designated by the Regional
Council to be the convenor. The Director of Education and Culture
in the region should be the ex-officio member and Secretary of the
forum. The forum should meet at least three times a year. It should
report on its activities to the Regional Council and the Ministry of
Education and Culture. The absence of inspectors can be noted.
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5. Classical supervision and support services within a broaderperspective: school-site support and supervision
In principle, the policy is towards giving more responsibilities to
the top management of schools which is composed of the Principal,
the Deputy Principal and the Heads of Department.
Normally, senior subject teachers are requested to be in charge of
their subject. The work of such a subject head is to monitor whether
written work has been controlled by subject teachers and to help
subject teachers where requested (even in the class room). Heads of
Department in small schools are sometimes requested to do the work
of subject heads. In some schools, principals make use of guardian
teachers to assist newly appointed teachers. This system of in-school
supervision and support is so far only functioning in a small
percentage of schools.
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II. THE MANAGEMENT OF SUPERVISION SERVICES:BASIC FACTS AND CRITICAL ISSUES
1. Basic facts and figures
The following tables offer detailed information on the numbers
of staff working in the supervision and support services and on their
profile. All figures relate to August 1997 (school figures) and
November 1997 (supervision and support-staff figures) and were
collected specifically for this national diagnosis.
Some judgement had to be used regarding the inclusion and
exclusion of specific posts in the data presented below: as direct
supervision and support services to schools were virtually exclusively
provided by regional office staff, no head office staff statistics were
included. The following posts in regional offices have been included:
Senior Inspector, Inspector of Education and District Education
Officer (grouped as ‘Inspectorate’); and Senior Advisory Teacher,
Advisory Teacher and Regional or District Teachers Resource Manager
(grouped as ‘advisory services’).1
All learner (pupil), teacher and school statistics exclude special
schools under the Division of Special Education in Head Office. They
do include private schools as most private schools in Namibia are
staffed or otherwise supported and supervised by government.
1. The following posts have not been included in the tables of basic figures:
• Regional Education Officers;• Inspector of Hostels;• School Counsellor and Senior School Counsellor (they are mainly in charge of education
psychology and guidance);• Local Teachers Resource Centre Manager (mainly responsible for all equipment and
materials in the TRC, and assists teachers in using a multi-media approach to teaching);• All Adult Education, General Services (Administration), Library and Culture staff;• Head Office staff.
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Tables 5 to 8 present the numbers of established and filled posts
in supervision and support. The number of posts is linked to the
structure of the Ministry of Education.
The present structure was approved in 1993 and implemented in
April 1994. A review of the structure, conducted in 1997, was not yet
finalized at the time of writing. The present structure was partially
based on norms, while the proposed new structure rather considers
what is called the ‘specific needs of individual regions’. The relevant
norms underlying the present structure are stated below as edited
quotes from the relevant policy document. It should be noted that
the actual allocation of posts is still based on 1992 statistics.
(a) There are seven Regional Offices, each headed by a Director.
(b) Seven District Education Offices are being created.
(c) There are 39 school weeks per year, 35 of which can reasonably be
used for inspection and advice, and 4 of which are taken up by
examinations. The remaining weeks of the year are used for
administration and staff development and training.
(d) Each Region has one Senior Inspector of Education with the exception
of the two Ondangwa Regions and Rundu, which have two Senior
Inspectors. They are expected to devote 25 per cent of their time to
managerial duties and 75 per cent of their time to inspection duties.
This proportion has been taken into account when calculating the
number of Inspectors of Education required for each Region.
(Comment: The relevant policy document quotes as norm: 1 Inspector
of Education and 75 per cent of 1 Senior Inspector of Education per
35 schools. What is apparently meant is that the number of Inspector
posts are calculated as 1 per 35 schools. Senior Inspector post is
considered to be equivalent to 75 per cent of an Inspector’s post and
has to be taken into account to arrive at the actual number of posts of
Inspector of Education.)
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(e) The number of Advisory Teachers per Region (with a minimum of 8)
=All teachers
×Unqualified teachers in the Region
105 Total unqualified teachers
(105 = 3 teachers × 35 weeks – the number an Advisory Teacher is
expected to serve per year.)
In each Region, one Advisory Teacher will be the Senior Advisory
Teacher, with the exception of the Ondangwa Regions which will have
2 Senior Advisory Teachers each. This is to be considered as a
promotional level rather than a purely managerial post.
(f) 1 Teachers Resource Centre Manager, 1 Educational Technologist, 1
Resource Centre Assistant and 1 Clerical Assistant per Regional and
District Teachers Resource Centre, of which there were 6 and 4,
respectively, in 1993.
Tables 5 to 8 show that the number of filled posts in 1997 was only
about two-thirds of the total of established posts. This is in particular
the case for advisory staff. The result is that, rather than to have about
10 schools per advisory staff (which would be the case if all posts
were filled), there are now 18 schools. Almost all posts in the
‘Inspectorate’ are filled, but the number of posts is less and, as a result,
the number of teachers and schools per inspector is quite high.
A majority of supervisors are men. This is more so among
inspectors (with only some 5 per cent women) than among advisers
(with about 40 per cent women)(Table 9). Tables 10 and 11 show a
similar distinction as far as age is concerned: about three-quarters of
inspectors are over 45; over 60 per cent of advisers are less than 45.
This is reflected in the years of working experience (Tables 7 and
14). Most supervision and support staff have less than 10 years’
experience in these services (Tables 13 and 15). The professional
origin of all staff is teaching or, in virtually all cases, a senior position
in a school. Tables 12 to 15 show that, in general, inspectors have
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spent more time in schools before entering the supervision service
than advisory teachers. They have generally occupied more senior
posts in school.
A quarter of the inspectors and slightly more than 10 per cent of
advisory teachers have obtained only a secondary school degree or
less (Table 16). More than half, however, have a degree, equivalent
to a Bachelor’s degree (i.e. Grade 12 + 4 years). Regional disparities
are in this case quite significant: in one region, Rundu, 9 of the
20 supervisors have only finished Grade 12 or less (Table 17).
No specific information was collected on training. Hardly any staff
received any pre-service training in supervision, but many attend some
in-service courses from time to time.
Namibia has no statistical database of supervisory and support
services staff. A computerized personnel system presently being
developed will allow relevant statistics to be readily extracted when
the system is operational.
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Ta
ble
5.
Nu
mb
er
of
po
sts
on
th
e e
sta
bli
shm
en
t b
y r
eg
ion
, 19
97
Reg
ion
Sen
ior
Insp
ecto
rD
istr
ict
Sub
tota
l:Se
nio
rA
dvi
sory
TR
CSu
bto
tal:
Tota
lIn
spec
tor
of
Ed
uca
tio
nIn
spec
tora
teA
dvi
sory
Teac
her
Man
ager
Ad
viso
ryE
du
cati
on
Off
icer
Teac
her
(Reg
ion
alse
rvic
es o
r D
istr
ict)
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
14
16
17
19
15
Ru
nd
u2
4-
61
171
1925
On
dan
gwa
East
28
-10
227
130
40
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t2
8-
102
371
4050
Kh
ori
xas
12
25
112
215
20
Win
dh
oek
14
38
115
319
27
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p1
31
51
141
1621
Tota
l10
337
509
129
1014
819
8
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Ta
ble
6.
Nu
mb
er
of
po
sts
fill
ed
(st
aff
act
ua
lly
ap
po
inte
d o
r a
ctin
g i
n p
osi
tio
ns)
by
re
gio
n,
199
7
Reg
ion
Sen
ior
Insp
ecto
rD
istr
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Sub
tota
l:Se
nio
rA
dvi
sory
TR
CSu
bto
tal:
Tota
lIn
spec
tor
of
Ed
uca
tio
nIn
spec
tora
teA
dvi
sory
Teac
her
Man
ager
Ad
viso
ryE
du
cati
on
Off
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Teac
her
(Reg
ion
alse
rvic
es o
r D
istr
ict)
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
14
-5
-6
17
12
Run
du1
7-
81
101
1220
On
dan
gwa
Eas
t2
8-
101
7-
818
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t1
7-
81
81
1018
Kh
ori
xas
13
-4
111
214
18
Win
dh
oek
15
17
-14
-14
21
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p1
5-
61
141
1622
Tota
l8
391
485
706
8112
9
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School supervision in Namibia
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Ta
ble
7.
Ave
rag
e n
um
be
r o
f sc
ho
ols
an
d t
ea
che
rs p
er
po
st o
n t
he
est
ab
lish
me
nt
by
re
gio
n,
199
7
Reg
ion
Sch
oo
ls, t
each
ers
and
lear
ner
sA
pp
rove
d p
ost
s
Sch
oo
lsTe
ach
ers
Lea
rner
sIn
spec
tora
teSc
ho
ols
Teac
her
sA
dvi
sory
Sch
oo
lsTe
ach
ers
per
per
serv
ices
per
per
insp
ecto
rin
spec
tor
advi
sory
advi
sory
staf
fst
aff
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
143
1,51
034
,125
623
.825
1.7
915
.916
7.8
Run
du23
61,
763
48,1
016
39.3
293.
819
12.4
92.8
On
dan
gwa
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t35
03,
248
120,
448
1035
.032
4.8
3011
.710
8.3
On
dan
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t34
94,
079
135,
472
1034
.940
7.9
408.
710
2.0
Kh
ori
xas
115
1,40
936
,033
523
.028
1.8
157.
793
.9
Win
dh
oek
148
3,31
981
,596
818
.541
4.9
197.
817
4.7
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p10
81,
431
33,4
835
21.6
286.
216
6.8
89.4
Tota
l1,
449
16,7
5948
9,25
850
29.0
335.
214
89.
811
3.2
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Ta
ble
8.
Ave
rag
e n
um
be
r o
f sc
ho
ols
an
d t
ea
che
rs p
er
fill
ed
po
st b
y r
eg
ion
, 19
97
Reg
ion
Sch
oo
ls, t
each
ers
and
lear
ner
sF
ille
d p
ost
s
Sch
oo
lsTe
ach
ers
Lea
rner
sIn
spec
tora
teSc
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ols
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her
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dvi
sory
Sch
oo
lsTe
ach
ers
per
per
serv
ices
per
per
insp
ecto
rin
spec
tor
advi
sory
advi
sory
staf
fst
aff
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
143
1,51
034
,125
528
.630
2.0
720
.421
5.7
Ru
nd
u23
61,
763
48,10
18
29.5
220.
412
19.7
146.
9
On
dan
gwa
East
350
3,24
812
0,44
810
35.0
324.
88
43.8
406.
0
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t34
94
079
135
472
843
.650
9.9
1034
.940
7.9
Kh
ori
xas
115
1,40
936
,033
428
.835
2.3
148.
210
0.6
Win
dh
oek
148
3,31
981
,596
721
.147
4.1
1410
.623
7.1
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p10
81,
431
33,4
836
18.0
238.
516
6.8
89.4
Tota
l1,
449
16,7
5948
9,25
848
30.2
349.
181
17.9
206.
9
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
101
Ta
ble
9.
Sup
erv
isio
n a
nd
su
pp
ort
sta
ff b
y g
en
de
r a
nd
re
gio
n,
199
7
Reg
ion
Sex
Sen
ior
Insp
ecto
rD
istr
ict
Sub
tota
l:Se
nio
rA
dvi
sory
TR
CSu
bto
tal :
Tota
l I
nsp
ecto
ro
fE
du
cati
on
Insp
ecto
rate
Ad
viso
ryTe
ach
erM
anag
erA
dvi
sory
Ed
uca
tio
nO
ffic
erTe
ach
er(R
egio
nal
serv
ices
or
Dis
tric
t)
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
F-
--
--
1-
11
M1
4-
5-
51
611
Ru
nd
uF
--
--
-6
17
7M
17
-8
14
15
13
On
dan
gwa
F-
--
--
4-
44
Eas
tM
28
-10
13
-4
14
On
dan
gwa
F-
1-
11
4-
56
Wes
tM
16
-7
-4
15
12
Kh
ori
xas
F-
--
--
52
77
M1
3-
41
6-
711
Win
dh
oek
F-
1-
1-
4-
45
M1
41
6-
10-
1016
Kee
tman
s-F
-1
-1
-4
-4
5h
oo
pM
14
-5
110
112
17
Tota
lF
-3
-3
128
332
35M
836
145
442
349
94
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
102
Ta
ble
10
.Su
pe
rvis
ion
an
d s
up
po
rt s
taff
by
po
st a
nd
ag
e,
199
7
Ag
e g
rou
pSe
nio
rIn
spec
tor
Dis
tric
tSu
bto
tal:
Sen
ior
Ad
viso
ryT
RC
Sub
tota
l:To
tal
Insp
ecto
ro
fE
du
cati
on
Insp
ecto
rate
Ad
viso
ryTe
ach
erM
anag
erA
dvi
sory
Ed
uca
tio
nO
ffic
erTe
ach
er(R
egio
nal
serv
ices
or
Dis
tric
t)
30-3
4-
1-
1-
112
1314
35-3
91
4-
51
181
2025
40-4
4-
8-
82
123
1725
45-4
93
91
13-
13-
1326
50-5
44
5-
91
10-
1120
55-5
9-
12-
121
6-
719
Tota
l8
391
485
706
8112
9
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
103
Ta
ble
11.
Ag
e d
istr
ibu
tio
n o
f a
ll s
up
erv
isio
n a
nd
su
pp
ort
sta
ff b
y r
eg
ion
, 19
97
Reg
ion
Ag
e g
rou
pTo
tal
30
-34
35
-39
40
-44
45
-49
50
-54
55
-59
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
33
21
12
12
Ru
nd
u3
45
32
320
On
dan
gwa
East
14
33
34
18
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t2
45
42
118
Kh
ori
xas
23
23
62
18
Win
dh
oek
-2
36
55
21
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p3
55
61
222
Tota
l14
2525
2620
1912
9
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
104
Ta
ble
12
.Y
ea
rs o
f to
tal
wo
rkin
g e
xp
eri
en
ce o
f su
pe
rvis
ion
an
d s
up
po
rt s
taff
by
po
st,
199
7
Tota
lSe
nio
rIn
spec
tor
Dis
tric
tSu
bto
tal:
Sen
ior
Ad
viso
ryT
RC
Sub
tota
l:To
tal
exp
erie
nce
Insp
ecto
ro
fE
du
cati
on
Insp
ecto
rate
Ad
viso
ryTe
ach
erM
anag
erA
dvi
sory
(yea
rs)
Ed
uca
tio
nO
ffic
erTe
ach
er(R
egio
nal
serv
ices
or
Dis
tric
t)
5-9
-2
-2
-7
-7
9
10-1
41
3-
43
172
2226
15-1
91
7-
8-
122
1422
20-2
41
91
11-
132
1526
25-2
94
6-
102
9-
1121
30-3
41
5-
6-
8-
814
35-4
0-
7-
7-
4-
411
Tota
l8
391
485
706
8112
9
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
105
Ta
ble
13
.Y
ea
rs o
f su
pe
rvis
ion
an
d s
up
po
rt s
erv
ice
s ex
pe
rie
nce
by
po
st,
199
7
Sup
ervi
sio
nSe
nio
rIn
spec
tor
Dis
tric
tSu
bto
tal:
Sen
ior
Ad
viso
ryTR
CSu
bto
tal:
Tota
lan
d s
up
po
rtIn
spec
tor
of
Ed
uca
tio
nIn
spec
tora
teA
dvi
sory
Teac
her
Man
ager
Ad
viso
ryex
per
ien
ceE
du
cati
on
Off
icer
Teac
her
(Reg
ion
alse
rvic
es(y
ears
) o
r D
istr
ict)
0-4
19
-10
134
136
46
5-9
517
-22
418
527
49
10-1
42
51
8-
13-
1321
15-1
9-
5-
5-
3-
38
20-2
4-
3-
3-
2-
25
Tota
l8
391
485
706
8112
9
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
106
Ta
ble
14
.T
ota
l y
ea
rs o
f w
ork
ing
ex
pe
rie
nce
of
sup
erv
isio
n a
nd
su
pp
ort
sta
ff b
y r
eg
ion
, 19
97
Reg
ion
Tota
l yea
rs o
f w
ork
ing
ex
per
ien
ceTo
tal
5-9
10-1
415
-19
20
-24
25
-29
30
-34
35
-40
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
-6
2-
13
-12
Ru
nd
u1
36
34
12
20
On
dan
gwa
East
33
24
22
218
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t1
64
43
--
18
Kh
ori
xas
12
32
43
318
Win
dh
oek
-2
25
54
321
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p3
43
82
11
22
Tota
l9
2622
2621
1411
129
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
107
Ta
ble
15
.Y
ea
rs o
f su
pe
rvis
ion
an
d s
up
po
rt s
erv
ice
s ex
pe
rie
nce
by
re
gio
n,
199
7
Reg
ion
Yea
rs o
f su
per
visi
on
an
d s
up
po
rt s
ervi
ces
exp
erie
nce
Tota
l
0-4
5-9
10-1
415
-19
20
-24
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
46
1-
112
Ru
nd
u3
112
22
20
On
dan
gwa
East
87
2-
118
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t11
61
--
18
Kh
ori
xas
57
32
118
Win
dh
oek
26
94
-21
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p13
63
--
22
Tota
l46
4921
85
129
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
108
Ta
ble
16
.L
eve
l o
f e
du
cati
on
of
sup
erv
isio
n a
nd
su
pp
ort
se
rvic
es
by
po
st,
199
7
Hig
hes
tSe
nio
rIn
spec
tor
Dis
tric
tSu
bto
tal:
Sen
ior
Ad
viso
ryT
RC
Sub
tota
l:To
tal
qu
alif
icat
ion
Insp
ecto
ro
fE
du
cati
on
Insp
ecto
rate
Ad
viso
ryTe
ach
erM
anag
erA
dvi
sory
Ed
uca
tio
nO
ffic
erTe
ach
er(R
egio
nal
serv
ices
or
Dis
tric
t)
Gra
de
12 o
r le
ss1
11-
12-
81
921
Gra
de
12 +
2 y
ears
-1
-1
-7
18
9
Gra
de
12 +
3 y
ears
18
-9
215
219
28
Gra
de
12 +
4 y
ears
417
-21
329
133
54
Gra
de
12 +
5 y
ears
22
15
-9
110
15
Gra
de
12 +
6-
--
--
2-
22
or
7 y
ears
Tota
l8
391
485
706
8112
9
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
109
Ta
ble
17.
Le
vel
of
ed
uca
tio
n o
f su
pe
rvis
ion
an
d s
up
po
rt s
erv
ice
s b
y r
eg
ion
Reg
ion
Hig
hes
t qu
alif
icat
ion
Tota
l
Gra
de
12
Gra
de
12
Gra
de
12
Gra
de
12
Gra
de
12
Gra
de
12
or
less
+ 2
yea
rs+
3 y
ears
+ 4
yea
rs+
5 y
ears
+ 6
or
7 y
ears
Kat
ima
Mu
lilo
1-
45
2-
12
Ru
nd
u9
12
71
-20
On
dan
gwa
East
41
46
21
18
On
dan
gwa
Wes
t3
35
7-
-18
Kh
ori
xas
11
68
11
18
Win
dh
oek
11
39
7-
21
Kee
tman
s-h
oo
p2
24
122
-22
Tota
l21
928
5415
212
9
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School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
110
2. Critical management issues
(a) Recruitment
Supervisors are recruited by interview. Posts are advertised and
anyone may apply. The official requirements are contained in the
Wages and Salary Commission document, i.e. BETD plus 3 years’
additional degree plus 3 years’ experience or BETD plus 12 years’
experience. These official requirements are the main criteria for
selection. Regional directors and their senior personnel are normally
in charge of the recruitment and appointment for the filling of
vacancies in the regions. For posts at Head Office, the specific
directorate is in charge. Recruitment normally takes place once a year
unless there is a very critical vacancy.
There are usually scores of applications for these posts. Motivation
for applying varies from getting promotion and a better salary to the
prestige that goes with the job.
Problems encountered are that most of the candidates who apply
do not meet the official requirements. It is evident that they do not
read the advertisements carefully. In most cases, more than 90 per
cent of the applicants are male. Females tend not to apply, usually
giving ‘the vast distances to travel’ and ‘being away from home/family
for a long period’ as reasons for not applying.
(b) Career development
Career prospects are open to all supervisors, who can be promoted
to Deputy Director, Director or even Permanent Secretary but, of
course, such posts are limited. Promotion possibilities outside are
equally poor.
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School supervision in Namibia
111
(c) Training
Induction and in-service training activities in the area of
supervision are virtually non-existent. As far as induction is
concerned, in one or two cases there is a type of mentor system where
the newly appointed supervisors will be accompanied by seasoned
supervisors on visits to schools. The Ministry of Basic Education has
held in-service training courses intermittently during the past seven
years. However, they were unco-ordinated, unsystematically planned
and conducted by different people. There were also no follow-up
activities. On the positive side, it should be mentioned that in all cases
where the in-service training workshops were held (approximately
five for the past seven years), all the inspectors in Namibia have had
the training.
As far as the advisory teachers are concerned, the position is very
much the same. A lot of unco-ordinated, unplanned training was done
by a large number of people, including the Life Science Project and
ELTDP, to name but a few.
One main problem at the present moment is the fact that the system
of supervision is not organized in exactly the same way in all regions,
which makes a national training programme difficult to plan for and
manage.
(d) Support for supervisors
There is no professional support for supervisors. There is no
professional organization for supervisors. There is no supervisors’
manual or Code of Conduct. There are a few standard report forms
available.
The development of a Performance Management System (PMS) has
just been completed and it is to be introduced in the near future.
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School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
112
This will provide support to supervisors on how to monitor,
supervise and support the staff that report to them. Also, a Code of
Conduct for teachers is in the process of being developed. This will
support the PMS.
(e) Monitoring and evaluation of supervisors
Supervisors are not monitored in the strict sense of the word. In
most regions supervisors are set certain goals/objectives at the
beginning of the year. At the end of the year, discussions are held to
establish to what extent these have been achieved.
In most regions the supervisors fill out a monthly return of
activities. This serves the purpose of monitoring their work. After
supervisors have visited schools, they write reports which are
submitted to the directors. These reports also serve as a monitoring
tool.
Although there are performance indicators which were compiled
by the Directorate Inspectorate and Advisory services for the
implementation of the Performance Management System, these are
not yet being used.
The main problem affecting monitoring and evaluation is the lack
of a code of conduct, to which must be added the crucial issue that
there are no official job descriptions for any job category, which
obviously renders monitoring difficult.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
113
3. Budgetary and financial matters
(a) Salaries and allowances
Salaries depend on the post occupied and the years of experience.
From this point of view, there are four categories of supervisors on
an increasing salary scale.
(i) Head of Department
Principal of Primary School
(ii) Principal Junior Secondary School
Advisory Teacher
(iii) Principal Secondary School
Inspector of Education
(iv) Senior Education Officer
The salaries of teachers and supervisors changed dramatically, in
many cases doubled, in 1996 when the new revised structures of the
Wages and Salary Commission were introduced. Salaries compare
favourably with jobs outside the education system and in most cases
are better than in the private sector. There is, however, a very wide
gap between salaries of teachers and headteachers, e.g. a graduate
teacher with three years’ experience earns N$60,000 per annum, as
opposed to a principal of a primary school earning N$102,225.
Supervisors do not have additional official sources of income. In
rural areas some supervisors have small farming projects or cuca shops
(small trading shops). There are financial incentives according to job
performance contained in the new performance management system,
which is not yet fully operative.
All supervisors receive the same allowances to cover travel costs.
Should supervisors travel to other towns, their accommodation costs
are paid in full by the government. The meals are calculated to a
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School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
114
maximum of N$70 per day, which is also fully paid by the Government.
Should supervisors decide to arrange their own private
accommodation and meal, they receive N$70 per day.
The case study in Ondangwa West examined the opinions of
inspectors and advisory teachers on their financial conditions.
Table 18 reflects the opinion of the 11 advisory teachers interviewed.
About two-thirds were rather unhappy with their salaries, when
compared to other public and private employees. Especially those
teachers seconded to do the work of an advisory teacher feel that
they are underpaid. Some of them said that they do not receive the
salary according to the post they currently are acting in, but only
that of a teacher. All advisory teachers are paid on time. They are
significantly more unhappy with travel and subsistence allowances
than with their salaries. Sometimes they run workshops for a week
without receiving this allowance. Even teachers who are attending
workshops are not getting paid for travel and subsistence. Some said
that they prepare their own food when going out to schools. Neither
do they receive additional payment for work on Sundays and public
holidays. Most of the advisory teachers are experiencing problems
with the payment of allowances because they hand in a claim at
General Services but do not receive any payment.
Table 18. Financial conditions: opinions of advisoryteachers
Very poor Poor Fair Good Very good
Salaries 1 6 3 1 0
Allowances 9 2 0 0 0
Inspectors in Ondangwa West find their salaries fair or good. Their
main problem is that principals of Senior Secondary schools are
receiving a higher salary, thus creating a situation where principals
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
115
are not interested in the post of an inspector. All inspectors are paid
on time. Their opinion on allowances for transport, travel and
subsistence is similar to that of advisory teachers: very poor. They
assert that they are not getting any allowances. One says that it seems
as if it is expected from inspectors not to make use of any allowances,
despite the fact that they are entitled to them.
(b) Budget
Budget allocations are made for support and supervision services
by each region under the headings: salaries, travel and subsistence
allowance. But these allocations are not earmarked for specific duties
or for individual officers. The result is that the precise funds going
to supervision and support are difficult to identify and difficult to
obtain by the officers.
The situation in the Ondangwa West region is typical. The travel
budget is handled by the regional office. It receives an amount for
travel and subsistence and is responsible for the distribution of these
funds among the different officials. In other words, no allocation is
made to individual officers, be they inspectors or advisory teachers.
Sometimes restrictions are experienced concerning the allocation of
money for transport, resulting in travelling being suspended and staff
being unable to visit schools.
(c) Working conditions
In almost all regions, the place of residence of supervisors is in,
or close to, the central town where the regional office is located.
Only one region so far is an exception, where attempts are being made
to build a few inspector offices closer to schools. Accommodation
facilities have been added. The region of Ondangwa West, on which
some more information is available, is more typical. The Ministry does
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School supervision in four African countries: National diagnoses
116
not provide accommodation. The average distance between the usual
residence and the office is 14 kilometres with the highest distance
32 kilometres and the lowest 3 kilometres. The fact that all live rather
close to the regional office means that the distance from their home
to some of the schools for which they are responsible can be very
great.
In all regions supervisors’ offices form part of the regional office
complex where they have access to typists/secretaries, clerks and basic
equipment. However, this does not guarantee that all officers have
at their immediate disposal all the necessary support staff and
equipment. The study on Ondangwa West asked 11 professionals
(mainly advisory teachers in the Okahao circuit) about the availability
of facilities and services. Table 19 summarizes their answers. All have
indeed office space and a telephone; all but one have access to a fax
and a photocopier and, in eight cases, a computer. The main problem
is with support staff: only one has a typist and clerical staff. Seven of
the officers are ‘rather satisfied’ with their material working
conditions, two were ‘rather unsatisfied’ and a further two ‘totally
unsatisfied’. The situation of the inspectors of Education in the
Ondangwa West region is better. Three of the five inspectors are
‘rather satisfied’, one is ‘totally satisfied’ with the material working
conditions, with only one expressing dissatisfaction.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
School supervision in Namibia
117
Table 19. Working conditions of supervision and supportstaff in Ondangwa West
Facility Availability If yes, condition
Yes No Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Excellent
Individual office space 1 10
Shared office space 11 0 6 4 1
Transport facilities 7 4 4 2 1
Computer 8 3 2 5 1
Typewriter 1 10 1
Photocopier 10 1 4 4 2
Filing cabinet 8 3 1 5 2
Telephone 11 0 1 6 4
Fax 10 1 7 3
Typist 1 10 1
Clerical staff 1 10 1
In all cases, however, one of the main irritations, in addition to
shared offices, concerns the transport facilities. In principle, in all
regions, the inspectors have access to motor vehicles. But in some
cases, there is a shortage of vehicles. In most regions, therefore,
transport is organized in such a way that the advisory teachers travel
with the inspectors when visiting schools.
The situation is similar in the Okahao circuit: advisory teachers
and the inspector are making use of government vehicles that were
allocated to the regional office. Sometimes, because of financial
constraints and the shortage of vehicles, no visits can be organized.
Some of the advisory teachers make use of the vehicles of certain
projects, which are supporting the Ministry of Basic Education and
Culture.
International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
118
III. DAILY OPERATION OF SUPERVISION AND SUPPORTSERVICES – RESULTS OF A CASE STUDY
Introduction
The Ministry of Basic Education and Culture consists of seven
educational regions. Ondangwa East and West are two regions that
were neglected because of the political situation of the past. They
are situated in the North of the country. This area has more than half
of the population of Namibia and was to a great extent the centre of
the war for freedom and independence. For the purpose of this case
study, we focused on the Ondangwa West region which has a very
big rural population. This educational region is made up of two
political regions, namely, Oshana and Omusati.
At the time of the study, there were 356 schools in the Ondangwa
West region, 202 Primary (Grades 1-5), 136 Combined (Grades 1-10
or Grades 4-10 or Grades 7-10) and 18 Secondary schools (Grades 6-
12). The region had a total of 4,079 teachers. There were eight
inspection circuits each headed by an inspector. The case study gave
special attention to one circuit: the Okahao circuit. It represents
42 schools with 440 teachers and 13,082 learners and it consists of
seven school clusters.
The clusters are in the hands of facilitators who are senior subject
teachers who are organizing workshops with the assistance of the
advisory teachers and, in some cases, with counterparts who are
senior teachers, seconded to do the job of an advisory teacher.
Since this case study focuses specifically on Okahao circuit, it is
useful to look at the policy that guides the operation of schools in
this circuit. Following are some relevant quotes from a policy
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document prepared by the Okahao circuit. The document contains
some 26 sections; only those of interest to this study have been
retained.
Okahao circuit policyOkahao circuit policyOkahao circuit policyOkahao circuit policyOkahao circuit policy
ObjectivesObjectivesObjectivesObjectivesObjectives
• To help principals and teachers in administering schools;
• to enhance uniformity in our circuit for improving proper school functioning;
• to enable principals and teachers to know the areas in managing and
administering schools;
• to enhance effective teaching and learning in our schools;
• to enable the inspector, when visiting schools, to concentrate on areas in
which principals and teachers need more assistance.
School structureSchool structureSchool structureSchool structureSchool structure
For a school to function properly, it should have a structure which should be
visible to any person who may visit the school. This structure should indicate all
parties involved in the administration and management of the school
(e.g. Principal, Deputy Principal, Management Committee) etc. Each structure
should know its function and responsibilities. More importantly, each structure
should be provided with a duty sheet.
School policySchool policySchool policySchool policySchool policy
Any organization/school is established and operates with specific objectives
in mind. In this regard each school must have a ‘School Policy’. This document
must be a clear-cut statement/ guideline of its aims and objectives, setting out
what is to be achieved. School managers should compile a policy in which
they inform people how they want things to be done in a specific direction.
Therefore, each school in our circuit must have a ‘School Policy’. The policy
should include inter alia: general teaching organization, subject policies, the
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use of teaching aids, teaching methodology, remedial work, communication,
the use of facilities (e.g. library) etc. The policy should also include policies on
cultural activities, sports, hostels, control of school development fund, buildings
and maintenance. The policy should be discussed by all parties involved, before
it is implemented. Furthermore, the policy should be implemented in line with
the Ministerial policies. The manager (principal) should make sure that each
staff member receives a copy of the policy document.
Subject policySubject policySubject policySubject policySubject policy
The success of every examination outcome depends to a large extent on
the subject management and administration. Therefore, it is the responsibility
of every subject head at the school to make sure that there is a ‘subject policy’
for each subject. The subject policy should clearly stipulate how the teachers
concerned are going to handle the subject matter. For example, the subject
policy should indicate how teachers are going to handle testing in their respective
subject. The subject policy should be approved by the principal before it is
implemented. It is also the responsibility of the subject head to make sure that
subject meetings are conducted regularly to evaluate, discuss and to bring in
new innovations within the subject area. It is also suggested that subject
meetings should be held at the beginning of each term or when it is deemed
necessary, e.g. when a teacher has attended a workshop, he/she has to brief
the other teachers on the new development surrounding the subject.
School boardSchool boardSchool boardSchool boardSchool board
The ‘school board’ is the officially appointed and recommended governing
body of the MBEC. Therefore, each school must elect a school board out of
parents whose children are schooling at that specific school and parent
community. The composition of the school board should be on equal
representation. This body should consist of members from the teaching staff
and parents. The term ‘equal representation’ means if five parents have been
elected for the school board, there will also be five teachers on the same board.
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This will also apply to the number of students at senior secondary schools. It
should be understood that this body is a decision-making body at the school.
Hence, this body should meet regularly to discuss school-related matters.
Parental involvement in educationParental involvement in educationParental involvement in educationParental involvement in educationParental involvement in education
Research and experience have proven that active and meaningful
involvement by parents is essential for effective schooling and that the school
which values parents’ involvement tends to be more successful. Because parents
are responsible for their children, they need to get involved in issues that concern
their children. Parents should be given a place in the education system through
parents’ meetings, parent-teacher associations or school boards. Parents’
meetings should be conducted once a year, or as deemed necessary. It is
therefore expected from each school in our circuit (and this is more specifically
to the principal) to promote a relationship between the school community and
the general community. Inspectors should be invited to attend parents’ meetings
to brief them about Ministerial policies.
Complaints and requestsComplaints and requestsComplaints and requestsComplaints and requestsComplaints and requests
While executing our duties, we encounter problems which need to be
attended to. Principals and teachers are requested not to hesitate to report
whenever problems occur as this will also enable our office to tackle the
problems. If this happens, the following procedures should be adhered to. The
teacher concerned should report the matter to the principal, the principal should
report to the inspector, who should report the matter to the Regional Office.
That is to say, no teacher will leave school to attend to her/his problems which
have not even been brought to the attention of the principal or inspector. This
should be allowed only in exceptional cases, after the principal and the inspector
have endeavoured to do their utmost to help the teacher. Only then will a teacher
be given a note addressed to the Regional Office in which the problem concerned
is articulated, which will enable him/her to be attended to. When it comes to
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conflict, we should learn to solve our problems internally before outside parties
are to be involved.
WorkshopsWorkshopsWorkshopsWorkshopsWorkshops
To acquire knowledge, skills and new teaching methodology, attending
workshops, whether on a National, Regional or Circuit level, is vital. Therefore,
each teacher in our circuit who is invited to attend a workshop must attend. On
returning from a workshop, feedback should be given to all teachers concerned
(teachers who are teaching the same subject). In the case of circuit facilitators,
the facilitators have to report to the Circuit Inspector so that a circuit base
workshop can be planned and conducted. Any teacher who fails to attend a
workshop should state reasons (valid) why she/he failed to attend a workshop.
This should be done in writing.
TTTTTeachereachereachereachereachers confs confs confs confs conferererererences/meeences/meeences/meeences/meeences/meetingstingstingstingstings
Each year (this depends on the decision of the Circuit Advisory Committee),
a conference or a mass meeting will be held. Teachers should understand that
conferences/meetings are not prescriptions from the Regional Office, but our
own gatherings so as to address our own needs. Teachers conferences/meetings
are compulsory for all teachers. Teachers who will not be able to attend the
conference or meeting should inform the inspector in writing via the principal.
Only teachers with valid reasons for being absent will be excused.
1. Basic data
The structure of supervision and support services in the
Ondangwa West region is no different from other regions: in the
regional office, three divisions have a role to play: the Advisory
Services Division; the School and Hostels Management Division; and
the Teachers Resource Centres Division. Within the schools, senior
staff and school boards are also given tasks related to supervision
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and support, as described in the circuit’s policy. Between the regional
office and the schools are the circuits and the clusters, which ensure
a close relationship between the different actors.
Following are some basic facts and figures about supervision and
support services in the Okahao circuit.
The circuit is headed by an inspector, supported by two secretaries,
a clerk, a messenger, and a cleaner. The number of posts for advisory
teachers in Ondangwa West is 23. Out of these, only 8 are filled while
15 are still vacant. These eight advisory teachers service not only the
Okahao circuit, but also the other seven circuits. The circuit, as earlier
indicated, has 42 schools and 440 teachers. The number of teachers
in the whole region is 4,079, which makes it almost impossible for
the eight advisory teachers to provide an effective service. They are
on average responsible for 34 primary and 16 secondary schools and
for 426 primary and 159 secondary teachers.
Three of the advisory teachers are men, the other five are women.
Their age varies from 32 to 48, the average being 36. On average, they
have 13 years’ experience in the education system: almost eight years
as a teacher, two as a headteacher and two as an advisory teacher.
Their academic qualifications vary between Grade 12 a BA degree to
a B. Ed.
The inspectors of education in the Ondangwa West region are ten
in number, eight of whom are men. Their average age is 54. They have,
on average, nine years of experience as a teacher, about ten as a
headteacher or deputy and about six as a supervisor. Their
qualifications are not very different from those of the advisory
teachers. The one inspector of education responsible for the Okahao
circuit, is a man who has had the following career: four years as a
teacher, ten years as a headteacher and four years as a supervisor.
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The number of schools under his responsibility: 39 primary and
3 secondary; the number of teachers under his responsibility:
380 primary and 60 secondary.
As part of this case study, information was collected from among
all the eleven advisory teachers of the Ondangwa East and West
regions, seven inspectors of the different circuits in Ondangwa West
and 11 of the 42 school principals in the Okahao circuit.
2. Planning and workload
Normally the advisory teachers or inspectors do their own
planning by year and by trimester. The senior advisory teacher or the
senior inspector approves the programmes. While the inspector in
Okahao has responsibility only for the schools in that circuit, the
8 advisory teachers are responsible for subjects throughout the
whole region. In most of the cases no norms and regulations exist
such as number of teachers or schools to be visited and/or number
of reports to be written per year, etc. In some cases supervisors
define their own norms. Some of these, mentioned by the staff
interviewed, are as follows:
(a) Number of schools to be visited per term, between 40 and 100;
(b) Number of teachers to be supervised per term: 40;
(c) Number of reports to be written per term: 9;
(d) Other: Regional workshops: 1 per term,
Circuit workshops: 1 per term,
Cluster workshops: 4 per year.
In most cases where norms are in existence, the advisory teacher
or the inspector are not in a position to meet these norms. The reasons
are: lack of transport, long distances to travel, and unforeseen
circumstances, like requests from Head Office.
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Both the advisory teachers and the inspectors were asked what
activities take up most of their time, what they consider their most
and least important tasks and how their time is distributed over
different activities. The answers given were not all the same and the
picture presented in the following paragraphs shows that diversity.
Analysis of the work of advisory teachers
The following were among the tasks mentioned as those taking up
most of the time of the advisory teacher:
• school visits;
• development of materials;
• in-service training workshops;
• administrative work like writing reports;
• assisting cluster workshops and observing;
• travelling to schools to plan with facilitators cluster workshops;
• supervision of the Molteno Project.
The following were mentioned as the most important tasks,
irrespective of the time devoted to them:
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
• School visits • Development of materials • Trying out new ideas• Training of teachers • School visits • Planning in the office• Conducting workshops • In-service activities • Visiting teachers in classrooms• Planning workshops • Running of workshops • Supervising teachers• Writing reports for facilitators • Follow-up visits• Rendering professional • Advice to teachers • Planning workshops
support to teachers • Attending cluster • Observing teachersworkshops • Development of materials
When asked for their least important tasks, the advisory teachers
quoted the following:
• photocopying;
• arranging transport;
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• organizing a winter school;
• meetings;
• administrative tasks (typing, writing reports);
• sending out invitations for workshops;
• answering telephone.
On average advisory teachers spend about 58 per cent of their
time on pedagogic tasks and 42 per cent on administrative tasks.
These latter tasks include purely secretarial duties (photocopying,
typing reports, filing, sending mail to schools), more administrative
work (arranging transport and accommodation for workshop
officials) and some tasks which are linked to pedagogical activities
(preparation of courses and examination committee meetings).
The following figures in Table 20 are approximate averages of the
estimated time devoted by the eight advisory teachers to different
types of activities during an average month.
Table 20. Time-budget of advisory teachers
Tasks Time devoted %
Teacher training and development 35
Office work 25
School visits 18
Report writing 14
Attending meetings 7
Other: Personnel development less than 1Examinations less than 1
Total 100
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Analysis of the work of inspectors
Inspectors were interviewed in a similar fashion as advisory
teachers. The following were mentioned as the tasks that take up most
of their time:
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
• Meetings • Office work at region and circuit • Administrative work• Problem solving • Counseling at schools • Inspections• report writing • inspection and school visits • report writing• school visits • Workshops • meetings
The tasks they considered most important, irrespective of time,
were the following:
1. Inspections
2. Supervision;
training of principals;
report writing;
counselling;
office work.
3. Meetings;
delivering materials to schools;
administrative work.
Among the tasks mentioned as the least important, were the
following:
• Attending meetings;
• addressing learners and teachers;
• delivering messages to schools;
• signing leave forms of teachers;
• collecting mail.
Inspectors spend more time on administrative tasks than advisory
teachers: about 62 per cent of their work is devoted to administration
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and 38 per cent to pedagogical matters. Administrative tasks include
office work (report writing, correspondence, writing letters and
filling in leave forms) and organizing and attending meetings. The
following Table 21 represents the approximate percentage of time
devoted to different types of activities during an average month.
Table 21. Time-budget of inspectors
Activity Percentage
School visits 34
Office work 25
Attending meetings 12
Report writing 11
Teacher training and development 9
Other:workshops 4counselling 2parent meetings 2clerks’ and school secretaries’ matters 1
3. School visits
(a) By advisory teachers
Types of visit: Advisory teachers make a distinction between four
types of visit:
Type of visit Average duration Individual/team visits
Advisory visits 3 days x x
Follow-up visits 2 days x x
Teacher inspection 1 day x x
Panel visits 3 weeks x
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All visits can be undertaken by an individual officer or by a team,
except a panel visit which is always handled by a team and which
covers, over a fairly long period (up to three weeks), different
establishments.
Coverage: On average, the advisory teachers succeeded in visiting
21 per cent of the schools and 24 per cent of the teachers under their
supervision. The reasons they give for not being able to visit more
schools and/or teachers are as follows:
(a) In-service training of advisory teachers is time consuming.
(b) Sometimes there are travel restrictions because of financial
constraints.
(c) The numbers of teachers and schools is too high for all of them
to be covered in one year.
(d) Interruption of programmes by unforeseen circumstances.
(e) Much time is taken up with the production of materials and
running of circuit-level workshops.
Preparations: Different criteria are used for selecting the schools
for advice:
(a) Poor performance of a school or teacher.
(b) Availability of materials and assistance to schools far away from
centre.
(c) When assessing the ability of a teacher to be appointed.
(d) Follow-up visits.
(e) Problem situation in schools.
(f) Implementation of new grades and syllabus.
(g) Motivated request from schools.
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Normally the following preparations are made before visiting a
school:
• determine the aim of the visit;
• develop materials if needed;
• get permission from supervisor;
• organize transport;
• make arrangements with principals and ask for their support, or go
without prior arrangements.
The following information is obtained, about the school, before
the visit:
• number of teachers for the subject;
• school timetable;
• distance of school from centre (if applicable);
• condition of roads;
• the grades the school is offering;
• examination results;
• Teacher/learner ratio.
Seven of the eleven advisory teachers prefer to inform teachers
‘always’ in advance of visits while four only do so ‘sometimes’. Nine
feel that notice of a visit should be given in advance because:
(a) the teacher should be available;
(b) the teacher should be prepared.
Two have the opposite point of view because:
(a) the advisory teacher should observe the teacher in a normal
situation;
(b) the teacher may do ‘window dressing’, thus creating a false
picture.
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Only recently, written draft supervision guidelines were given to
some advisory teachers. Seven of the eleven say that they did not
receive any and are undertaking supervision according to what they
think correct.
The conduct of a visit: The following steps form part of a typical
school visit:
(a) Go to the principal and communicate the aim of your visit.
(b) Have a discussion with the teacher before the lesson starts.
(c) Observe lesson.
(d) Give teacher the opportunity to discuss the lesson given.
(e) Discuss the successes and failures in the lesson and recommend
corrective actions.
(f) Discussion with subject group.
(g) Debriefing of principal. Write report.
(h) Make copies of report and distribute.
(i) Make follow-up to see whether corrective actions were
implemented
(b) By inspectors
Types of visit: The following are the types of visit that the inspectors
conduct. The duration differs from half a day to two days. Almost all
are undertaken by a single inspector.
Type of visit Average duration
Full inspection 1 day
Follow-up 1 day
Courtesy ½ day
Institutional school inspection 2 days
Teacher inspection ½ day
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Coverage: Inspectors in Ondangwa West succeeded last year, on
average, in visiting two thirds of the schools and just under half of
the teachers for whom they are responsible. The reasons for not
visiting all schools were quoted as follows:
(a) Too many schools allocated to one inspector.
(b) Long distances.
(c) Unforeseen activities of the Ministry.
(d) Meetings and workshops.
(e) Lack of finances and vehicles.
Preparation: Criteria used for selecting schools for supervision
are as follows:
(a) random selection;
(b) need to solve specific problems;
(c) follow-up visits;
(d) priority concerning overall needs.
Inspectors noted that the preparation they undertake before
visiting a school is twofold: to determine the aim, and, in function of
the aim, decide what should be the detailed objectives and tasks, e.g.
full inspection of the school, courtesy visit, etc. The information
normally consulted before visiting a school includes:
• previous inspection reports;
• examination results;
• information about teachers;
• information about problems that the principal may be
experiencing.
In principle, all inspectors inform schools in advance when visiting
them. They think this is important so as to make sure that teachers
are available or are prepared for the visit (e.g. meeting, panel
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inspection, etc.). In some cases, however, school board members
request circuit inspectors not to inform principals because they want
inspectors to see the school as it is normally run. Most of the
inspectors are provided with supervision guidelines for visits and
they follow them regularly.
The conduct of a visit: A detailed description of a school visit by an
inspector includes the following elements:
(a) attend the opening of the school in the morning and give a short
speech;
(b) have a discussion with the principal concerning the visit;
(c) get certain information from the principal, such as:
• school timetable,
• arrangements to meet teachers responsible for certain
management tasks, e.g. the attendance registers, stock
control, financial control, etc.,
• time to have a discussion with the principal,
• time to have a debriefing with the principal;
(d) go through the supervision guidelines;
(e) make notes of positive and negative aspects;
(f) have a discussion with the personnel;
(g) have a discussion with the principal;
(h) write report and send it within a week to the school, the senior
inspector and the Regional Management Team.
4. Reporting
The situation in Ondangwa West differs on some points between
inspectors and advisory teachers. Most interviewed inspectors
confirm that they always write inspection reports for all visits. Some
however concede that they do so ‘very often, not always’ or even, in
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the case of, for example, courtesy visits and also institutional school
visits, only ‘sometimes’.
Table 22 contains the answers of the 11 advisory teachers, when
asked about the regularity of their reporting on recent visits. Not all
answered for each type of visit.
Table 22. Regularity of reporting
Type of visit Never Sometimes Often Very often Always
Full inspection 0 0 0 0 1
Institutional 0 9 0 0 2school inspection
Teacher inspection 0 0 0 2 4
Advisory visits 0 1 0 1 5
Follow-up visits 1 1 0 0 3
Courtesy visits 0 0 0 0 1
Panel visits 0 0 0 0 1
Inspectors sometimes conduct inspections of all subjects and
only write one report. Some write reports for every visit because
they need the findings (negative and positive) to do follow-up visits.
Some feel that report writing takes too much time and a trimesterly
report seems to be the right way to go.
Seven of the eleven advisory teachers interviewed said that no
standardized formats for supervision reports exist. The others, who
received a standardized format, commented that these formats are
very important because they include all the activities that need to be
reflected upon. Those who received the formats therefore always
follow them. As far as inspectors are concerned, standardized formats
exist for school visits and teacher inspections, but some inspectors
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of the Ondangwa West region are not sure if these exist, while others
do not always use them.
Inspectors discuss the report, before it is finalized, with the
teacher visited, the principal and the senior inspector, who should
all receive a copy of the report. On occasion another copy is sent to
the school board. Sometimes the following people are also contacted:
advisory teacher(s), planners, the director of the region.
Advisory teachers normally consult with the teacher concerned,
the principal and sometimes the head of department in the school,
the senior advisory teacher and the circuit inspector, before the final
report on a visit is written. The discussions, especially with the
teacher, have proved very useful because corrective actions can
directly be applied. The following people receive copies of reports
by advisory teachers:
• at school level: – the subject teacher,
– the principal;
• within the administration: – the circuit inspector,
– the regional director,
– the senior advisory teacher,
– the regional co-ordinator,
– planner (if applicable).
The following suggestions concerning reports and discussions of
reports, made by different staff, can be noted with interest:
(a) keep reports short and to the point and concentrate on good
and positive recommendations;
(b) if recommendations were made that need to be acted upon by
other divisions (e.g. general services), these divisions should
give attention to such recommendations;
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(c) you should have understanding and sensitivity for other people’s
needs and feelings;
(d) principals should read reports and act accordingly;
(e) there should be a specific format for the different reports;
(f) more practical assistance should be given when visiting a
teacher.
The persons interviewed had different views on sending the
school inspection report to the school board. The following
statements reflect that diversity of opinion:
(a) such an action would be useful if the board members were able
to read and would understand the content of the reports;
(b) sometimes it might create conflicts;
(c) it is not professional to give a personal report to a school board;
(d) if the content of the report is only concerned with general
subjects, there is no need for the school board members to get
a copy;
(e) sometimes it may be of value if the school board is interested in
knowing precisely what is going on in the school;
(f) parental involvement should be encouraged, so that they take
keen interest in school affairs;
(g) in primary schools where there are no learners on the school
board it might be useful to ensure that reports are made available
to board members.
5. Follow-up, including use of reports
On this issue, information was collected only from among advisory
teachers and not from inspectors.
Almost all interviewed advisory teachers responded that they
undertake ‘from time to time’ follow-up visits to find out whether
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advice and recommendations are being implemented. None does so
‘regularly’, while one ‘never’ does so. Time plays a big role. Advisory
teachers are overloaded and do not have time for follow-up visits.
Table 23 shows the extent of satisfaction with the level of follow-up
action taken on the advice and recommendations of the advisory
teacher, respectively, by the school and by the administration (nine
advisory teachers responded).
Table 23. Satisfaction with follow-up
Totally Rather Rather Totallyunsatisfied unsatisfied satisfied satisfied
At school level 1 5 2 1
Within the administration 2 2 4 1
A majority of advisory teachers feel that standards in schools do
not improve. Teachers seem not to follow the advice and
recommendations. It is difficult to convince them to accept new ideas
and changes. The teachers know that follow-up actions will not take
place and lack dedication and commitment. No feedback is received
from supervisors and/or administrators who receive reports. Only in
very rare cases do they follow up on recommendations made in
reports. On the other hand, in those cases where such follow-up has
been undertaken, clear evidence of improvement can be observed.
Advisory teachers were also asked to make an evaluation of the
impact of their work on schools. Seven of the ten who responded
believe that they have ‘strong impact’, three that they have ‘fair
impact’. They noted that:
• the advice given was well taken;
• teachers appreciate the fact that their knowledge about teaching
has improved;
• changes occur after visits;
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• the increase in the pass rate shows improvements;
• teachers have grown in confidence, competence and teaching
skills;
• subject organization in schools has improved considerably;
• comments of teachers are encouraging.
While not one of the respondents believes that they have no or
only little impact, they nevertheless identified measures to be taken
in order to increase their impact:
• principals should be encouraged to be internal supervisors and to
check in particular on the implementation of recommendations;
• more school-based support by heads of departments should take
place;
• more advisory teachers should be appointed;
• effective follow-up activities should be organized; the impact is
bigger when follow-up visits take place;
• increased support from other support sectors, such as the
inspectorate, should be available;
• transport should be available.
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IV. OVERALL ASSESSMENT
1. Impact on school functioning and quality
Advisory teachers definitely feel that they have made an impact
on the schools. The situation in some schools has improved visibly
over the last two years. Tables 24 and 25 show the opinion of nine
schools on the areas covered by supervisors (inspectors as well as
advisory teachers) and the nature of the impact.
Table 24. Areas covered by supervision, as assessed byschools (in percentages)
Not Partially Fullycovered covered covered
Administration of the school 34 44 22
School infrastructure 22 44 34
Availability of teaching/learning materials 33 33 32
Development and use of teaching/learning 33 55 12materials
Teacher presence 22 33 45
Teacher lesson preparation 22 33 45
Classroom teaching and lesson delivery 22 23 55
Student presence 22 23 55
Student performance 22 11 67
Relations between staff 45 55 0
This table firstly shows the diversity of responses between schools.
It indicates also that the area least looked at is that of relations
between staff. The aspects most supervised relate to student
performance and presence, followed by teacher performance (lesson
preparation and delivery) and presence.
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Table 25. Impact of supervision on different aspects ofschool life, as assessed by schools (in percentages)
Level of impact
Negative None Limited Fair High Veryhigh
Administration of the 14 14 44 28school
School infrastructure 12.5 12.5 37.5 37.5
Availability of teaching/ 14 14 14 44 14learning materials
Development and use of 14 14 44 14 14teaching/learning materials
Teacher presence 14 14 14 44 14
Teacher lesson preparation 14 14 58 14
Classroom teaching and 11 11 11 55 12 lesson delivery
Student presence 12.5 25 12.5 37.5 12.5
Student performance 14 43 29 14
Relations between staff 14 29 14 29 14
Teacher motivation 12.5 12.5 62.5 12.5
Staff development 14 28 44 14
All schools agree that the impact of supervision visits is never
outright negative. Schools feel a positive impact especially on the
following aspects, in decreasing order: teacher motivation, teacher
lesson preparation, classroom teaching and lesson delivery, followed
by teacher presence and staff development. For each of these areas,
more than 50 per cent of schools assess the impact to be ‘high’ or
‘very high’. At the same time, some schools consider that supervision
has only limited impact on the same areas. The aspects where impact
is lowest, are relations between staff, an issue little covered (as we
saw above), and student presence.
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To strengthen the impact on schools, supervision and support
staff consider that actions are needed in different fields.
The organization of the services needs to be improved. The issue
of lack of job descriptions for both inspectors and advisory teachers
is very urgent. Many at times find themselves doing jobs that
professionally do not fall under their domain, but because they do
not have a written job description, they are unable to challenge or
question such assignments. There is also a problem of co-ordination.
The different services involved in the delivery of support to teachers
agree that they do not co-ordinate their activities. When reports on
visits are written by one service, they are not shared across those
involved. There is, therefore, a greater need to ensure that
information is shared by all concerned. A better-organized service
needs also to rely more on school-based support.
Several management issues also need to be addressed:
• Numbers of staff: in Ondangwa West, for instance, many posts are
left vacant. The number of advisory teachers should be boosted
from eight to at least sixteen.
• Improved transport to allow staff to frequently visit schools. In
addition, greater budgetary allocation particularly in the area of
transport should be guaranteed, if meaningful results are to be
achieved.
• Provision of office accommodation should be investigated further.
The question should also be asked if it is acceptable for advisory
teachers to operate from the teacher resource centres? It would be
much better if they were allocated individual offices, or a bigger
space where they could provide a one-on-one assistance to teachers
which allows for privacy.
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• Especially inspectors felt that they need more training, e.g. in how
to implement reforms and how they should assist principals in this
regard.
Finally, in order for change at school level to take place, schools
need to be provided with sufficient teaching and learning materials.
The services involved complained about late delivery of both teacher
and learner materials, to such an extent that sometimes books are
delivered during the last term making it impossible to effectively
utilize them. While this is an area in which supervision and support
staff are not directly involved, the absence of action in this field
seriously limits the possibility of schools to respond to supervision
recommendations.
2. Synthesis of main problems
The list of problems, mentioned at a national level or collected as
part of the case study, is quite long. At the risk of repeating some
points raised before, we have in the following paragraphs summarized
them.
Firstly, at the time of writing this report, a number of basic issues
in setting up an effective supervision system were not yet in place.
The functions of the different directorates were not clearly defined
and job descriptions for both inspectors and advisory teachers still
should be developed. In addition, co-ordination between services
needs to be given more attention.
There are, secondly, some problems related to recruitment. While
recruitment procedures are quite effective, there is a problem with
vacancies, especially among advisory teachers, as was seen clearly in
the case of Ondangwa West. Candidates are not lacking, but many do
not have the required qualifications. In addition, certain officials are
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appointed to posts without having sufficient knowledge about their
environment and their own functions. This relates to a third issue:
training. Supervision and support staff request that newly appointed
inspectors and advisory teachers should always receive in-service
training or induction courses before they start working.
Material conditions offer a fourth challenge. Generally, good
facilities exist for officials in the head office and in regional offices.
However, budgetary constraints, which regularly occur, obstruct the
smooth functioning of the services. As a result, from time to time, no
transport is available or it is limited to a pre-determined number of
kilometres per month. This, because of the long distances to schools,
makes it in actual fact impossible to reach all schools. In some cases,
supervisors also feel that the support the regional offices offer them
is insufficient.
Supervisory staff have too many schools and teachers to cover to
be able to visit them all regularly. This implies that proper planning
and co-ordination of visits to schools should be done, particularly in
the face of budgetary and transport limitations. This however is not
evident, when many supervisors note that they face an unsatisfactory
flow of information and lack a proper management system.
Attitudes of supervisors are generally supportive to teachers, even
under conditions that are not always satisfactory. But it was noted in
the case study that their communications with schools could be
improved and that they should strive to establish discussion with the
parents on issues affecting the relationship between schools and
the community.
A particular problem concerns the level of salaries. The salaries of
inspectors should be rectified so that a principal of a secondary school
will not earn more than an inspector. This creates a situation whereby
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an inspector’s authority may not be respected by the principals, which
makes it more difficult to recruit capable and experienced principals
to become inspectors.
3. Present trends and innovations
At national level, closer co-ordination is sought between the
different directorates involved in school and teacher supervision and
support. There was, at the moment of writing this report, talk of
amalgamating the Directorates ‘Inspectorate and Advisory Services’,
‘Educational Programme Implementation’ and ‘Special Education’.
A Performance Management System is being developed to cover
all public servants, including supervisors and teachers, with the aim
to enhance standards in school management.
The central level is also taking steps to offer more support to
supervisors and school managers. An administrative manual for
school principals has been compiled to serve as a reference document
and to be used for inducting new principals. Management courses
are being held at all regional offices and in headquarters to improve
the management skills of officials and to unite groups for better co-
operation and productivity.
Regional offices have taken, from time to time, steps on their own.
Three such initiatives can be mentioned with regard to Ondangwa
West:
• Appointment of counterparts: senior subject teachers are seconded
to do the work of an advisory teacher. This alleviates the pressure
created because of a lack of advisory teachers. Currently three
such secondments exist on the Ondangwa West establishment.
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However, it is not certain if these staff, when successful, will be
appointed to become advisory teachers.
• Establish inspection circuits: the region has been divided into
circuits to bring the inspector, who is staying in the circuit, closer
to the school. This allows for problematic situations to be resolved
quickly.
• Within circuits, clusters are organized. There are three established
clusters in the Okahao circuit. Advisory teachers and counterparts
organize workshops for teachers of the clusters, which helps to
reach more teachers simultaneously. This is especially useful as
there is great shortage of advisory services to cover all schools. It
must be said, however, that the workshops also compound the fact
that advisory teachers seldom or never see the teacher performing
in the classroom.
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Chapter III
School supervisionin Tanzania
J. S. MmbandoE. MnguuC. Shayo
N.B. Katunzi
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CONTENTS
Pages
List of abbreviations 150
List of tables 151
Introduction 153
I. General overview of supervision and supportservices 158
1. Historical background 1582. Overall structure of supervisory and support
services 1603. Official functions of the different services 1634. Relations with other pedagogical services 1665. Classical supervision and support services within a
broader perspective: school-site support andsupervision 167
II. Management of supervision services 1681. Basic facts and figures 1682. Critical management issues 1703. Budgetary and financial matters 1744. Working conditions 176
III. The daily operation of supervision services –report of a case study in Muheza district 179
Introduction 1791. Planning and workload 1842. Visits 1853. Reporting and follow-up 191
IV. Overall assessment 1951. Impact on school functioning and quality 1952. Synthesis of main problems 1993. Recommendations and present trends 202
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BEMP Basic Education Master Plan
CIS Chief Inspector for Schools
DAO District Academic Officer
DBSPE District-Based Support of Primary Education
DCIS District Chief Inspector of Schools
DED District Executive Director
DEO District Education Officer
DSA Daily Subsistence Allowance
DSLO District Supply Logistics Officer
ETP Education and Training Policy
HQS Headquarters
LA Local Authority
MANTEP Management Training for Education Personnel Institute
MOEC Ministry of Education and Culture
PMO Prime Minister’s Officer
PSI Primary-School Inspector
SC School Committee
TRC Teacher Resource Centre
TTC Teacher Training College
TTU Teachers’ Trade Union
WEC Ward Education Co-ordinator
ZCIS Zonal Chief Inspector of Schools
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LIST OF TABLES
1. The evolution of enrolments in primary education 154
2. Number of professionals working in the different services 168
3. Number of PSIs working in the different services –zonal breakdown 169
4. Distribution of district staff by zone 169
5. Distribution of personnel by age 170
6. Distribution of personnel by services – in terms of years 170
7. Distribution by level of qualifications 170
8. Exposure to specific in-service training for PSIs (total 428) 173
9. Expenditure 1991-1992–1994-1995 176
10. Number of school inspected, 1992-1995 176
11. Availability and condition of facilities in Muheza region 177
12. Enrolment in primary schools in Muheza district 180
13. Supervisors’ academic and professional qualifications 181
14. Names of schools, distance from headquarters, teachers,pupils and number of streams 182
15. Facilities and services at the schools 183
16. Duration and types of visit 186
17. Notice about visits 187
18. Full school inspection visits in Muheza district 190
19. Percentage of teachers visited during an inspection 191
20. Levels of impact of supervision 197
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INTRODUCTION
Country background
The United Republic of Tanzania consists of the area formerly
known as Tanganyika and the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. It has
an area of 945,090 square kilometres, with a population of about
32 million in 1998. The official languages are Kiswahili and English.
The Republic is a federation and, as such, two separate Ministries of
Education exist: one for Tanzania Mainland and another for Zanzibar.
This diagnosis concerns Tanzania Mainland only.
Tanzania Mainland is divided into 20 administrative regions which
are subdivided into 113 districts. The regions have been grouped into
seven Educational Zones.
The seven zones are as follows:
Zones Regions Number of districts
Central Dodoma, Singida 9
Eastern Morogoro, Pwani, Dar es Salaam 14
Highland Mbeya, Iringa, Rukwa 18
Lake Mwanza, Mara, Kagera 18
Northern Tanga, Arusha, Kilimanjaro 22
Southern Mtwara, Lindi, Ruvuma 15
Western Tabora, Kigoma, Shinyanga 17
7 zones 20 regions 113 districts
The formal education structure is 2 – 7 – 4 – 2 – 3+, that is two
years pre-primary, seven years of primary, four years of secondary
ordinary level, two years of secondary advanced level and three or
more years of university education. Pupils can undertake a two-year
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teacher-training course after successfully completing ‘O’ level (end-
of-secondary) or Advanced level.
Enrolment
Below in Table 1 are the enrolment statistics for primary education
for the period of 1992-1996.
Table 1. The evolution of enrolment in primaryeducation
Total % Female % Increase on previous year
1992 3,603,488 49.1 2.6
1993 3,736,734 49.2 3.7
1994 3,796,830 49.3 1.6
1995 3,877,643 49.4 2.1
1996 3,942,888 49.5 1.7
1997 4,057,965 49. 2.9
Source: Basic Statistics in Education, 1992-1997.
The above table shows that there is almost a balance in the
enrolment of boys and girls. However, to have complete equity
between sexes, the number of girls enrolled should be somewhat
greater than that of boys because census data have revealed that there
are more girls than boys in the country. It is also evident that there
has been a fluctuation in the rate of enrolment over this period.
Taking into account that the population growth over this period was
about 3.0 per cent yearly, there has been a decline in the enrolment
ratio. One major problem in primary education is drop-outs. The drop-
out rate is estimated to be 6 per cent per annum. As a result of the
decline in the enrolment ratio and a high rate of drop-outs, the
illiteracy rate has risen from 10 to 16 per cent between 1986-1992.
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This means that the number of illiterates has grown from 1.4 to
2.6 million over the same period.
The factors that contribute to the decline of the enrolment and
high drop-out rate are a decline in parental confidence in the value
of the present primary-school system, which is facing many problems.
Different studies have identified some reasons contributing to
truancy and drop-out in schools:
(a) teachers do not keep the children busy enough in instructional
activities, as a result the children feel they are not learning
anything;
(b) schools are poorly resourced and children feel that going to
school is a waste of their time;
c) some schools use corporal punishment for all types of
misbehaviour and misconduct, including failure to perform
well academically;
(d) in some schools, farm activities occupy most of the day and
therefore pupils do not get into classes to learn;
(e) many schools do not send children to secondary schools at the
end of primary because of poor performance in schools
examinations;
(f) over-sized classes account for pupil fall-out because they do not
receive individual attention;
(g) pregnancies among girls.
Finance
After 1967, with the declaration of Education for self-reliance, the
government committed itself to providing free education at all levels.
However, the government budget allocation to education has been
declining, as the government does not have enough resources to
continue financing primary education wholly. To date, school fees
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and participation of the private sector have been reintroduced as a
way of increasing finance to education. However, the education sector
is still under-financed and it relies heavily on donor support. The
share of the national budget, excluding debt servicing, allocated to
education has declined since the late 1970s; this is especially true for
capital expenditure, as evidenced by deterioration in school quality,
equipment and performance.
Quality issues
The provision of basic education in Tanzania is compulsory.
Universal Primary Education, introduced in 1977, brought about a
surge in enrolment, accompanied by an increased need for
classrooms, more teachers, and more resources. Although there is a
decline in net enrolment, the number of those children who actually
attend school is still high. This has meant that most schools are in
need of classrooms, well-trained teachers and teaching materials, if
quality is to be ensured.
It is estimated that 70 per cent of the 11,130 primary schools are in
a state of disrepair. Furthermore, essential school facilities such as
instructional materials are in short supply. For example, it is estimated
that textbook availability ranges from one book per three students
to one book per 13 students. This is due to poor distribution, or
insufficient production and an under-developed book-care and
management system in schools. Exercise books and teachers’ guides
are also in very short supply.
These problems, together with inadequate deployment of
teachers, under-qualified teachers, and a weak teacher-support system
all contribute to low performance in basic education.
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In 1996, the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) launched
the Education and Training Policy (ETP), whose main objective is to
achieve an efficient, comprehensive education and training delivery
system.
The Basic Education Master Plan of 1997 (BEMP) has set out plans
to:
• arrest enrolment decline and stagnation;
• revitalize quality;
• optimize the use of existing resources; and
• ensure an equitable and effective system of financing education.
The BEMP seeks to improve quality by focusing on student
achievement, as well as encouraging low-enrolment districts to enrol
more pupils. Through budgetary aid and empowering school
committees as well as private-sector participation, the current
problems are expected to be resolved.
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I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SUPERVISION ANDSUPPORT SERVICES
In Tanzania the supervisory and support system includes several
actors:
• Primary-School Inspector (PSI)
•· District Education Officer (DEO)
• District Academic Officer (DAO)
• District Supplies and Logistics Officer (DSLO)
• Ward Education Co-ordinator (WEC)
• School Committee (SC)
• Teachers’ Resource Centre (TRC)
• Teachers’ Training College (TTC)
• Teachers’ Service Commission (TSC)
• Teachers’ Trade Union (TTU).
In the context of this diagnosis, we will focus mainly on the
Primary-School Inspector, the District Education Officer, the School
Committee and the Teachers’ Resource Centre.
1. Historical background
In pre-independent Tanganyika, formal education was provided
by government, local authorities, religious bodies and education
voluntary agencies. All these players had a way of monitoring what
was taking place in their schools.
Formalized supervision was introduced in 1922 under the then
Chief Education Officer. In 1925 three categories of supervisors were
introduced:
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(i) Government school supervisors who had a mandate to supervise
all schools: government schools, local authority schools and
schools owned by other agencies;
(ii) Supervisors for schools under local authorities;
(iii) Education Secretaries for schools under other agencies.
In 1952, a Government Chief Inspector of Schools was appointed
and specific school inspectors were given the mandate to inspect
secondary schools. The 1957 to 1961 Five Year Development Plan
established the post of Education Assistants who assisted the
Education Secretaries to supervise schools owned by agencies. The
post of Primary-School Supervisor was established, whose main role
was to inspect primary schools owned by the government. The post
of District Education Officer was also introduced, whose main
function was to be in charge of all primary schools in the district.
The Education Act No. 37 of 1961 established the post of Assistant
Chief Education Officer Inspectorate. The main duties were to
supervise all schools. The post of Primary-School Inspector was also
established. The Education Act No. 50 of 1969 nationalized all schools.
The primary-school inspector then assumed the responsibility of
inspecting and supervising all primary schools.
Under the Decentralization Act of 1972 powers were transferred
from the centre to the regions and the districts. This meant that the
primary-school inspectors were now accountable to the District
Development Director and not the Ministry of Education
Headquarters. The central co-ordination system was therefore
abolished. However, the Education Act No. 25 of 1978 re-established
a centralized Inspectorate Department. This Education Act was
amended in 1995 to reintroduce privately owned schools, but the
supervisory structures remain unchanged. This therefore constitutes
the most recent change.
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2. Overall structure of supervisory and support services
The Inspectorate Department under the Chief Inspector of
Schools (CIS) operates at three levels: the Headquarters, the Zone,
headed by Zonal Chief Inspector of Schools (ZCIS); the District,
headed by District Chief Inspector of Schools (DCIS). The regions,
which are an administrative and political division, do not have a role
in education administration or an inspection department.
Primary schools are managed by Local Authorities (LA) which are
under the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO). The Ministry of Education
and Culture (MOEC) provides professional support, syllabi and policy.
Below, in Diagram 1, is the structure of the MOEC and supervisory
and support services.
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Dia
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m 1
.St
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Diagram 1 shows that the district education officers have dual
accountability: firstly to the ‘Pre-primary and post-primary education
section’ within the MOEC, which appoints them, pays their salary and
generally looks after their welfare. Secondly, the DEO is accountable
to the Primary Education Co-ordination Unit, which forms part of local
government, and through it to the Prime Minister’s Office. This dual
accountability puts the DEOs in a dilemma as to who is actually their
boss.
The services provided to schools and teachers by the supervision
and support services are listed below, as well as the areas in which
they are involved:
PSI Inspects schools and advises teachers;
DEO Supervisor and manager of primary schools in
the district;
DAO In charge of academic matters;
DSLO In charge of school materials and upkeep of
schools’ data;
WEC Co-ordinator of schools and adult education
in the ward;
School Committees In charge of management of the school;
TRCs Centres of teachers professional and
academic development;
TTCs Centres for pre-service and in-service training;
TSC Career services, promotions, etc.;
TTU Conditions of service as Trade Union.
All these services are under the umbrella of the Ministry of
Education and Culture. The DEO, DSLO, DAO, TSC Secretaries are
located at District Headquarters, while the PSI and the WEC are
located in the wards.
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The district education officer and the support staff under him, as
indicated above, provide administrative and logistical support to
schools. In the provisions of the Education Act, the DEO is the manager
of public primary schools on behalf of the local authority. The PSI,
on the other hand, inspects schools and provides feedback and advice
to schools, and to the DEO Office. This enables the school and DEO
to take necessary measures for improvement of education quality.
TRCs and TTCs use information from inspection reports to conduct
in-service seminars and workshops for teachers.
The DEO and PSI are involved in the establishment of private
primary schools. Management and supervision of private primary
schools is the duty of the Owner and Manager. External supervision
in both public and private schools is done by the PSI.
3. Official functions of the different services
Primary-School Inspector (PSI)
The PSI is the main field inspector. It is his or her duty to work
with colleagues in inspecting schools on a regular basis. The duties
of the PSI are the following:
• to supervise the implementation of government education policy
and regulations;
• to ensure the effective implementation of the school curriculum;
• to advise on matters related to education when and where
appropriate;
• to execute the inspection programme;
• to write up all relevant inspection reports;
• to supervise all teachers on probation;
• to deal with any teacher rated as being ‘weak’;
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• to liaise with colleagues when required;
• to supervise, to liaise and to hold conferences with WECs;
• to monitor the WECs in supervising and accounting for the
expenditure of any money allocated to schools or School Committee
for specific purposes;
• to hold conferences and seminars with headteachers, teachers and
school committees when necessary;
• to promote and support the establishment and work of the TRCs;
• other duties include books and syllabus reviews as members of
subject panels in curriculum development and acting as setters
and markers of examinations.
District Education Officer (DEO)
Their main tasks are:
• to act as adviser to the District Authority by interpreting the
Education Act and Education Policy;
• to oversee the development and management of all primary schools
in the district;
• to oversee implementation of district education plans;
• to supply school materials, post teachers and ensure infrastructural
upkeep in schools;
• to manage education grants;
• to act as secretary of the Education and Cultural Committee of the
District Council.
The DEO delegates some of the functions to supporting staff
comprising the DAO, DSLO, WECs and school committees.
The School Committee
The school committee is established by law to undertake the
following, among other tasks:
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• to see that pupils are enrolled properly;
• to see that enrolled pupils attend school regularly until they
complete primary education;
• to help the headteacher improve the welfare of the pupils and
teachers in the school;
• to involve the village/town to ensure that the school has enough
land for buildings, farms, playgrounds for games and sports;
• to make sure that school boundaries are identified, demarcated
and maintained;
• to make sure that schools receive the full co-operation of parents
on where the school is built;
• to see to it that the school has sufficient buildings, such as
classrooms, staff quarters, offices, stores and latrines;
• to ensure that the school has adequate furniture, such as desks,
chairs, tables and cupboards;
• to assist the headteacher in collecting fees from parents and see
that the fees are properly used;
• to see that the school funds raised from income-generating activities
are used for improving the school;
• to confirm or disallow the dismissal of pupils from school;
• to plan the overall developments of the school;
• to advise the headteacher and the local authority on matters
relating to the management and conduct of the school; and
• to make sure that pupils are healthy by receiving food and medical
treatment.
Teacher Resource Centre
They were set up with the following objectives:
• to improve the classroom performance of the teachers through
training, development and involvement in curriculum issues;
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• to be a focal point of disseminating skills and ideas related to
management, planning, teaching and learning methods;
• to unite teachers in a specific locality to share limited resources;
• to be a training and advisory centre for teachers and the community
at large;
• to develop skills in the production and use of local teaching
materials.
The functions of each category of supervisors complement each
other. On the one hand, the DEO oversees management
administration; on the other hand, the PSI gives information and
feedback on how the schools are functioning. Any shortfalls in
academic or administrative aspects are identified and addressed by
TRCs and TTCs through seminars and workshops for school
committees and teachers. DEOs and PSIs are normally called upon to
facilitate during such seminars/workshops.
4. Relations with other pedagogical services
External supervisors, i.e. PSIs, contribute to teacher pre-service
and in-service training by assessing and giving advice while inspecting
schools. At the same time, inspection reports highlight major
weaknesses in the teaching process. This information can be used by
TRCs to improve pre-service and in-service courses.
PSIs review curriculum, books and they are members of Curriculum
Panels of the Tanzania Institute of Education. They are also involved
in setting and marking examinations.
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5. Classical supervision and support services within a broaderperspective: school-site support and supervision
The school committees are established by Education Act No. 25 of
1978 as amended in 1995. The School Committee is the only organ
other than the PSI which has mandatory powers by law to supervise
implementation of education policy in the school. Its functions as
outlined above relate to implementation of regulations pertaining
to compulsory enrolment and attendance. The SC provides support
to headteachers and teachers, by solving problems related to
buildings, teaching-learning materials, other basic services and
discipline. As emphasized in the Education and Training Policy and
BEMP, the SC holds a very crucial role in supervision and management
of the school.
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II. MANAGEMENT OF SUPERVISION SERVICES
1. Basic facts and figures
The total number of professionals working in supervision and
support services, and their distribution by gender, are shown in
Table 2. There are no data available for the distribution by gender of
the DAOs, DSLOs and WECs. However, it is known that, as for other
staff, there are more males than females.
Table 2. Number of professionals working in the different
services
Types of professional Distribution by gender Total
Males Females
PSI 352 76 428
DEO 91 22 113
DAO 113
DSLO 113
WEC 2354
Table 3 shows the number of PSIs by zone and Table 4 the number
of district personnel.
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Table 3. Number of PSIs working in the differentservices – zonal breakdown
Place Number of districts Distribution by gender Total
Male Female
HQs 1 2 3
Northern zone 22 75 22 97
Central zone 9 31 5 36
Southern zone 15 29 8 37
Western zone 17 55 7 62
Eastern zone 14 46 18 64
Southern highlands 18 65 6 71
Lake zone 18 50 8 58
Total 113 352 76 428
Table 4. Distribution of district staff by zone
Zone Number of DEOs Total Number of Totalnumber DSLOs
Male Female of DEOs and DAOs
Northern 18 4 22 44 66
Central 7 2 9 18 27
Southern 12 3 15 30 45
Western 11 6 17 34 51
Eastern 9 5 14 28 42
S/Highlands 17 1 18 36 54
Lake 16 1 18 36 54
Total 91 22 113 226 339
Tables 5, 6 and 7 – on age, experience and qualifications –
concern only the PSIs and the DEOs. PSIs are on the whole quite old:
almost two-thirds are over 50. It is not unusual that about 80 per cent
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have experience in the education service of more than 25 years.
None has less than 15 years’ experience. Their qualifications are rather
basic, with most having only an ‘O’ level. The fact that many were
schooled a long time ago, when the tertiary education system was
poorly developed, accounts for this.
Table 5. Distribution of personnel by age
36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 Total
PSIs 0 38 122 265 3 428
DEOs 2 25 43 43 - 113
Table 6. Distribution of personnel by service – in termsof years
11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 N.A. Total
PSIs 11 64 266 82 5 428
DEOs 2 13 30 52 14 2 113
Table 7. Distribution by level of qualifications
‘O’ level ‘A’ level Diploma Advanced 1st 2ndDiploma Degree Degree
PSIs 310 2 114 1 1 -
DEOs 6 1 79 2 20 5
2. Critical management issues
(a) Recruitment
The recruitment of PSIs follows two somewhat different
procedures:
• those teachers who were identified, interviewed and trained;
• those teachers who were identified and trained.
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Identification relies heavily on views held by DEOs, PSIs, WECs
and headteachers. The teachers who are identified to become PSIs
are expected to meet the following criteria:
• minimum of five years’ teaching experience;
• minimum qualification: ‘A’ level (at the time of writing, this was
expected to become Diploma);
• must have shown outstanding performance as a teacher.
A first problem with the recruitment procedures is precisely that
these criteria are not standard criteria, known to all interested parties
and guiding those who are vested with the duty to identify suitable
candidates. There are no standard screening procedures, therefore
the best people are not identified. Appointees are not consulted to
indicate whether they are interested in working as inspectors. This
appointing procedure gives room to favouritism. A better procedure
would be to advertise the posts, to allow all competent and committed
teachers to apply, rather than to rely on identification only. This was
also the opinion of the staff interviewed in the district, where a case
study was carried out, namely the Muheza district in the Tanga
region.1
This staff also felt that strong qualifications are necessary for
supervisors and inspectors, and that therefore a Diploma in education
should be a minimum criterion.
(b) Career development
The appointment of teachers to any of the supervisory posts, i.e.
PSI, DEO, DAO, DSLO or WEC, is a promotion, but within the same
career as that of a teacher. As such there are no different conditions
of service, salary structure and other benefits. This also implies that
1. See Part III of this paper.
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the promotion route and process for supervisors are the same as for
teachers. It is therefore possible for a teacher to be of higher
promotional grade than a supervisor. In addition, many inspectors
feel that there are delays in their promotion, which demotivates them.
(c) Training
In principle, a three-month induction course is organized
regularly for all newly appointed inspectors. The training is conducted
by experienced inspectors in collaboration with Management
Training for Education Personnel Institute (MANTEP) staff. Those
who complete the course successfully are posted under a
probationary period of six months. Those who successfully complete
the probationary period are appointed school inspectors. The district
officials and the WECs do not have such a specific orientation
programme. However, in recent years, because of financial shortfalls,
the training has been of shorter duration or has not taken place at all.
The result is that some teachers are recruited into the Inspectorate
without induction training. In addition, the probation period is not
well supervised because those in charge do not use standardized
observation or appraisal criteria.
There have been in-service training courses conducted from time
to time, but a permanent in-service training programme for inspectors
does not exist. Table 8 shows that during their career all but one
inspector participated in courses related to inspection, while just over
15 per cent obtained a Diploma of education while working. But
recently opportunities have become more scarce. In the Muheza
district, of the 18 staff interviewed (including WECs and district staff),
only five had benefited from any in-service training courses over the
last three years. These lasted from one to three weeks and focused
on specific orientation in areas such as Primary School Leaving
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Examinations and Evaluation of Adult Education. One of their main
demands is that such training be organized more regularly.
Table 8. Exposure to specific in-service training for PSIs(total: 428)
Topics Inspection TESL Special DEMA Adult Home Diploma B.Educ. Educ. Economy Educ. Ed
N u m b e r 427 11 6 8 8 4 78 1participating
The unavailability of funds is the main reason why training is not
on a regular basis. A number of other problems can be noted:
• Experience has shown that training has been focused on inspectors
but no corresponding in-service training has been conducted for
other supporting staff (e.g. WECs).
• There is no training manual, and no training needs assessment is
conducted prior to the training. Such items that are included in
the training programmes are deduced from field experience mainly.
• Trainees are of different backgrounds and it is therefore difficult
to tailor training to actual needs as well as levels of ability.
(d) Support for supervisors
The PSI uses the inspectors’ handbook in conducting inspection.
The PSI also uses agreed formats in reporting inspection findings.
The handbook and the format have been developed at central level.
The DEO and support staff do not have any standardized forms
for reporting on schools.
There is no separate code of conduct for supervisors because, as
was pointed out above, the supervisors are not considered to belong
to a career different from that of teachers.
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(e) Monitoring and evaluation of supervisors
The team of supervisors working at District Headquarters is
technically accountable to the District Executive Director (DED).
Administratively, the DED monitors the work of these professionals.
There is no corresponding professional monitoring and evaluation
of these supervisors from the MOEC.
On the other hand, the PSI is evaluated by the CIS and ZCIS on a
more professional footing. The PSI is assessed on the number of
schools inspected and the number of seminars and workshops
attended as a participant or as resource person. Although these
performance indicators for PSIs are insufficient, the evaluation can
be of some value because the mere visit to a school can have a positive
impact. The supervisors in Muheza district pleaded for a more
objective system. They suggested that the government should provide
specific guidelines, as, under the present conditions, the system
allows some room for nepotism and oppression.
Both categories of supervisors, however, are required to fill in
special forms every year for assessment purposes. It is these
confidential forms that are used in considering promotion. The main
problem here is that these are not specifically developed to assess or
evaluate supervisors’ performance. The forms being used are the same
as those used for assessing classroom teachers.
3. Budgetary and financial matters
(a) Salaries and allowances
Since supervisors are in the same career as teachers, there is no
special salary structure for them. Allowances and other benefits are
the same as those for teachers and they depend on qualifications and
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length of service. When supervisors travel outside post, they are
entitled to a travel allowance which is pegged to the officers’ grade.
The teachers enjoy the same benefits if they travel on duty. They
receive a daily subsistence allowance (DSA) and this is reviewed from
time to time. At the time of writing, the DSA ranges from US$12.5 to
US$33.3 per day. The supervisors have no other official source of
income. Some individual officers might, by their own efforts, obtain
an unofficial income.
The supervision staff in Muheza district feel that their salaries are
unattractive. They consider them inadequate as they cannot provide
sustainable support to the officials throughout the month. However,
salaries are generally paid on time. The rates of allowances for travel
and subsistence, as stipulated in the civil service regulations, are felt
to be fair. But the problem lies with the fact that, because of budget
constraints, these allowances are seldom available to all officers. In
most districts, they have not been paid for some time now. Sixteen of
the eighteen respondents in Muheza pointed out that such funds had
not been released since 1995. The most affected are the WECs, who,
even when some financing is available, are given lowest priority. The
fact that budgetary allocations are insufficient to provide daily
subsistence allowances, compels the supervisors to fully depend on
the schools visited for food and accommodation.
(b) Budget
The supervisory services receive a budget to pay mainly for
salaries. There is no budget that is set aside specifically for the support
of these services (equipment, travel allowances, office
accommodation, electricity, car maintenance, etc.). This will come
from whatever money is available once salaries have been paid. Table 9
shows the percentage of these ‘other charges’ in the overall budget.
The share had decreased significantly between 1991 and 1995. It is
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normal, moreover, that inspection will be paid after all essential
amenities have been met.2
Table 9. Expenditure 1991-1992 – 1994-1995 (in shillings,current prices)
Year Total allocation to salaries Other charges %and other charges
1991-1992 308,211,600 177,9978,100 57.7
1992-1993 378,724,300 176,478,500 46.6
1993-1994 462,402,300 223,665,500 48.4
1994-1995 446,736,176 123,936,462 27.7
The funds being issued are insufficient to meet demand and other
support. There has been a constant decline in the amount of money
being allocated for inspection of schools. This can be evidenced by
the decline in the percentage of schools inspected over the same
period, as shown in Table 10, because funds have not been available.
Table 10. Number of schools inspected, 1992-1995
Year Number Number % of schools Number ofof schools of schools inspected inspected inspectors
1992 10,793 2,876 26.6 541
1993 10,847 3,118 28.7 460
1994 10,920 2,440 22.3 465
1995 11,062 1,336 12.1 446
4. Working conditions
Working conditions are deficient for most officers. The situation
of the Muheza district, which is summarized in Table 11, is quite
representative.
2. No more recent financial data were available, at the time of writing.
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Table 11. Availability and condition of facilities inMuheza region
Facility Availability If yes, condition
Yes No Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Excellent
Office space Individual 10 - 9 1 -
Shared 8 - 8 - -
Transport facilities 2 16 - 2 -
Computer 0 18 - - -
Typewriter 2 16 - 2 -
Photocopier 0 18 - - -
Filing cabinet 10 8 10 - -
Telephone 1 17 - 1 -
Fax 0 18 - - -
Typist 2 16 - 2 -
Clerical staff 1 17 - 1 -
School inspectors in the whole country are faced with the
following main problems:
• Lack of offices: in most districts, office accommodation for the
inspectors is unsuitable. In quite a number of cases, inspectors
have to rent offices and sometimes, because of inability to pay the
rent, they have been evicted from these offices. As far as
accommodation is concerned, they generally have to rent. In
Muheza, most have found residential accommodation close to the
office (between 1 and 3 kilometres).
• Insufficient equipment and secretarial resources: in many
offices there is inadequate office equipment, such as typewriters,
filing cabinets, software, etc. In many cases secretarial expertise is
missing. The staff in Muheza stress that this impedes regular
effective communication with schools and makes the preparation
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and especially the reproduction and dissemination of inspection
reports arduous.
• Shortage of transport: the lack of suitable transport is the greatest
difficulty facing inspectors, resulting in the fact that many spend
their time at base without the possibility to do their work. To look
again at Muheza district, the Inspectorate has neither a vehicle nor
a motorcycle. The DEO can use a vehicle owned by the District
Executive Director. The means of transport, used by the inspectors,
are the public bus services, which of course follow their established
routes. This means that some schools are not necessarily reached
easily, while others in the remote, inaccessible areas are very
seldom visited. Inspectors in those cases walk or use bicycles. The
bicycle is in any case the sole means of transport of the ward
education co-ordinators.
In view of the above, it cannot come as a surprise that 15 of the
18 respondents in Muheza indicated that they were totally unsatisfied
with their working conditions.
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III. THE DAILY OPERATION OF SUPERVISION SERVICES –REPORT OF A CASE STUDY IN MUHEZA DISTRICT
Introduction
Muheza district is one of the six districts that make up Tanga region,
which, together with Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions, form the
Northern Inspectorate Zone. The District Headquarters are located
at Muheza. For administrative purposes, the district is divided into
six divisions: Amari, Bwembwera, Maramba, Mkinga, Muheza and
Ngomeni.
Agriculture is the main economic activity in the District. There
are some extensive sisal and tea estates which reflect modern/
commercial farming and many small-scale farms predominantly for
subsistence. The main food crops include maize, sorghum, banana
and citrus fruits. Other economic activities in the district include tea
and sisal processing industries, trade, commerce and tourism.
The district has primary and secondary schools as well as a Folk
Development College (FDC) which offers vocational skills to post-
literacy graduates. The district had in 1997 a total of 150 primary
schools with a total of 38,837 pupils, out of which 51 per cent were
boys and 49 per cent girls (see Table 12).
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Table 12. Enrolment in primary schools in Muhezadistrict
Number Division Boys Girls Total
1. Armani 2,169 1,998 4,167
2. Bwembera 3,074 2,993 6,067
3. Maramba 4,184 4,105 8,289
4. Mkinga 2,952 2,526 5,478
5. Muheza 4,340 4,316 8,656
6. Ngomeni 3,029 3,151 6,180
Total 19,748 19,089 38,837
There are a total of 1,223 classes and 1,144 teachers. The average
number of pupils per class therefore is about 32 and the pupil/teacher
ratio is about 34.
Of teachers, 49 per cent are men; 346 (30.2 per cent) are Grade A
and 798 (69.7 per cent) Grade B teachers.3 There is a shortage of 29
Grade A teachers and a surplus of 133 Grade B teachers.
Within the framework of this study, the term ‘supervisor’ refers
to both inspectors and advisers, i.e. the district education officials,
the primary-school inspectors, the teachers’ service commission
officials and the ward education co-ordinators. A total of 18 staff were
interviewed.
The basic identification data of the respondents are analysed in
Table 13.
3. I should find out what this precisely means. Note by ADG.
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Table 13. Supervisor’s academic and professionalqualifications
Sex Academic qualifications Experience inthe post (years)
M F T ‘O’ Diploma University 0-5 6-10 10+Level Education Degree
School 3 1 4 3 1 0 0 0 4inspectors
District 4 0 4 3 1 0 0 2 2educationofficials
TSC officials 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 1
Ward education 8 0 8 8 0 0 2 2 4co-ordinators
Total 17 1 18 14 4 0 2 5 11
The research team held interviews with these 18 supervisors, who
also completed a questionnaire. In order to gain an impression of
the opinion of school staff on supervision and support services, 20
primary schools were also included in the research, through random
sampling from among all schools in the district (see Table 14).
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Table 14. Names of schools, distance from headquarters,teachers, pupils and number of streams
Ident. Name Distance Teachers Pupils NosNo. of school from Location Total of
headquarters Males Females Total streams(km)
001 Mashewa 15 R 2 6 8 363 7
002 Kimbo 22 R 2 3 5 168 7
003 Gare 12 R 1 4 5 159 8
004 Kwezitu 55 R 6 - 6 176 7
005 Zirai 50 R 3 - 3 168 7
006 Nkumba 10 R 5 1 6 139 7
007 Ubembe 6 R 5 3 8 283 7
008 Kiwanda 26 R 1 3 4 155 7
009 Mangubu 20 R 4 3 7 208 7
010 Matombo 13 R 3 2 5 146 7
011 Nkumba 7 R 5 4 9 300 7
012 Majengo - U 16 2 18 621 14
013 Mbaramo 1.5 U 12 3 15 416 7
014 Muheza 1 U 19 3 22 799 14
015 Amani Mgambo 46 R 1 5 6 192 7
016 Misalani 49 R 4 - 4 263 9
017 Mdote 2 U 2 13 15 897 14
018 Kisiwani 32 R 4 2 6 300 7
019 Msasa IBC 40 R 3 3 6 236 7
020 Amani 32 R 9 2 11 384 7
Note : R = rural U = urban
Out of these, 4 were located in the urban while 16 were in the
rural area. All the sampled schools taught from Grade I to VII. The
schools are owned by Muheza District Council. Distances between
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the District headquarters and the schools ranged from 0.5 kilometre
within the town to 55 kilometres as the farthest sampled school within
the district. The number of teachers in these schools ranged from
3 teachers in Zirai Primary School to 22 teachers in Muheza Primary
School. Table 14 offers more details on each school.
Twenty headteachers were interviewed. Out of them, 16 were
male and 4 were female. Their ages ranged between 26 and 52 years.
The working experience of the headteachers ranged between 8 and
27 years. The duration as headteacher ranged between 1 and 20 years.
Sixteen (80 per cent) had ordinary level (Form 4) secondary
education, whereas four (20 per cent) were primary education
holders.
Table 15 shows the facilities and services available at the schools
and their condition.
Table 15. Facilities and services at the schools
Facility Availability If yes, condition
Yes No Excellent Satisfactory Unsatisfactory
Separate 15 5 1 13 1headteachersoffice
Separate staff 18 2 1 16 1room
Telephone - 20 - - -
Classroom for 118 2 - - -every class
Some information was also available on the proportion of pupils
who have the required textbooks in mathematics and languages
(Kiswahili and English). None of the schools have 75-100 per cent of
the required books, about half of the schools have only 25-50 per cent
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of the required books; and in about a third of the schools only a
quarter of the necessary textbooks are available. This situation
indicates a serious shortage of books in the schools.
1. Planning and workload
Inspectors develop their plans, especially for school visits, in
consultation with their colleagues within the same district and
present these to the district education officer. Plans are seldom fully
implemented because of the financial constraints.
The total number of schools under the responsibility of an
inspector varies with the designation of an official. The distribution
is allocated according to the geographical disposition. On average,
one inspector has about 35 to 40 schools to supervise in Muheza
district. A WEC has responsibility for 3 to 8 schools.
There are no official norms and regulations that define the
workload of an official per month. The number of visits depends upon
the availability of the funds and the urgency of the issue to be probed.
Nevertheless, a WEC is expected to visit all the schools within his/
her area of jurisdiction, whereas schools visited by inspectors do not
exceed 10 per annum.
The different types of officers interviewed were asked to identify
what are the three tasks they considered most important. The answers
were as follows:
The district education officials feel that their main responsibility
is for the following three matters:
• overseeing the overall implementation of the Education and
Training Policy in their respective districts;
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• management of educational supplies and logistics; and
• evaluation of the instructional activities.
For the inspectors, the three most important tasks include:
• supervision of teaching through school inspections;
• preparation of reports; and
• making follow-up visits for the inspections conducted in schools.
For the ward education co-ordinators, the three main functions
are:
• to regularly visit all the schools within the Ward;
• to make follow-up to educational activities/directives including
Adult Education; and
• to respond to instructions and directives as presented by higher
educational authorities.
For the TSC officials, the three main tasks are:
• to ensure that teachers’ salaries are promptly paid according to
their scheme of service;
• to keep personal records of all the teachers in the district; and
• to communicate with higher authorities on matters related to the
teaching profession.
2. Visits
Education officials are involved in different types of visits. Table 16
shows these types, the average number of officers involved and the
average duration. However, since there are different types of official,
it is not easy to establish the average duration of an individual or
team visit.
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Table 16. Duration and types of visit
Type of visit Average number of Average durationofficers involved
Full inspection 4 8 hours
Teacher’s inspection 2 3 hours
Follow-up visit 1 3 hours
Advisory teacher visit 1 2 hours
Courtesy visit 5 1 hour
The selection of schools to be visited is based on three criteria:
• systematic visits to all establishments;
• follow-up visits; and
• response to particular problem(s) in a given school.
Before the visit, the type of information consulted includes:
• the report of the previous inspection; and
• the school’s monthly reports.
There were some discussions regarding the need to inform
schools beforehand of visits and the regularity with which this occurs.
Inspectors mentioned that, normally, in the full inspections, schools
are informed in advance. Prior information is considered good
because:
• it helps to specify the type and scope of the planned visit;
• it allows thorough preparation of essential elements to be
inspected; and
• it reduces fear and panic among teachers, thus facilitating good co-
operation between teachers and inspectors.
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The 20 headteachers, when asked if they had prior notice about
the visit of a supervisor, responded, as indicated in Table 17,
concerning the visits they received.
Table 17. Notice about visits
Type of visit Never Seldom Regularly Always
Full inspection 3 4 4 1
Teachers’ inspection 13 2 2 -
Follow-up visit - - - -
Visit by advisers 1 1 - -
Courtesy visit - 2 1 -
As can be seen, the number of instances where schools were never
or seldom informed of a forthcoming visit, are more frequent than
when they received regular information. The latter mentioned that
they could be informed through written communications, transmitted
about one to two months before the visit, or through a more informal
oral message, especially where it concerned courtesy visits.
When schools receive notice, the headteachers inform the staff
of the type, nature and requirements of the visit. The preparations
made are the following:
For a full school inspection and follow-up visit:
• availability and accuracy of school records;
• instruments for implementation of school curriculum, i.e. schemes
of work, lesson plans, subject logbooks etc.;
• school timetables and routines;
• extra-curricular records;
• staff: establishment and performance;
• school’s plan of action; and
• general cleanliness.
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In preparation for a courtesy visit, the school also needs to think
about:
• other services, i.e. accommodation, food for supervisors;
• liaison with local (village) administration;
• description and division of roles expected to be played by different
people.
School staff felt that these preparations were useful from different
points of view:
• an opportunity to meet requisite specifications;
• a means to reduce psychological tensions likely to result from
inspection;
• a significant contribution towards goal achievement of the mission;
• an opportunity to adjust and to make modifications in the work
performance;
• an increase in the confidence of teachers and greater degree of
participation in the whole exercise.
Asked whether prior notice should be given, 14 of the headteachers
agreed that the supervisors should give prior notice because of the
above-mentioned factors and, also, as such notice enhances co-
operation between teachers and inspectors as well as positive
attitude towards the inspectors.
However, six of the respondents were of the opinion that the
supervisors should not give prior notice. They argued that the
thorough preparations resulting from the prior notice would distort
the true image of work performance in the school; whereas an
inspection should reflect the day-to-day performance under normal
conditions.
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Both headteachers and supervisors were asked to describe
briefly what occurs during a normal inspection visit. The supervisors
firstly mention that they are normally expected to follow the
guidelines provided in the inspection manuals. However, it is not easy
to follow them consistently, owing to the varying nature and scope
of visits to the schools. A typical school visit consists of the following
steps:
• discussion with the headteacher;
• briefing the teachers;
• classroom visits;
• inspection of facilities;
• discussion with individual teachers;
• discussion with the whole staff.
The description given by headteachers of such a visit is only slightly
different:
• prior information on the type and nature of the inspection visit;
• discussion with the headteacher;
• classroom visits/observations;
• inspection of facilities/records;
• discussion with individual teachers;
• discussion with all staff members.
Normally, the headteacher gets immediate feedback after
inspection.
Generally, the inspectors do brief the teachers on the objectives
of their visits. Out of the 20 respondents, 18 agreed to the question
while 2 disagreed. Briefing of teachers includes information on:
• the type of inspection;
• goals and objectives of the inspection;
• areas to be inspected;
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• requirements to meet the goals and objectives;
• duration and modality of inspection.
On whether they ask for suggestions on how to proceed with
their supervision, only five (25 per cent) respondents said that the
supervisors ‘never’ ask for such suggestions, but only a few
headteachers were ‘always’ asked for their input.
Some data were collected on the number of school visits.
Inspectors in Muheza have been able to increase that number in
recent years, but financial constraints continue to make it impossible
to visit all schools regularly. Table 18 shows that after a complete
standstill of the service in 1996, nine full inspection visits could be
undertaken in 1998. It is worth noting that some schools received
much more attention than others. One school, Kwezitu, located at a
distance of 55 kilometres from the district office, was visited more
than five times during the preceding school year. Some others, for
instance Mangubu (at 20 kilometres) and Gare (at 12 kilometres) were
visited only once, and Mashewa (at 15 kilometres) or Ubembe (at
6 kilometres) received not one visit from an inspector or an adviser
over the same period.
Table 18. Full school inspection visits in Muheza district
Year Number of visits
1994 2
1995 5
1996 0
1997 6
1998 9
A more detailed question relates to the number of teachers visited
by supervisors when in schools. The answers by the 20 headteachers
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(Table 19) show that, in less than half of the schools, supervisors
include almost all of the teachers in their inspection. In not one school
were all teachers looked at during an inspection visit. Twelve
headteachers thought the number of teachers visited during an
inspection to be sufficient.
Table 19. Percentage of teachers visited during aninspection
None Less than 25 % 25-50 % 50-75 % 75- almost 100 % 100 %
0 1 5 6 8 0
The information so far presented reflects the views of schools.
According to inspectors, the proportion of schools and teachers
visited in 1997 was, respectively, 40 and 45 per cent. In how far these
visits were full inspections, or brief courtesy visits, was not
mentioned.
3. Reporting and follow-up
A brief oral report after inspection is followed by a detailed
written report, usually released within one-three months.
The headteachers felt that the discussions that normally take place
after inspection are useful because they help to identify areas that
need immediate action in addition to providing an opportunity for
the clarification of reasons behind the performance of teachers in
their professional tasks.
In principle, after every visit, reports are written immediately.
On full school inspection, there is a standardized format for report
writing. Written reports are discussed with the district education
officer (on behalf of the district executive director) before they are
forwarded to the zonal inspector of schools. The discussion is useful
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as it helps to highlight areas and strategies that need immediate
corrective actions. Copies of the reports are sent to the DED, the
inspected school and the zonal inspector of schools. The school
board/school development committees are informed about matters
related to their roles. Therefore an executive report is presented
together with the detailed report. In schools, inspection reports are
filed and kept in the headteacher’s office. Normally, teachers cannot
access the reports except through a special meeting convened by
headteachers to discuss the report soon after its arrival.
On whether the copies of school inspection reports should be
sent to the school development committees or school boards, exactly
half of the headteachers did not think this a good idea. They felt that
such material was too confidential to become public knowledge and
that, in any case, members of these committees would not really know
how to interpret inspection findings, or how to use the reports. The
other half of the teachers surveyed agreed with this idea, because:
• the report would enhance collective responsibility among the
staff and school committee members in solving the identified
problems;
• the committee would have a sense of ownership and, as a result,
feel obliged to participate in school functions;
• the report would provide information on work performance,
which could be useful for the development of the school.
Follow-up on reporting should be undertaken by the supervisors
and by the school itself. Normally, follow-up visits are planned by the
inspectors, to assess the execution of recommendations and advice.
However, three-quarters of the interviewed supervisory staff felt that
the amount of follow-up they undertake is insufficient, due to financial
constraints on the implementation of their own plans.
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Within the school, normally, inspection reports are discussed with
the teachers and with the school committee. The focus of the
discussion with the latter is on the matters within its jurisdiction,
such as those related to pupil admissions and attendance, financial
contributions, school buildings, furniture and student discipline. The
supervisors’ recommendations which are of particular usefulness
cover the areas of:
• instructions and evaluation of lessons;
• school environment and cleanliness;
• school economic activities;
• staff and staff welfare;
• admission and attendance of pupils;
• school-community relations.
Respondents said that there are no recommendations which are
of little value. Normally there are suggested strategies for the
implementation of the recommendations. Moreover, teachers are
encouraged to identify problems and seek solutions to them. If the
problem concerns classroom teaching or pupil performance, teachers
would be advised to plan for remedial teaching, adjust the timetable,
improvize teaching-learning materials etc. Schools are also
encouraged to organize and carry out internal supervision and
follow-up mechanisms. Headteachers felt that the follow-up activities
undertaken by the supervisors (inspectors) are unsatisfactory, mainly
because:
• they rarely get an opportunity to revisit the schools;
• they do not provide adequate assistance in solving particular
problems such as shortages of teachers, teaching-learning materials
etc.;
• their operation through ward education co-ordinators (WECs) is
ineffective, as the WECs are less competent.
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Despite the shortcomings, on the whole school inspection is
useful because of its diagnostic nature and the advisory support it
provides to the schools.
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IV. OVERALL ASSESSMENT
1. Impact on school functioning and quality
It is generally accepted that the school supervisors have a central
and crucial role to play in bringing about school improvement. This
view is reflected in the ETP, which states that “school inspection is
vital as a means of monitoring the delivery of education, adherence
to the stipulated curriculum and set standards and ensuring efficiency
and quality in education”.
The case study conducted as part of this research in the Muheza
district, collected information from among the supervisors and the
school directors on the impact of the work of supervisors, especially
through school visits.
A large number of the supervisory staff (16 out of 20) believe that
their supervision work has a strong impact on what goes on in
schools. In particular because: they help to identify areas and levels
of performance; they provide constructive advice and
recommendations essential for improvement of performance; and,
they provide a specific forum of experience between the educational
officials and the teachers.
However, in order to increase the impact of supervision upon the
school work, it is suggested that:
• the criteria and scope of inspection/supervision should be openly
known to teachers;
• prior information to notify teachers about the visit should be
given;
• the distribution of teachers in all schools should be equitable;
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• provision of education inputs in terms of teaching-learning
materials should be increased; and
• financial resources should be increased to facilitate more frequent
visits to the schools.
Staff in schools identified the following as issues on which
supervision visits can have a useful impact: lesson preparation,
classroom instruction (teaching and lesson delivery), staffing and staff
welfare, school buildings, student performance, admissions and
attendance, school records and school-community relations.
Although teachers found inspection/supervision to be useful, they
felt that the impact of the visits was limited by the following:
• inadequate time spent by the supervisors in each school to
effectively diagnose, prescribe, recommend and discuss their
opinions with the teachers;
• limited resources to allow follow-up inspection/supervision;
• too long periods between inspection sessions for a school, some
schools have not been inspected for a period of two to five years.
Some of the solutions/recommendations needed for problems
such as teacher shortage and non-availability of teaching-learning
materials were not within the powers of inspector or schools to solve,
as these depend on MOEC’S financial ability to supply them. It was
difficult to effectively teach while such problems remain unsolved.
The 20 school heads were asked to identify the level of impact of
supervision visits on different aspects. Table 20 summarizes their
answers. As mentioned earlier, supervisors had no say on the
availability of teaching-learning materials, hence their impact is very
limited. More worryingly, their impact on teacher motivation is also
low. However, they have a more beneficial influence on areas such as
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classroom teaching and lesson preparation, because they could assist/
require teachers to prepare them. They also had some effect on school
administration and, not surprisingly, on student presence.
Table 20. Levels of impact of supervision
Supervision elements Level
Negative None Limited Fair High Very high
Administration 2 10 5 3of the school
School infrastructure 1 9 5 4 1
Availability of teaching- 12 4 1 3learning materials
Teacher presence 4 8 4 4
Lesson preparation 1 11 7 1
Classroom teaching 2 6 11 1
Student performance 2 9 7 2
Relations between staff 3 6 7 4
Teacher motivation 4 7 5 3 1
Staff development 4 11 3 2
Student presence 1 6 11 2
Measures suggested by school staff to increase the impact of
supervisors’ actions on what goes on in schools include:
• provision of prior information about inspection;
• increased frequency of supervision;
• provision of more In-service Training (INSET) opportunities to all
cadres in the education sector, including the inspectors/supervisors
themselves;
• further decentralization of the Inspectorate services to the ward
level;
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• change of inspectors’ role so that it is more advisory than fault
finding;
• provision of more teaching-learning materials to schools.
Three other studies were recently conducted which offer us more
information on the role inspectors actually play in the improvement
of education. An impact study undertaken in 1997 reveals that the
Inspectorate has played an important part in monitoring the
implementation of various aspects of the English Language Teaching
Support Project (ELTSP): “The inspectors have contributed
significantly to the progress and success of ELTSP. Without their
efforts far less would have been achieved” (ELTSP Monitoring Report
1991).
In a small survey conducted by the Inspectorate to obtain
teachers’ views on school inspection in Tanzania, it was revealed that
improvement as a result of inspection in school was achieved in the
areas of:
• the preparation and use of teaching documents;
• the use of English in the schools;
• evaluation of pupils’ work;
• general school administration.
However, in the same survey teachers singled out some areas as
those where inspectors had a negative impact:
• demoralizing teachers through harsh comments;
• giving impracticable advice;
• not conducting classroom observation.
In another recent survey, respondents, teachers and parents
remarked that the inspectors do not carry out their tasks and
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responsibilities well. They had several complaints: inspectors are
poorly resourced, especially in relation to finances, and therefore
they do not visit schools regularly (some schools are visited once in
over five years). They do not advise teachers on academic and
professional matters; and they do not have a close relationship with
teachers and heads of school. In addition, some have low academic
ability or are outdated.
On the whole, opinions varied about the impact of inspection
work. The supervisory staff itself had a more positive assessment than
headteachers, who seemed to be less critical than teachers and
parents. Much depends, of course, on which aspect of school life one
talks about (e.g. teacher lesson preparation is not the same as teacher
motivation). Finally, it is worth remembering that inspectors are
victims of a lack of resources, which severely limits their impact.
2. Synthesis of main problems
The most serious problem facing supervisors is indeed the lack of
financial resources. This is reflected in different ways. The available
office accommodation and facilities are inadequate. The lack of
support staff creates a lot of difficulties in producing reports or even
organizing seminars for teachers. There is inadequate transport to
enable supervisors to visit schools and work with teachers. The
average workload would be quite manageable if transport were
available. Without transport and travel allowances, most of the time
the supervisors are idle while, in fact, there is a lot of work out in the
field. On the occasions that they succeed in visiting schools,
supervisors have to count on the school for board and, in some cases,
lodging, a burden about which most schools in, for example, Muheza
district, complain.
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When asked what were the main impediments to their efficiency,
the supervisors in Muheza identified three, all related to the lack of
resources:
• unreliable means of transport to visit schools;
• inadequate budgetary allocations to meet subsistence allowances
and transport costs;
• shortage of information-processing facilities such as computers,
telephones, faxes.
The overall result is low working morale. This also emanates from
the fact that supervision is not a recognized career, with a suitable
salary and other benefits. The status of supervisors is therefore low,
although their work is said to be ‘crucial’ or ‘central’ or ‘very
important’. Another factor is that there are no standing programmes
for the supervisors’ development, so putting them at risk of applying
outdated methodologies.
A crucial problem, which is particularly stressed by headteachers
and other teaching staff, and deplored by inspectors themselves,
concerns the recruitment procedures and the resulting profile of
inspectors. Recruitment through identification and appointment,
without strict criteria, has resulted in having some supervisors that
are incompetent and so incapable of bringing about change in
schools. It is believed that if jobs were to be advertised, and proper
screening done, it would create a vibrant support cadre that would
have a high status in the education system. Low academic
qualifications among the supervisors is quoted by school staff in
Muheza as the main problem. Their qualifications are indeed more
or less the same as those of the teachers. This is particularly true for
ward education co-ordinators, who are the closest support that
teachers have.
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There is also some concern with the attitudes of supervisors.
Sometimes supervisors, in particular those whose recruitment did
not take into account the necessary criteria, would fail to provide
pedagogical advice or would blame teachers in issues where they need
professional help. The status and crucial role of classroom teachers
is rarely recognized by such supervisors. Lack of appropriate
induction and in-service training makes people also do work for which
they do not have appropriate skills. In such situations there are cases
where teachers are mishandled or are given wrong advice. The school
staff, interviewed in Muheza, feel that supervisory staff should focus
more attention on advising and guiding the teachers with a view to
raising their performance. In this respect, they offer some more
practical advice: supervisors should develop guidelines on
supervision, including the methodology and approaches to teaching,
as well as the standards and indicators they expect from the teachers.
Effective feedback and control mechanisms should also be established.
They also believe that this would be easier to achieve, if supervision
and support services were decentralized to the ward level.
There is a problem of co-ordination. It has been pointed out above
that every supervisor has a job description and that these do not
overlap. However, individuals holding posts sometimes break
regulations and operate without co-operation and co-ordination. This
hampers the flow of information and provision of feedback. As a result
teachers and schools are badly affected, in the following areas, among
others:
• the appointment of headteachers;
• appointment of WECs;
• transfer and posting of teachers;
• distribution of school materials;
• dissemination of information;
• management of examinations.
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The same issue of co-ordination also comes up when discussing
the TRC system, which is managed by several agencies.4 There has
not been any co-ordinating body for TRCs. There are therefore no
uniform criteria to measure their impact and the variety of plans they
implement are not monitored. These TRCs are so autonomous that
even DEOs and PSIs may be unaware of what they are doing. They are
therefore not being used fully for teachers’ development.
3. Recommendations and present trends
The case study on Muheza has shown that both teachers and
supervisors were in principle positive about the supervision service.
Teachers expected more assistance from the supervisors, while the
latter wished to make more visits to schools to assist the teachers.
Unfortunately, both parties are constrained in one way or another,
hence the limited impact on schools. These and other observations
lead to the following recommendations:
• Inadequate budgetary allocations should be made to allow
supervisors to make frequent visits to schools, otherwise it will be
difficult to justify their existence.
• Recruitment of supervisors should be based on acceptable criteria.
These criteria should be known to all interested parties. Under
normal circumstances, qualified teachers should be encouraged
to apply. Whenever possible, the education criteria should override
other qualifications.
• The Inspectorate should be decentralized by placing inspectors at
ward level. Since it is unlikely that budgets for supervision will be
increased in the near future, it will remain a problem to expect
4. TRCs in Tanzania are being managed by the following agencies: MS Tanzania (DANIDA),DGIS (Netherlands), UNICEF, Irish Aid, Aga Khan Foundation, Tanzania/MozambiqueFriendship Associations (TAMOFA), the British Voluntary Services Overseas (VSO), PEP-DANIDA, World Bank and District Development Councils.
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inspectors to make frequent visits to schools. The Ward has about
20-25 schools which can be handled more easily.
• Ward education officers should be academically and professionally
upgraded. They should be given supervisory skills so that they are
able to do more supervisory work than they are doing now.
Subsequently, new WEC recruits should have a minimum of a
Diploma in education.
• In-service training should be regularly organized and conducted
to keep the supervisors abreast with innovation and new
approaches in their subject areas. This can be locally organized
using various approaches, including distance/open learning
methodology. This will increase supervisors’ competence and
consequently their commitment.
• Supervisors should see their role as more advisory than inspection.
Seeing themselves in this way, they will be able to work more
towards assisting teachers in classroom instruction and less in the
physical plant and school administration.
• Performance indicators (both qualitative and quantitative) need
to be developed and used to appraise teacher performance.
The government has recently taken different steps in order to
improve the efficiency of the education system. They include:
(a) Education and training policy
This policy was adopted in 1995 and:
• it emphasizes the decentralization of school management to school
committees, which shall oversee development and financing;
• it also recognizes the importance of cost sharing as well as inviting
private-sector participation in financing education as a means of
eradicating most of the infrastructural problems that primary
schools are facing;
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• it declares government intention to strengthen and resource
supervisory services;
• it stipulates the qualifications for all education managers and
administrators and emphasizes the need to provide training for
specific jobs, including for the primary-school inspectors, the
district education officers and the ward education co-ordinators.
(b) Amendment of Education Act No. 25 of 1978
The Education Act was amended in 1995 to accommodate all the
changes brought about by the new Education and Training policy.
The Act maintains the legal status for school committees. It also
maintains the legal status of the inspectors in evaluating and assessing
education standards and promoting school improvement.
(c) The Basic Education Master Plan 1997
This Plan seeks to operationalize the Education and Training policy
within the basic education sector. The main objective of the BEMP is
to revitalize basic education, by providing inputs in all areas of
weakness:
• classrooms, furniture and teaching materials;
• teacher development, rationalization and redeployment;
• instituting a system of funding schools;
• monitoring and supervision;
• whole-school development planning;
• improving the school inspection system;
• development and co-ordination of TRCs through District-Based
Support to Primary Education (DBSPE).
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(d) Other measures
In an attempt to create more transparency, the institution of
minimum qualifications for different posts is one major thrust in the
Civil Service Reform. It is being advocated that some or most of the
posts should be filled by a process whereby prospective candidates
apply and are interviewed before appointment.
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International Institute for Educational Planning http://www.unesco.org/iiep
Chapter IV
School supervisionin Zimbabwe
D. MoyoC.D. Mupande
S.P. MusaraS. Shumba
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CONTENTS
Pages
List of abbreviations 210
List of tables 211
Introduction 213
I. General overview of supervision and supportservices 223
1. Historical background 2232. The overall structure of supervision and support
services 2243. Official functions of the different services 2274. Relations with other pedagogical services 2295. Classical supervision and support services within
a broader perspective: school-site supportand services 232
II. The management of supervision services: basicfacts and critical issues 235
1. Basic facts and figures: 1997 2352. Management issues 2403. Budgetary and financial matters 2474. Working conditions 252
III. The daily operation of a supervision service 255Introduction 2551. Planning and workload 2592. School visits 2653. Reporting 2724. Follow-up, including use of reports 278
IV. Overall assessment 2851. Impact on school functioning and quality 2852. Synthesis of main problems 2903. Present trends and innovations 296
Conclusion 301
Appendix I 303
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ATP Associate Teacher Programme
BSP Better Schools Programme
DDC District Development Committee
DEO District Education Officer
DRD Deputy Regional Director
DSO District Staffing Officer
ECEC Early Childhood Education Care
EO Education Officer
H/O Head Office
HOD Heads of Department
NAEO National Association of Education Officers
NAPH National Association of Primary Heads
NASH National Association of Secondary Heads
PTC Public Transport Commission
RD Regional Director
R/O Regional Office
SADC Southern African Development Community
SCU Standards Control Unit
SDA School Development Association
SDC School Development Committee
SEITT Science Education In-Service Teacher TrainingProgramme
TMS Teacher management Support
ZIMTA Zimbabwe Teachers' Association
ZJC Zimbabwe Junior Certificate
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Number of primary schools, pupils, teachersand supervisors 214
2. Number of secondary schools, pupils, teachersand supervisors 215
3. Progression rates: primary schools 2164. Progression rates: secondary schools 2165. Proportion of female pupils in schools 2226. Number of primary-school supervisors and teachers 2367. Distribution of primary-school supervisors by age
and gender 2368. Distribution of primary-school supervisors
by qualification 2369. Distribution of primary-school supervisors by length
of service 23710 Distribution of secondary-school supervisors by subjects
and number of teachers 23811. Distribution of secondary-school supervisors by age 23812. Distribution of secondary-school supervisors
by qualification 23913. Distribution of secondary-school supervisors by length
of service 23914. Basic salaries for supervisors 24715. Basic budget allocations for Midlands region and
Kwekwe district 25116. Number of schools, pupils, teachers and supervisors
in Kwekwe district 25617. Data on supervisors in Kwekwe district 25818. Data on support staff in Kwekwe district 25919. Kwekwe district: number of teachers and schools
per supervisor 25920. Supervisors’ awareness of official norms 26121. Schools visited and teachers inspected by each
supervisor during the last year (as percentage of total responsibility) 262
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22. Supervisors’ tasks 26323. Percentage of time spent by supervisors on
administrative and pedagogic work 26424. Average percentage time devoted to different activities
in an average month 26525. Types of visit to schools, average duration and
organization 26626. Regularity of supervision visits to teachers 26927. Activities carried out by external supervisors during
visits to schools 27028. Types and objectives of reports, official copies
and their distribution 27329. Heads’ responses on impact of supervision in schools 280
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INTRODUCTION
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, with an area of
390,757 square kilometres and a population, according to the 1992
census, of 10, 401,767. The population, growing at about 3 per cent
annually is almost evenly distributed throughout the country with
some 75 per cent in rural areas. The population density is about
27 people per km². The literacy rate for those aged 15 years and over
has risen since independence from 20per cent to 80 per cent.
The situation of the education system
The education system in Zimbabwe experienced phenomenal
expansion soon after independence in 1980. The expansion was made
to redress the inequities that existed in the colonial past, where a
dual system was in place, one for whites and the other for blacks.
Soon after independence, education was made a basic human right
and racial discrimination was abolished in order to arrive at ‘Universal
Primary Education’ (UPE).
Education in Zimbabwe is divided into four levels, viz., early
childhood education and care, the seven-year cycle of basic primary
education; the four-year cycle (‘O’ level) of secondary school; and
2 years of high school (‘A’ level). Schools are either government
(Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture) or non-government (Rural/
District Councils, Missions, School Committees, Mines, Boards of
Trustees and Private Individuals).
Out of the 4,670 primary schools in the country, only 266 are
government, representing 11 per cent of total enrolment. Around
25 per cent of the total number of primary schools are in urban
centres with 75 per cent in rural and commercial areas. At secondary
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level, 12,7 per cent of the 1,531 schools (28.3 per cent of the total
enrolment) are government schools. As at primary, about 25 per
cent of the schools are in urban centres.
The expansion of enrolment
The new mission of the independent State of Zimbabwe meant
that educational provision had to be expanded to accommodate the
social demand for education. Table 1 shows how, in terms of the
number of schools, pupil enrolment, number of teachers and the
number of supervisors, the Education System grew after 1979. The
average annual growth rates for these categories for the period 1979
to 1997 were 3.8 per cent, 6.4 per cent, 7.1 per cent and 7.9 per cent
respectively. This trend shows that, on average, the responsibility of
the primary school supervisor, as far as number of schools is
concerned, remained fairly stable over this period.
Table 1. Number of primary schools, pupils, teachers andsupervisors
Year Number of Number of Number of Number ofschools pupils teachers supervisors
1979 2,401 819,586 18,595 78
1984 4,161 2,132,304 54,086 192
1989 4,507 2,233,340 58,370 303
1997 4,670 2,501,065 63,900 309
The expansion in the secondary education sector was even greater
due to the fact that the majority of the African population had had no
access to this level of education (see Table 2). The period 1980 to
1989 saw the construction of schools in rural areas where no
secondary schools had been envisaged before. This enabled primary-
school leavers to be absorbed in schools nearer their homes. The
average annual growth rates for the period 1979 to 1997 were, for
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schools 12.7 per cent, for students 14.9 per cent, for teachers 12.4 per
cent and for supervisors 8.5 per cent. This shows that the growth in
schools, pupils and teachers outpaced that for supervisors and that
the average number of schools for which a secondary supervisor
was responsible, got larger as the years went by.
Table 2. Number of secondary schools, pupils, teachersand supervisors
Year Number of Number of Number of Number ofschools pupils teachers supervisors
1979 177 66,215 3,534 36
1984 1,182 416,413 14,718 64
1989 1,506 670,615 24,547 156
1997 1,531 806,126 29,074 156
A point worth making is that, as the number of teachers has grown,
the proportion of untrained teachers has been decreasing every year
since the expansion in teacher-training colleges in 1984. At the outset,
untrained and under-qualified teachers outnumbered trained
teachers.
Due to the expansion of the education system, teacher/pupil ratios
were fixed by the Ministry in agreement with the Treasury as follows:
(a) Primary schools – 1 : 40 including the Head.
(b) Secondary schools – Forms 1 to 2 – 1 : 33,
– Forms 3 to 4 – 1 : 30,
– Forms 5 to 6 – 1 : 20,
– Practical subjects – 1 : 20.
The teacher/pupil ratios for both primary and secondary schools
are strictly adhered to by schools. The Planning Unit of the Ministry
controls these ratios to ensure that there is no over- or under-staffing.
Overstaffing has financial implications.
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The internal efficiency of the system
The primary school system operates on a principle of automatic
promotion. Only a small number of under-achievers, after
remediation, are allowed to repeat. To a large extent, therefore, the
children who do not progress from one grade to another, can be
considered as drop-outs. During the 1992-1996 years the mean
progression rates in primary schools were as follows (Table 3).
Table 3. Progression rates: primary schools
Grades 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7
% Rates 88.7 89.8 95.9 96.0 100.0 95.7
The intention at primary level is that all children who enter school
should complete the seven-year cycle in order to achieve ‘Universal
Primary Education’. However, drop-out continues to exist and is
especially high between Grades 1 and 2, although primary education
in rural and commercial areas is tuition free. The Grade 7 to Form 1
transition rate has been close to 70 per cent, on average. At secondary
level, it is expected that students progress, without repetition, up to
Form 4. It can be observed that an average of 9.6 per cent of students
between Forms 1 and 6 drop out of the school system (see Table 4).
Perhaps, at this level, drop-out may be caused by school and
examination fees which rural parents are not in a position to afford
as these include building levies.
Table 4. Progression rates: secondary schools
Forms 1-2 2-3 3-4 VI/L-VI/U
% Rates 88.7 89.8 86.7 96.4
The effect of these drop-out rates in the school system is
redoubtable, particularly due to the fact that the unemployment rate
in Zimbabwe is high at this period.
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Education budget
In line with the above expansion, the education budget increased
from about Zimbabwe $120 million in the 1979-1980 financial year to
more than Zimbabwe $11 billion during the 1997-1998 financial year.
In real terms, however, the budget shrunk from its 1979 value because
of the falling value of the dollar in comparison with other currencies
like the US dollar. In Zimbabwe, in recent years, the education budget
has ranged between 21 and 22 per cent of the national budget.
Approximately 92.7 per cent of this budget is used for salaries, the
remainder covering administrative and capital costs.
Quality issues and improvement policies
Although the rapid expansion of educational provision meant that
Zimbabwe has moved closer to the achievement of the
universalization and democratization of education, the issue of
quantity versus quality began to cause concern as early as 1981. It was
felt that the massive expansion of education could compromise the
quality on offer, as this expansion could not be matched with
adequate financial, material and human resources.
The Zimbabwean education system is examination driven and
examination results offer an interesting indicator of quality. Pupils
sit for national examinations at the end of the seven-year primary-
school cycle (Grade 7), at the end of the 2 year junior secondary school
(Zimbabwe Junior Certificate – ZJC), at the end of the two-year middle
high school (Form 4 – ‘O’ level examinations) and at the end of the
two-year high school (Upper 6th – ‘A’ level examinations). Results
obtained by pupils at Grade 7 and ZJC are not used for selection
purposes into the next higher classes, but those at ‘O’ and ‘A’ levels
are used for selection into sixth form and tertiary institutions, hence
the low transition rates between Form four and Lower 6th form. The
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average national pass rate in Grade 7 examinations during the period
1992-1996 stands at 83.5 per cent. At ‘O’ level it stands at 23.0 per cent
and at ‘A’ level it is 69.6 per cent during the same period.
The Ministry, and indeed government, is aware that the education
system faces problems in the provision of quality education and has
put in place a number of strategies to address the problems:
• On the realization that central government funds alone could not
meet the needs of an expanding education system, an amendment
to the Education Act was made in 1991, allowing the formation of
School Development Committees/Associations. These associations
have authority to raise funds to meet certain shortfalls in their
schools, such as textbooks, construction of classrooms, etc. in
addition to the normal government inputs such as building and
per-capita grants. Most rural schools were put up through self-help
schemes funded by government and donors. Parental labour is
expected from the community, with government and donors
supplying building materials.
• Central government initially recruited expatriate teachers to afford
children an opportunity to be taught by qualified personnel. At the
same time, more teacher-training colleges were opened, which,
together with the universities, produce teachers to meet the
shortfalls which may take some time to overcome. Meanwhile, this
shortfall is met by untrained teachers. The Associate Teacher
Programme (ATP) was launched by the Ministry to give untrained
teachers survival skills in the classroom.
• A number of school focused and school-based courses exist to give
school heads resource management skills. The University of
Zimbabwe has launched a distance education programme for
school administrators, including on resource management. UNICEF
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is currently running management courses for the heads of primary
schools.
• The Better Schools Programme (BSP) is jointly funded by the
Netherlands Embassy and the Ministry. The programme focuses on
the improvement of schools through the development of teachers
and the clustering of schools. Resource materials and equipment
such as typewriters, computers and photocopiers are made
available at teachers’ resource centres for teachers’ personal and
professional development.
• The Science Education In-service Teacher Training Programme
(SEITT), which is under the BSP programme, seeks to motivate and
extend the teachers’ knowledge in science and mathematics.
Currently under this programme about 49 teachers have been in-
serviced by the University of Zimbabwe and awarded Advanced
Diploma Certificates in science and Mathematics teaching to enable
them to assist other teachers at resource-centre level.
• The ADEA Teacher Management Support (TMS) programme
identified inspectors’ training needs for Zimbabwe and other
SADC member countries. The materials have been written at sub-
regional level and sub-regional workshops for training of trainers
to standardize training strategies, are also being held.
• The curriculum at secondary level includes the teaching of practical
subjects. In 1986, the Ministry approved a policy to vocationalize
the curriculum at middle-secondary level. A total of 42 vocational
courses, which have been designed with industry participation,
are on offer at this level. This is meant to give students wider career
choices.
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• The Ministry, together with the Business Community in Zimbabwe,
has also launched a programme where school pupils and their
teachers at secondary level can be attached to industry for periods
of between four to five days. The programme aims at bridging the
gap that exists between education and industry so as to make the
curriculum more relevant to what happens in the adult world of
work. The programme also helps pupils to be realistic in choosing
their careers.
• The government has also set up an Education Review Commission
which seeks to make education more relevant to the socio-economic
needs of the country.
• The importance of supervision cannot be overlooked, especially in
the expanded education system in Zimbabwe. While teachers are
supervised on a daily basis by heads and occasionally by education
officers, there is need that an official record of their performance
be kept in the form of a performance appraisal. This is not meant
to be used as a punitive tool for teachers, but as a motivation tool
to bring about the best from each individual. The Ministry
introduced a performance appraisal system in 1996. While there
are fears by officers of victimization by their heads of offices, it is
believed that with training of the supervisors, the instrument will
at the end be accepted and serve its purpose of motivation.
Some educational achievements
There are a number of positive results that have been obtained in
the development of education in Zimbabwe. Four are worth
mentioning in particular.
Firstly, since independence, education has been declared a
birthright. This means that all parents who want education for their
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children now have it at their door step. Government has provided
incentives to local authorities to provide education for the masses
by awarding grants as long as the schools are established and
registered in terms of the 1987 Education Act.
Secondly, a number of pre-schools have been opened to enable
young children to have access to standard and quality early childhood
education. This is considered important because a well-structured
early childhood programme provides a good headstart for primary
education. A number of rural centres have been registered to date to
afford rural children the same opportunities that are enjoyed by urban
children. A number of teachers for the same centers have also been
trained.
Thirdly, since independence, it has been government policy to
integrate the disabled into the mainstream school. The Ministry is
implementing three strategies to achieve this objective: provision of
adequate equipment and facilities in the schools, together with
specialist equipment at the Education Services Centre; supporting
institutions that have special classes, with staff salaries, per capita
grants, purchase of equipment and subsidies for buildings and
running costs; and training and providing specialist teachers at lower
teacher/pupil ratios.
Finally, the Ministry seriously considers the challenges of
providing equal education opportunities for male and female pupils.
The basic facts of this challenge can be discerned from Table 5 below.
The figures show that although at entry point there are slightly more
girls than boys (50.2 per cent), by the time pupils reach Grade 7, girls
are actually fewer (49.5 per cent). The percentage of girls keeps on
falling up to university level. The Ministry is constantly seeking and,
where feasible, implementing concrete policy actions to meet the
challenges to address the needs of the ‘girl child’ with all the energy,
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resources and skills at its disposal, like awarding scholarships to
disadvantaged girls.
Table 5. Proportion of female pupils in schools
Educational level % of girls
Primary 50,2
Lower secondary (Forms 1-4) 45.0
Upper secondary (‘A’ level) 38.3
Teacher/Technical/Vocational colleges 34.0
University 26.0
Source: Ministry of Education and Culture: 1996.
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I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SUPERVISION ANDSUPPORT STRUCTURES
1. Historical background
Supervision and support structures for teachers in Zimbabwe
emanated from the United Kingdom, which was the initial colonizer
of the country. To begin with, supervision was given more emphasis
in European education through a system of inspectors. Education for
the white child was made compulsory way back in 1932. The
Inspectorate for African education was manned by the then Native
Commissioners, who lacked the requisite educational background.
It was only in 1972 that the first inspectors were introduced for
African education. This was followed up by the appointment of
Supervisors for primary schools in 1979. Each supervisor was in charge
of a circuit of schools, under an Inspector.
The Ministry of Education then was divided into two divisions,
one for European and the other for African education. The
Inspectorate was also split into two, where some inspectors were in
charge of either European or African schools’ supervision. The
European schools’ inspectorate operated from two regions (Harare
and Bulawayo) and supervised teachers in each half of the country
because there were fewer European schools. The African schools’
Inspectorate operated from four regions, comprising of Mashonaland,
Midlands/Masvingo, Matabeleland and Manicaland.
With the merger of the two divisions at independence, and the
resulting expanded education system, the staffing of the Inspectorate
was increased and its structure decentralized into nine educational
regions under a Regional Director who reported directly to head
office. The term Inspector was dropped in favour of the term
Education Officer which is still in current use.
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2. The overall structure of supervision and support services
Supervisory and support services are carried out by Ministry of
Education personnel and no other Ministry or body supervises
teachers and heads in schools. Ministry personnel supervise both
government and non-government schools in a similar fashion. The
difference between the two groups of schools is that the Ministry is
solely responsible for all government schools in terms of finances,
construction of infra-structure and supply of teaching/learning
materials, while in non-government schools, other responsible
authorities supply these services. The Ministry supports them with
grants. As far as policy, curriculum and supervision are concerned,
the Ministry of Education is responsible for all schools.
Supervisory services are based at three levels, that is at District,
Regional and National levels.
At district level, as shown below, the supervisory team is headed
by an Education Officer (EO) and under him/her are four to five
District Education Officers (DEOs), depending on the number of
schools in the district, a District Staffing Officer (DSO) and clerical
staff. Each DEO is in charge of supervising a circuit of, on average,
22 to 23 primary schools. There are 63 districts in the country. The
DEOs are not responsible for supervising secondary schools; this is
the task of officers based at regional level.
Supervisory structure at district level
District Education OfficersX 4/5
District Staffing OfficerX 1
Education Officer
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The district supervisors are at the point of service delivery, hence
the services they offer range from inspection of primary schools and
teachers to advising schools on strategies to improve the quality of
education. Most reading materials, books and pay advice slips that
are sent from head office, are distributed to various schools, both
primary and secondary, at this level. The DSOs functions involve the
recruitment and deployment of teachers at district level.
At regional level, as shown below, the supervisory team is headed
by a Regional Director (RD) assisted by two Deputy Regional
Directors (DRDs), one for secondary schools and the other for
primary schools. Under the DRD (Secondary), there are about 10 to
15 subject EOs, 2 EOs responsible for planning and buildings, 1 EO
responsible for professional administration and services, 1 EO (non-
formal) and 1 EO for staffing. Under the DRD (Primary), there are
about 5 to 7 EOs (Primary), each one in charge of a District and 4 to
5 DEOs based in that district. In addition, 1 EO (staffing), Schools
Psychological Services (SPS) officers and Early Childhood Education
Care officers (ECEC) also report to the DRD (Primary). While the
subject EOs and the EOs (primary) are directly responsible for
supervising teachers, the other EOs render critical support services
of staffing schools, teacher discipline, handling students’ affairs,
advising on special needs education for the disabled and advising on
adult and infant education.
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Supervisory structure at regional level
Deputy DirectorPrimary
Deputy DirectorSecondary
Education OfficersIn District Offices
Education OfficersX 15/20
Regional Director
The RD oversees the regional education activities, while DRDs
are directly in charge of EOs and DEOs. The key roles of EOs/DEOs
are to advise and supervise teachers and produce reports on them.
The reports are, in turn, analyzed by the Senior Management Team in
the region. These are then passed on to the Standards Control Unit at
Head Office for further scrutiny. Good practice emanating from a
teacher or school is then cascaded to all regions.
At central level, the main unit in charge is the Standards Control
Unit (SCU), operating within the ‘Schools and Non-Formal’ Division.
This Division has three other sections: the Schools Psychological
Services (SPS), Early Childhood Education Care (ECEC) and Non-
Formal, each headed by a Deputy Director.
The SCU is the unit specifically tasked with the role of supervising
teachers in both primary and secondary schools. The Unit has 3 Deputy
Directors (DDs) (1 in charge of primary schools, 1 in charge of
secondary schools and the other in charge of professional
administration and services). These officers are assisted by
6 Education Officers (EOs), as shown below.
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Supervisory structure at head office ‘Standards ControlUnit’
Deputy DirectorPrimary (SCU)
Deputy DirectorSecondary (SCU)
Deputy DirectorSecondary Admin.
Education OfficersX 2
Education OfficersX 2
Education OfficersX 2
Secretary
DirectorSchools and Non-Formal Division
3. Official functions of the different services
At Head Office, the Permanent Secretary is in charge as head of
the Ministry. Under him are five Directors in charge of different
Divisions, i.e. Schools and Non-Formal, Sport and Culture, Education
Development, Human Resources and Finance.
The structure of the Schools and Non-Formal Division was
explained above. The Education Development Division has two
sections: the Policy Planning section and a section comprising the
Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) and Audiovisual Services (AVS).
The Human Resources Division is in charge of professional staffing
and administration. The Finance Division is headed by a Director
assisted by two Under-Secretaries: one responsible for finance and
the other responsible for supplies and revenue. Following the recent
merger of Ministries, Sport and Culture is now a Division in the
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Ministry. The Division is responsible for the promotion and
development of sport and cultural activities in schools.
The Divisions in the Ministry all work to the accounting officer –
the Permanent Secretary. Divisions formulate their operational plans,
which are discussed by the five Directors who are the Heads of
Division (HODs) together with the Secretary. HODs advise the
Secretary on all professional issues and seek approval and authority
on programmes that need to be carried out. HODs meetings take place
almost every week throughout the year.
At Divisional level, weekly meetings are also held to carry out post-
mortems of work done the week before and programmes planned
for the future. It is through such meetings that items for discussion
at HOD meetings are brought forward.
Regional directors hold similar meetings with their officers to
formulate strategies for their operations. At least once a term the
Secretary holds Regional Liaison Committee (RLC) meetings with
Divisional heads and regional directors. It is at these meetings that
policies are clarified, and operational successes or problems
encountered are discussed and solutions sought.
Also, once a term similar meetings are held with organizations
such as the Zimbabwe Teachers’ Association (ZIMTA), National
Association of Secondary School Heads (NASH), National Association
of Primary School Heads (NAPH), Conference of Heads of
Independent Schools of Zimbabwe (CHISZ) and Church Education
Secretaries (CHES). These meetings serve to explain and clarify
Ministry policies and programmes. Interest groups also get an
opportunity to discuss their concerns with the Secretary and his/her
staff.
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4. Relations with other pedagogical services
The need to enlist the services and support of other pedagogical
services has become more pressing, given the dwindling resources
available to supervisors to carry out their work. Among others, these
pedagogical services include those to do with pre-service and in-
service training, pedagogical research, curriculum development and
implementation (Curriculum Development Unit), and examination
and testing (Zimbabwe School Examinations Council). All these
services have one objective in common, to improve pedagogical
practices in the classroom.
Pre-service training of teachers is the responsibility of the Ministry
of Higher Education and Technology. Although the college lecturer
has the task of training student teachers, co-operation with the
external supervisor has been found to be critical as it is the supervisor
who will take over as soon as the teacher completes pre-service
training. The external supervisor has often been called upon to advise
on the structures, operations and conditions of service of the Ministry
of Higher Education. The external supervisor has also often been
called in as an external moderator/assessor/examiner, especially in
the teaching practice component. As regards in-service training, it is
part of the external primary-school supervisor’s mandate to initiate
and run such courses for heads of schools and serving teachers, while
secondary-school supervisors have to do the same for heads of school,
heads of department and teachers in their specialist subject areas. In
executing their in-service tasks, supervisors have enlisted the services
of pre-service trainers in the colleges to assist as facilitators. This
means that, in principle, a close relationship exists between the pre-
service trainers and the external supervisors.
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This close collaboration can be illustrated by the situation in the
Kwekwe district.1 The district supervisors worked with college and
university lecturers in the assessment of student teachers on teaching
practice. District supervisors accompanied these lecturers on their
trips in the district. On occasions, supervisors were requested to make
reports on the performance of student teachers. The reports were
eventually sent to colleges to become part of the students’
assessment.
Another important service in which the external supervisors are
involved concerns curriculum development and implementation. The
Curriculum Development Unit is the Ministry’s organ tasked with the
responsibility to develop and modify school curricula as needs and/
or circumstances dictate. Some of these circumstances may be related
to ideological, political, technological and/or social changes that may
be taking place. Some of the key activities include writing new
syllabuses or updating existing ones, pilot-testing the syllabuses,
writing materials to go with the syllabuses, evaluating textbooks and
training teachers. It is in the execution of these tasks that the external
supervisor is found to be invaluable at both national and regional
levels. In this regard they work closely with the Curriculum
Development Unit officers in carrying out the outlined tasks. The same
supervisors also follow-up and monitor the implementation of the
new curricula and provide such support as may be required by
teachers.
Examination and testing are critical aspects in pedagogical
improvement. These are sometimes viewed as having a greater
influence on what goes on in the classroom than the official syllabus,
especially in Third World countries where examinations still play a
1. This district was selected for a more detailed case study on the daily operation of supervisionand support services (see Part III of this paper).
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leading role. The external supervisors, especially education officers,
play an important role as item writers and markers of the
examinations. While serving teachers and lecturers also participate
in these important activities, it is believed that external supervisors
have the element of neutrality and can use their long experience as
both teachers and supervisors to the advantage of the system. After
this, they also participate in grading of candidates as well as in
compiling reports for use by teachers.
The Evaluation and Research Unit in Head Office carries out
research into various aspects of the education system that have a
bearing on pedagogical practices and the quality of education. While
its findings have been useful in informing debates on educational
policy, they have not adequately filtered down to the supervisor and/
or the teacher in the classroom. Various other organizations,
including the university, have also regularly carried out pedagogical-
related research. The results have not always been made known to
the supervisor or the teacher. In both cases the supervisor is an active
participant as far as field work for the research is concerned, but gets
to know very little, if anything, beyond this stage.
It must be mentioned that supervisors in Zimbabwe interact also
with other Ministries. Supervisors in Kwekwe district, for instance,
as in all other districts, worked with officers from the Ministries of
Health, Local Government and National Housing, who also visit
schools, for example, for health education programmes. They, in most
cases, shared vehicles with supervisors to overcome transport
shortages. This poses a problem of co-ordination of government
interventions. At district level, programmes of various Ministries were
co-ordinated through the District Development Committee (DDC).
The committee was chaired by the District Administrator, under the
Ministry of Local Government and National Housing. Its membership
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included councillors from various wards within the district. The
committee articulated and prioritized developmental needs of various
wards in the district. By virtue of being at district level, external
supervisors were members of the DDC.
5. Classical supervision and support services within a broaderperspective: school-site support and services
In Zimbabwe, the Ministry has realized that it has become difficult
for external supervisors to effectively monitor all what goes on in
schools. As a result, their impact has become somewhat questionable.
In view of this, some supervision and support tasks have been
devolved to the school as well as to the school locality. School
suitability boards, school clusters and resource centres, fairly new
innovations, are becoming part of the supervisory process. School
Development Committees (SDCs) in non-government schools and
School Development Associations (SDAs) in government schools are
community organs that have long existed and have become involved
in school affairs, though their focus is on non-professional matters.
While they do not supervise teachers per se, they provide physical,
material and financial resources that enhance teacher effectiveness
in the classroom.
The responsibility for in-school supervision and support rests with
the school heads. However, it has become increasingly clear that they
alone cannot cope with this task, because schools are becoming larger
and administrative tasks more complex. Structures have been set up
whereby deputy heads and teachers-in-charge (in primary schools)
and heads of department (in secondary schools) play an active role
in the supervisory process. The heads of department are critical
players, due to the fact that they are specialists in a subject area of
which the school head may have little knowledge.
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The introduction of performance appraisals in the public service
(including the teaching service) implies an emphasis on the role of
school-site supervisors. The district education officers and education
officers cannot supervise and assess all teachers in the country. As a
result, school suitability boards have been formed at every school:
their task is to assess the performance of the teachers and
subsequently recommend them for performance-related bonus or
otherwise. The district education officers and/or education officers
only play the role of moderator and arbitrator in the whole exercise.
This is another demonstration of the relationship that exists between
in-school supervisors and those located outside the school.
One way in which pedagogical support is provided is through
school clustering. In Zimbabwe, the concept was given shape in 1993
under the ‘Better Schools Programme’. According to the Chief
Education Officer Circular Minute Number 9 of 1994, the main aim
was to improve the quality of education through better school
management. Under this concept, on average five to eight
neighbouring schools (primary and secondary) cluster together. The
heads of school in the cluster are expected to share experiences on
professional matters that include school administration, supervision
and staff development. This was all based on the belief that peer
support was more likely to bring about change in management
behaviour than instructions from more senior officers. Meetings of
heads of school, visits to schools on a rotational basis, team
supervision, staff development meetings for teachers of member
schools and resource building are some of the key activities of these
clusters.
Cluster activities were not meant to replace, but to complement,
regional and district office supervisory activities. Regular cluster
reports are sent to the district and regional offices for their
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information and to provide data upon which decisions and further
staff development and support can be based. While the original cluster
concept was meant to respond to and address immediate needs of
school heads, the programme was expanded in 1996 to include
teacher management and support. District resource centres have
become a feature of the expanded programme. All clusters within a
district can benefit from the resources which include networks for
professional support, multi-media training, teaching-learning
materials and facilities, and reprographic and other equipment. An
added feature of the resource centres is that they also service the
communities. Already there is growing evidence that the cluster
concept and the related resource centres have injected more co-
operation among the members (both teachers and heads) and have,
among other achievements, facilitated conflict resolution at the local
level.
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II. THE MANAGEMENT OF SUPERVISION SERVICES:BASIC FACTS AND CRITICAL ISSUES
1. Basic facts and figures: 1997
In presenting basic figures on supervisors, external supervisors
will be regarded as those directly in charge of supervising and giving
support to teachers, and based at district and regional levels. This
evidently includes the officers in charge of supervising primary and
secondary schools, but also officers like EOs planning, guidance and
counselling, buildings, non-formal, staffing and professional
administration, who provide support services and deal directly with
schools. Schools Psychological officers, remedial tutors and ECEC
officers are not included in the analysis. Head Office personnel whose
role is merely that of co-ordinating educational activities and charting
policy strategies for regions and schools, are not included either. The
analysis below has also left out regional directors and their DRDs,
who seldom visit schools.2
We examine first staff responsible for primary schools and then
those in charge of secondary-school supervision and support.
Primary school supervisors
Zimbabwe has 9 regional offices and 63 districts with a total of
4,670 primary schools. These schools, with a total of 63,900 teachers,
are supervised by 68 EOs and 241 DEOs. The national ratio is 1 EO to
69 schools and 1 DEO to 19 schools. The ratios of EOs and DEOs to
teachers is 1 to about 940 teachers and 1 to 265 teachers, respectively
(Table 6).
2. Some data can be given: there are 9 RDs (one female) and 18 DRDs (four females). Theseofficers have served the Ministry for over 20 years and are all above 50 years of age. TheRDs and DRDs are all certified graduates.
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Table 6. Number of primary-school supervisors andteachers
Type of Number of Number of Number of School/ Teacher/officer officers schools teachers supervisor supervisor
ratio ratio
EO 68 4,670 63,900 69 940
DEO 241 4,670 63,900 19 265
EO + DEO 309 4,670 63,900 15 207
Table 7 on age distribution shows that 227 (73.5 per cent) primary-
school supervisors are over 50 years of age, which means that they
are nearing the retirement age of 60. This could mean a loss to the
system in terms of experienced officers and the resultant retirement
packages. Perhaps the system must seriously consider recruiting more
supervisors from the 30 to 45 year age groups.
Table 7. Distribution of primary-school supervisors byage and gender
Age 20 years+ 30 years+ 40 years+ 50 years+ Total
Male 0 4 61 218 283
Female 0 3 14 9 26
Total 0 7 75 227 309
Table 8. Distribution of primary-school supervisors byqualification
Qualification CE Diploma in B. Ed M. Ed Totaleducation
Male 150 13 115 5 283
Female 9 3 14 26
Total 159 16 129 5 309
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The majority of primary-school supervisors (56.5 per cent) hold
Certificates or Diplomas in education (Table 8). These are teaching
qualifications obtained after four years of secondary education and
three to four years of teacher training. The remainder hold Bachelor
and Master of Education degrees. This reflects a well-qualified cadre
of supervisors for this level of education.
Table 9. Distribution of primary-school supervisors bylength of service
Years 0 years+ 10 years+ 20 years+ 30 years+ Total
Male 1 13 108 159 281
Female 9 11 6 26
Total 1 24 119 165 309
As shown in Table 9 the majority of primary-school supervisors
(53.4 per cent) have served the Ministry for over 30 years. This means
that the current pool of primary-school supervisors are quite
experienced, having been classroom practitioners before becoming
external supervisors.
Secondary-school supervisors
Table 10 shows that there are 156 secondary-school supervisors
in the whole of the country. They supervise 29,074 teachers in
1,531 schools. This gives ratios of 1 EO to 10 schools and 186 teachers.
However, it must be noted that 45 of these EOs do not directly
supervise teachers but provide other support services, as has already
been mentioned above. The number of teachers supervised by subject
officers varies from subject to subject. The number is in fact higher
than that indicated in the Table, as in small schools teachers may end
up teaching two or more subjects. The system of training in Zimbabwe
is such that each teacher specializes in teaching two subjects at
secondary-school level.
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Table 10. Distribution of secondary-school supervisorsby subjects and number of teachers supervised
Subject Number of Number of Supervisor/Teacherofficers teachers ratio
English 14 4,058 290
Mathematics 11 3,490 317
Science 12 3,954 330
Geography 9 3,177 353
History 9 2,569 285
Shona/Ndebele 10 3,721 372
Religious education 6 1,214 202
Commercials 6 1,577 263
Home economics 9 1,884 209
Technical subjects 10 1,686 169
Agriculture 8 1,744 249
Guidance-Counselling 7 All (29,074) 4,153
Other oficers 45 All (29,074) 646
Total 156 29,074 186
Table 11. Distribution of secondary-school supervisorsby age
Age 20 years+ 30 years+ 40 years+ 50 years+ Total
Male 6 84 50 130
Female 12 4 16
Total 6 96 54 156
Of secondary-school supervisors, 61.5 per cent are in the 40 to
50 year age group (Table 11). This is quite a healthy situation because
it means that the officers have quite some time before they reach
retirement age.
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Table 12. Distribution of secondary-school supervisorsby qualification
Qualification CE BA/B.Ed./B.Sc. MA/M.Ed./M.Sc. Ph.D. Total
Male 5 119 14 2 140
Female 0 12 4 0 16
Total 5 131 18 2 156
Almost all secondary-school supervisors (96.8 per cent) are
certificated graduates (Table 12). Their qualifications range from a
first degree with a Graduate Certificate in Education to a Ph.D.
Table 13. Distribution of secondary-school supervisors bylength of service
Years 10 years+ 20 years+ 30 years+ Total
Male 19 94 27 140
Female 2 12 2 16
Total 21 106 29 156
As shown in Table 13, the majority of officers (67.9 per cent) have
served the Ministry for between 20 to 29 years.
It would appear that a lot still remains to be done to balance
supervisors by gender, because only 9 per cent of them are female
officers, for both primary and secondary schools.
Data on school supervisors are available in regional offices and at
the Schools Division. However, these are not stored on computer.
Perhaps there is need to create a database for such information to be
easily accessed.
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2. Management issues
(a) Recruitment
Recruitment of supervisors is done through open advertisement,
application and interview. Heads of office are also required to write
individually to qualified, eligible women inviting them to apply,
pointing out that it is in line with government policy to increase the
number of women in management positions. District education
officers are recruited from the ranks of headteachers of primary
schools (those at level ‘Head 1’). Those eligible for the post of
Education Officer (Primary) include officers who have served for a
minimum of one year as DEO, Head II or Deputy Head I Secondary,
Head III or Deputy Head 2 Secondary or Lecturer II.
For the secondary sector, the basic criterion for eligibility to the
post of Education Officer is that the applicant must be a certified
graduate. In addition, the post of Education Officer (Supervision) is
subject specific. Officers who have served for at least one year in the
grade of District Education Officer, Head III or Deputy Head 2
Secondary, Head 2 or Deputy Head 1 Secondary and Head 1 Secondary,
Principal Writer or Lecturer II are eligible. Senior teachers who are
certified graduates with at least five years’ experience are also eligible.
Unlike in the primary sector, where the chain of command is clear,
the situation in the secondary sector is obscure because ‘Head I’ is in
same grade as ‘Education Officer’. This raises problems as the Head Is
feel that they cannot be supervised and advised by an officer of
equivalent grade.
In Kwekwe district, and in keeping with the practice in Zimbabwe,
all external supervisors had risen through the ranks of teacher and
headteacher before their promotion to the supervisory grade. They
were all promoted through application and interview. However, they
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expressed the view that promotion to such posts should be based on
performance rather than seniority. It was also noted that some
supervisors in the district had initially been recruited with low
academic qualifications, but had since studied privately to obtain
better qualifications.
It is fair to say that all school supervisors in Zimbabwe are ‘home-
grown’ because they were all classroom practitioners before rising
through the ranks of deputy head, head or lecturer until they got
promoted to supervisory grades. This has a disadvantage, especially
for primary schools where the majority of these officers are now
nearing retirement age.
(b) Career development
The issue of career prospects, for any job, is critical, given its
implications on the motivation of the officers. For supervisors, it has
also become a thorny issue and has dominated debates on conditions
of service. The DEO aspires to become EO, while the EO’s next
promotion is to the grade of deputy regional director. However, given
that the structure of supervision is pyramidal, promotion prospects
are slim. Most officers retire before promotion comes their way.
Meanwhile, promotion prospects outside the Ministry are almost nil.
This situation does not augur well for the motivation of the officers.
Dismissal rules for the supervisory and support services officers
are the same as those that apply to all other civil servants. These are
stipulated by the employer, the Public Service Commission, on initial
appointment. A case that warrants dismissal must be related to a
serious breach of Public Service Regulations. In practice, the process
of dismissal is seldom initiated and very lengthy.
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(c) Training
There is no specialized training for supervision and support service
staff. However, on appointment the DEOs and EOs undergo
orientation through an induction course at regional level. This usually
takes the form of attachment to an experienced officer (mentor) who
accompanies the appointee on supervision missions and offers
guidance and advice. In addition there is also a one-week induction
course organized by head office. It is at induction that the appointed
supervisors are issued with reporting guidelines and formats.
Three of the six supervisors in Kwekwe district indicated that they
had not been offered the opportunity to attend a headquarters
induction course. They had been in the posts for three, four and eight
years respectively. Since these officers were promoted from the grade
of experienced heads, the Ministry may have assumed that they knew
how supervision services functioned. One of the officers commented:
“Never exposed to induction...relying on my experience as a former
head”. The other three had been inducted for periods ranging from
two to five weeks. They indicated that they had found the induction
courses useful, as this gave them a good head start to their new
functions.
All six supervisors had been attached to experienced officers, who
accompanied them on supervision missions to offer guidance and
advice. All the supervisors in the district indicated that, soon after
their appointment to the supervisory grade, they had had such
attachments for periods ranging from two to three weeks.
In-service courses are an ongoing exercise at all levels: national,
regional and district. Most supervisors have attended management
courses that are run annually by regional offices and, occasionally, by
head office with external resource-person inputs. A few officers have
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gone for short-term training courses abroad. Perhaps what is worth
mentioning, is that the University of Zimbabwe, through the distance
education programme, is running an invaluable education planning
and administration degree course that has attracted over 5,000
teachers and education administrators, including supervisors. Other
sections of the Ministry also run courses for supervisors from time
to time in an effort to broaden their perspective on the Ministry, its
functions and operations. For example, the Research and Evaluation
Unit runs training courses on data collection, survey techniques, data
building and data management.
More detailed information was collected from among staff in
Kwekwe. Five of the supervisors commented that they had not
attended supervision-related courses in the last three years. They all
expressed the view that such courses were necessary to enlighten
and further equip them for general school administration,
supervision, report writing, public relations, as well as on how to
run staff development courses for teachers and heads of school.
Support service officers such as Remedial Tutors and District Literacy
Co-ordinators, like external supervisors, undergo courses aimed at
improving their efficiency and effectiveness in the areas that they
are practising in the field. The officers also follow the same rung of
promotional prospects as external supervisors.
What emerges above is that supervisors in Kwekwe district were
well trained academically and professionally. However, they were not
receiving much support from the Ministry, in terms of courses, to
equip them adequately for their task of supervising schools. An
analysis of the situation in other districts and regions would be
needed to assess the extent of the problem.
The Ministry, with the assistance of UNICEF, conducts some staff
development courses on management for heads of primary schools.
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They cover such areas as human and financial resource management.
Supervisors were also involved in these courses. Initially the
supervisors were trained to give them a thorough grounding in these
topics before assuming the role of resource persons.
With the introduction of Performance Appraisals, courses had
been held nationally to acquaint officers with the system. All
supervisors in Kwekwe had attended the appraiser courses, where
they were trained on how to appraise their subordinates, heads of
school and teachers. The duration of such courses ranged from one
to three days.
As a matter of policy, clerical support staff in the Ministry are also
expected to undergo in-service courses that are offered to improve
their effectiveness and efficiency. Such courses are offered through
the Public Service Commission at Public Service Training Centres or
through other private Commercial Colleges. Each region has a staff
training vote allocation that caters for the training needs of clerical
and administrative personnel.
Some Kwekwe district clerical staff had benefited from the facility.
Three of the officers had undergone upgrading courses. The two
clerks had done accounting, personnel and supervisory management
courses at Diploma level. The typist/stenographer had also done
elementary word processing. However, she was likely to lose the skills
since the district office had no word processor. Support service
officers obtain certificates specifying courses passed. These are used
for promotion purposes. The one category of support service officers
that were not offered packaged course materials was that of office
orderlies. However, in Kwekwe, they had also lately participated in a
one-day course on Performance Appraisals.
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(d) Support for supervisors
The Ministry provides information and guidelines to the officers
in an effort to enhance their effectiveness and also to ensure that
they operate within the law. Once appointed and inducted, the
supervisor is issued with a circular on reporting guidelines and
formats to be used (Chief Education Officer’s Circular Minute Number
14 of 1998). The document shows standard reporting formats that
can be used for different types of visit, to ensure uniformity. More
recently the Ministry, in conjunction with other SADC countries, has
embarked on a programme aimed at addressing the needs of external
supervisors. The programme involves production of modules to
support the overall supervisor training and development programme.
Besides the efforts outlined above, supervisors also receive
various circulars from the Public Service Commission, the office of
the Permanent Secretary, the Chief Education Officer and the Regional
Director. These circulars are meant to provide regular updates on
the regulations under which these supervisors are operating.
There are various professional organizations which have as one of
their recognized aims to provide support to education officers, to
teachers and schools. One of the provisions of the Education Act
(1987) is that the Minister shall recognize only one association of
teachers, which shall represent all teachers in Zimbabwe, the
Zimbabwe Teachers’ Association (ZIMTA). Some sub-associations
operate under the auspices of ZIMTA, including the National
Association of Secondary Heads (NASH), the National Association of
Primary Heads (NAPH),and the National Association of Education
Officers (NAEO). Teachers also have subject associations, especially
at the secondary level. The critical question is how these various
professional organizations relate to the supervisors located outside
the school system (education officers and district officers). There is
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a strong relationship as regular meetings are often organized to
promote dialogue. The work of these organizations is also
fundamentally complementary to that of the supervisor in that both
sides aim at improving pedagogical practices in the classroom.
(e) Monitoring and evaluation of supervisors
In the primary sector, the district education officers report to the
education officer in charge of the district. The latter monitors the
activities of the DEOs and requires them to produce a programme of
activities and targets in terms of the number of school visits,
supervision reports and staff development programmes to be
undertaken. The DEO is then expected to provide regular progress
reports on the ‘agreed’ programme of action and at the end of the
year, to write an annual report for submission to the education officer.
The education officers are supervised along procedures similar to
those outlined for DEOs, by their respective deputy regional director.
Supervisors have all along been appraised through a system of
confidential reports compiled at the end of each year by their
immediate superior. These confidential reports were used when the
officers were considered for promotion. With the introduction of
performance management throughout the public service, the system
is set to become more transparent. Promotional considerations, as
well as performance-related pay, are to be based on the appraisals. At
the moment of writing this report, the main problem seems to be the
absence of uniform performance indicators that are laid down for
use in all the regions. This is likely to result in variations in assessment.
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3. Budgetary and financial matters
(a) Salaries
Table 14. Basic salaries for supervisors3
Grade Title Salary scale Transport Allowance Housing(per year) $ (per month) $ allowance $
7 EO 165,864 189 208162,516159,096155,676
8 DEO 152,184 159 170148,692145,080141,468137,856
Table 14 above shows the basic annual salaries of the EOs and
DEOs at the time of writing (July 1998). The lowest salaries shown
here are those for beginning officers and they increase with their
length of service. Public service officers received a substantial pay
rise in mid-1997. For instance, a beginning DEO received Zim $97,368
in June 1996 as compared to Zim $137,856 in July 1998 (in US dollar
terms, this however would have represented a decrease, because of
the strong devaluation of the currency over that same period). In
addition to their salary, supervisors also receive allowances in respect
of housing and transport. Salaries and allowances are paid monthly
to the officers, as set out in the schedule of pay days for all Ministry
personnel. All supervisors and support staff were paid through their
bank accounts and they indicated that their salaries were received
on time each month.
3. In Zimbabwe dollars.
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Salaries and allowances differ according to rank and level of
responsibility. At the time of writing, Performance Management was
being introduced to the system, but so far it has not yet been used to
award higher salaries to those officers who perform well. In terms
of Public Service regulations, civil servants cannot engage in any
activity for gain unless prior authority is given by the employer. This
means that supervisors do not get extra income, official or otherwise,
over and above their salaries and allowances. Those who do so are
flouting official regulations.
On the whole Ministry of Education salaries do not compare
favourably with those in the private sector or in parastatals. Ministry
officials earn much less, although they may have the same or similar
kinds of training and/or academic qualifications. Before the recent
salary increases, private-sector employees got 172 per cent and
parastatals got 82 per cent more than civil servants (Job Evaluation
Exercise, 1995). As a result of this Job Evaluation Exercise, civil
servants’ salaries were increased to reduce the gap. However,
disparities still exist and might start widening again due to the fact
that the private sector awards higher increases.
It is instructive to compare supervisors’ financial conditions with
those of headteachers. There are three grades of headteacher. Head
I and Head II in the secondary schools receive the same salaries as
education officers and district education officers, respectively. Head
III (Secondary) and Head I (Primary) receive salaries that are about
15 per cent lower, while the salary of Head III (Primary) is 40 per
cent lower.
Commenting on their salary levels, five of the six supervisors in
Kwekwe district felt that their salaries were far too low, describing
them as poor. Their main argument was that the salaries lagged
behind those offered in the private sector and that they were far
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below the cost of living. Only one supervisor felt that salaries awarded
to supervisors were satisfactory.
(b) Travel allowances
District supervisors, like their counterparts at regional level, are
entitled to allowances to cover inspection visits. At the time of this
project, these allowances were pegged at $700 for hotel
accommodation and $50 as supplementary allowance per day.
Supervisors who opted out of hotels were entitled to $150 per day
for use of private accommodation. Allowances for lunch and dinner
were $70 and $80 respectively. Other allowances included $2.80 per
kilometre (on tarred roads) and $3.11 per kilometre (on gravel roads)
for the use of a personal vehicle on government duty. Those who opt
to use public transport can claim the normal bus/train/airfare by
attaching the receipt to the claim form. Some officers use government
vehicles. The Central Mechanical Equipment Department (CMED)
depots throughout the country supply such officers with fuel. CMED
then claims from the relevant government vote allocations specifically
meant for fuel and the payments are effected by the Finance Division
in the Ministry. Travel and subsistence allowances are revised from
time to time to keep them in line with the rising cost of living.
There are two ways of obtaining the money for travel and
subsistence. The first is that officers can use their own money and
then claim afterwards, producing the relevant receipts. The second
method is by applying for an advance and then returni,g whatever
balance there is, with receipts.
According to the Kwekwe supervisors, two main problems were
associated with the payment of these allowances: (a) that they lagged
behind the cost of living, and (b) that there were serious delays, of
even up to two years, in refunding those officers who had undertaken
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field trips without applying for advances. Given the above scenario,
the sensible thing to do is to apply for advances before undertaking
trips. However, the district supervisors argued that it was equally
difficult to get these advances due to bureaucratic practices in the
system.
(c) The budget
It is difficult to get a precise idea of the budget made available for
supervision and support services. The total Ministry budget is
distributed among the different departments, as follows (indicated
is their share in the 1997/98 budget vote):
%
*Administration and General 3.80
*Audiovisual services 0.07
*Literature Bureau 0.03
*Secondary education 33.60
*Primary education 62.00
*Sport and Culture 0.50
Subsistence and travel costs are included for each sub-sector: for
example, Administration and General at Head Office has $429,374,000
of which $39,073,034 are for subsistence and travelling. This amounts
to 9.1 per cent of Head Office allocation, but only 0.4 per cent of the
total education budget. Subsistence and travel for the whole Ministry
amounts to $512,660,000 which is 0.5 per cent of the entire vote
allocation. In-service courses through which, among others,
supervisors are trained had a budget of $9,000,000. This represents
0.08 per cent of the education budget. Salaries for officers and other
support staff take up the largest chunk of the budget: about 93 per
cent in 1997-1998.
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The budgets for primary and secondary education are allocated
to the different regional offices on the basis of the number of pupils,
the number of teachers and the number of supervisors and their
grades. Within the regions, each district is expected to be allocated
its share of the budget on the same principle. However, in the
Midlands region, where the case study was undertaken, only some
items had been allocated to district levels. The rest were controlled
at the regional office and all sections of the region drew from the
same pool. Table 15 shows those regional vote allocations that were
of interest to the supervisors and allocations for Kwekwe district.
Allocations for salaries were not included in the table.
Table 15. Basic budget allocations for midlands regionand Kwekwe district
Type of vote allocation Regional Allocation Allocation for Kwekwe
Official travel $150,000 Regional pool
Subsistence $1,198,000 Regional pool
Vehicle hire $909,000 $44,258
Books and periodicals $16,000 Regional pool
PTC services $364,000 $16,000
Printing and stationery $216,000 Regional pool
Staff courses $183,000 Regional pool
Office and miscellaneous $167,000 Regional pool
Water, light and electricity $90,000 Regional pool
Maintenance of equipment $85,000 Regional Pool
Total $3,378,000 $60,258
Only two items, vehicle hire and PTC services, had been
specifically allocated to the district. The EO in charge of the district
controlled the use of these funds and accounted for them to the
regional director. Individual supervisors had no control over the
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budget. Comments from supervisors indicated that they had no idea
how the budget was controlled. They all agreed that the arrangement
was unsatisfactory as they were often told not to travel because the
budget had been blown. This indicates that the budget was insufficient.
One supervisor described the situation as: unsatisfactory ... more
often sitting in the office reading newspapers.
4. Working conditions
(a) Offices and office equipment
A government complex of offices has been built in the main urban
centres of each region. The Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture
has its share of these offices. Unless the number of staff exceeds the
available office units, each regional supervisor has his/her own
furnished office. A similar programme to provide district-level
supervisors with office accommodation has been underway in many
districts. This has gone a long way in providing suitable office
accommodation in many districts. However, this programme has not
covered all districts due to financial constraints. As a result, some
education officers (Primary) and the district education officers who
are supposed to operate from the district offices are forced to operate
from regional offices, while others have to use rented offices. The
main problem at the district offices, however, has been the lack of
adequate and suitable furniture.
The situation in Kwekwe district can serve as an illustration. The
six external supervisors were provided with individual offices in a
rented building on one floor of a fairly new three-storey building.
On the same floor, they were provided with two toilets and a
conference room of about 16 square metres. Each office had a
telephone receiver, a desk and a chair. There were offices for a
remedial tutor, a pre-school trainer, district literacy co-ordinator,
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clerks and a typist (the typist also doubled up as a telephone operator
and a registry clerk). While supervisors expressed satisfaction with
their office accommodation, they showed some dissatisfaction with
furniture items, especially the lack of filing cabinets.
Another problem is linked to the lack of residential
accommodation for supervisors especially in the urban centres. Some
officers are forced to commute daily from their home town to their
place of work, while in other cases the entire regional staff have
preferred to operate from offices outside their region. Not only does
it mean that the offices built for them are not being utilized, but also
that the supervisors are far removed from the teachers whom they
are supposed to serve. The situation in Kwekwe, which is not a big
urban centre, is quite satisfactory. Although neither supervisors nor
support staff were provided with residential accommodation by the
Ministry, as officers were expected to buy their own private homes,
all but one officer lived within a manageable distance of 2 to
10 kilometres from the office. One officer travelled 23 kilometres
to work.
(b) Transport
Each region is supposed to have a f leet of cars for use by its
officers, including those located at district offices. This arrangement
has been in place since the early years of independence. However,
these cars have outlived their usefulness. Most of them are grounded,
while those that are still on the road will break down every now and
then. It is not surprising to find an entire region with only one reliable
vehicle for all its administrative and professional operations. The
shortage of cars has seriously handicapped the operations of
supervisors. Planned trips to schools have had to be called off because
the only vehicle has suddenly become unavailable due to a mechanical
breakdown or because it is to be used for some more urgent
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administrative work. Again, Kwekwe district can offer a useful
example. The office was provided with only one light lorry that can
sit three people. The original purpose of the light truck was to ferry
materials to schools, but it is now also used for supervision of schools.
This, in fact, had a negative impact on the number of schools that
supervisors were able to visit. In some cases supervisors used
transport that was provided by other Ministries, particularly the
Health Ministry, and some book sellers. The issue of shortage of
transport has dominated the debate on supervisors’ conditions of
service. All officers in Kwekwe expressed dismay at the level of
transport availability. They indicated that this was a major impediment
to their operations.
(c) Secretarial facilities
Secretarial and clerical services are in many cases inadequate.
Sometimes it takes several weeks to have reports typed and
despatched to schools. As a result feedback is often late and,
therefore, less effective than was originally meant. Kwekwe district
is somewhat of an exception. The supervisors had two clerical
support staff who assisted in staffing matters, especially the
deployment and management (leave, transfer and payments) of
teachers. They also offered advisory services to teachers, especially
on the interpretation of policy circulars and public ser vice
regulations. The typist/stenographer, on the other hand, assisted with
the typing of reports made by supervisors after their inspection visits.
Supervisors were provided with one office orderly who also served
as a messenger and cleaner. The supervisors were satisfied with these
services, which three out of the six rated as excellent, while the other
three described them as satisfactory.
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III. THE DAILY OPERATION OF A SUPERVISION SERVICEIN KWEKWE DISTRICT
Introduction
The district
The case-study examined Kwekwe district in the Midlands region.
The district was chosen for this project because, of the eight districts
in this region, it is the most centrally located and therefore
representative of the province as a whole. Its population includes of
all the major ethnic and language groups in the country. It also has a
balance of the communal, commercial farming, urban and
resettlement areas whose varied socio-economic activities give a true
picture of the region. At the last census in 1992, Midlands province
had a population of 1,307,679 people of which 48.60 per cent were
female. Kwekwe district had a population of 223,146 people,
representing 17 per cent of the population in the province. About
one third lived in Kwekwe urban and the rest in commercial farms
and communal areas. The main socio-economic activities in the district
included industry, mainly in gold and iron mining, retail and
commercial ventures in the urban centres and maize, fruit and cotton
farming in commercial farming and rural areas. Good road and rail
networks link Kwekwe city with the rest of the country’s urban and
commercial centres. However, the network in rural areas was poor, a
situation that did not augur well for supervision of schools in such
areas.
The district situation in terms of the number of schools,
supervisors, teacher establishments and pupil enrolments is shown
in Table 16.
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Table 16. Number of schools, pupils, teachers andsupervisors in Kwekwe district
School level Number of Number of Number of Number ofschools pupils teachers supervisors
Primary 112 60,733 1,554 6
Secondary 36 20,226 736 Regionalsupervisors
Total 148 80,959 2,290 6
The district had, at the moment of undertaking the study,
112 primary schools with a total enrolment of 60,733 pupils. The
district was also served by 36 secondary schools with total enrolment
of 20,226 pupils. The percentages of female pupils were 49.6 and
47.9 for primary and secondary schools respectively. The pupil/
teacher ratio was 39. The class/classroom ratio of 1.2 classes per
classroom indicates the inadequacy of classroom accommodation.
Nearly all teachers in the district were trained, with basic professional
qualifications of at least Certificate in Education. However, there
were a few instances where some elderly teachers holding Primary
Teachers’ Lower (PTH) or Primary Teachers’ Higher (PTH) certificates
were still in employment. With the launching of the Better Schools
Programme of Zimbabwe, school clusters had been formed: Kwekwe
district alone had 21 such clusters, serviced by one main resource
centre in the urban centre.
Schools in the urban part were generally well provided for in terms
of infrastructure, furniture and equipment. However, they were
heavily enrolled and characterized by the double-session system.
Provision of classrooms in commercial and communal schools ranged
from fair to poor. In some cases these were inadequate for the number
of pupils enrolled in the schools, leading to some pupils learning
under trees or sitting on floors. Book/pupil ratios ranged from 1:1 in
the most endowed urban primary schools to, at times, 1:12 in the
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remote rural schools, particularly in environmental science and social
studies.
Data collection methods to gain an insight into the daily operation
of the supervision service comprised of focused group discussions
with 6 external supervisors (all male) based in the district office,
12 heads of schools (9 male and 3 female) and 35 teachers (17 male
and 18 female).4 Supervisors and heads of school also completed
questionnaires. These were used to validate responses obtained
during focused discussions. Teachers were interviewed and their
responses recorded by data collectors. The study was carried out on
a preferred 10 per cent sample of primary schools in the district. The
schools were split into three categories of urban, peri-urban and rural.
The rationale was to get a feel of supervision and support services in
schools located in the three different socio-economic environments
within the district.
The supervisors in Kwekwe district
The six supervisors based in this district consisted of 1 education
officer (EO) who was in charge of all primary schools in the district,
5 district education officers (DEOs), each in charge of a circuit of
about 22 primary schools, and 1 district staffing officer (DSO), who
was responsible for recruiting and deploying teachers. Secondary
schools, as elsewhere, are supervised by the regional office directly.
In addition, some officers work more in the field of support to schools
and teachers. These included one remedial tutor under the Schools
Psychological Services, two district literacy co-ordinators (DLCs)
under Non-Formal Education and one pre-school trainer under Early
Childhood Education and Care (ECEC).
4. Two tables in annex give some data on these headteachers and teachers.
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Some basic facts regarding supervision staff in Kwekwe district
are shown in Table 17. All the six supervisors in Kwekwe are male.
Their age range is between 45 and 61 years and their mean age was
nearly 52 years, the same as the national mean age of primary-school
supervisors. All held at least the standard basic academic qualifications
of ‘O’ levels. Five of them actually held post ‘O’ level qualifications
(three with Advanced-level certificates and two with university
degrees). As far as professional training is concerned, three of the
six supervisors are holders of the standard teaching qualification of
a Certificate in Education. The other three held degree qualifications,
a situation that is somewhat better than for the region as a whole.
Their working experience was both wide and relevant. They had all
served as classroom practitioners for an average of 13 years, heads of
primary school for an average of 10 years and as supervisors for an
average of 8 years. Such experience was expected to enable them to
offer sound advice to both teachers and heads of schools.
Table 17. Data on supervisors in Kwekwe district
Post Gender Age Experience Qualifications
Teacher Head Supervisor Total Academic Professional
EO M 50 20 1 8 29 ‘A’ level Grad+ BA CE+MEd
DEO M 61 15 13 12 40 ‘A’ level CE
DEO M 48 5 18 4 27 ‘A’ level BEd
DEO M 45 10 10 3 23 ‘A’ level CE
DEO M 55 12 12 11 35 ‘O’ level CE
DEO M 50 16 5 9 30 ‘A’ level Grad CE+ BA
Mean 51.5 13 9.8 7.8 30.7
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The four staff who work in the area of teacher support, consist of
three women and one man, who are all younger than even the
youngest supervisor (see Table 18).
Table 18. Data on support staff in Kwekwe district
Post Gender Age Experience Qualifications
DLC M 41 16 ‘O’ level Diploma Adult Educa-tion
F 33 13 ‘O’ level Diploma Adult Educa-tion
Remedial F 43 19 ‘O’ level B Philosophytutor
ECEC F 32 11 ‘O’ level Nursery Certificatetrainer
1. Planning and workload
Each supervisor is allocated a quota of schools, which are situated
close to each other, to minimize travelling costs on the part of the
supervisor. The norm in Zimbabwe is that each supervisor at DEO level
should be in charge of 22 or 23 primary schools. In the case of Kwekwe,
the supervisors were operating within the norm (see Table 19).
Table 19. Kwekwe district: number of teachers andschools per supervisor
Post held Number of schools Number of teachers
Primary Secondary Total Primary Secondary Total
EO 112 36 148 1,554 736 2,290
DEO 22 6 28 268 94 362
DEO 23 10 33 266 136 402
DEO 22 7 29 455 282 737
DEO 22 6 28 271 130 401
DEO 23 7 30 294 94 388
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The number of teachers under their charge ranged between a
minimum of 266 in rural circuits, characterized by small schools,
and a maximum of 455 in the central urban circuits. This shows that,
while the allocation was done on the basis of the number of schools,
the actual workload varied when the number of teachers was taken
into account. In addition, the same supervisors were each responsible
for an average of 7 schools and 147 teachers at the secondary level.
However, their work in this regard was less pedagogic as they did
not inspect teachers and/or heads at this level. Rather, they
concentrated on administrative work such as carrying out
investigations, collection of statistical data, handling various Ministry
returns, conflict resolution, issues related to the supply of materials,
staffing, building construction and attending to general problems and
complaints. The supervisors, nevertheless, often have to visit these
secondary schools to carry out the administrative tasks which
consume much of their time. Their core pedagogical functions suffer
in the process.
The education officer is in charge of the whole district. Since all
the DEOs report to him, all schools come under him. His main tasks
are to supervise DEOs and to co-ordinate educational activities in the
district.
Supervisors’ workload is increased by the multiplicity of,
sometimes, conflicting roles they have to play. Apart from their core
tasks, as outlined in their job description, DEOs had to perform a
variety of other tasks, some of which had little to do with their main
supervisory functions. Their responses showed that they were indeed
aware of what they were expected to do, but this did not always tally
with what they actually did. They were also expected to attend
meetings, funerals, political rallies and other intersectoral
assignments, resulting in an accumulation of duties in a single post.
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Supervisors were asked to indicate whether there were any official
norms defining their workload and what these norms were. Three of
the six supervisors indicated that there were official norms. Their
responses are shown in Table 20. The others said they were not aware
of any norms.
Table 20. Supervisors’ awareness of official norms
Norms (per term) Respondent 1 Respondent 2 Respondent 3
Schools to be visited 8 8 10
Teachers to be visited 33 24 30
Reports to be written 8 32 30
Table 20 shows that there exists little clarity about these norms:
the number of schools to be visited ranges from 8 to 10, the number
of teachers from 24 to 33 and the number of reports from 8 to 32 per
term. It seems that individual regions, districts or even supervisors
define their own norms. One supervisor had this to say: “I set myself
to inspect 20 schools a year, but I normally manage 15 because of lack
of transport”. While it is generally understood in Ministry circles that
each school should be visited three times a year (for initial inspection,
follow-up and consolidation), and each teacher be supervised on each
occasion, this requirement is not found anywhere in black and white.
Norms on frequency of visits and time devoted to different activities
were not specified either.
Planning is central to the work of supervision and support service
staff. Since each supervisor was responsible for his or her circuit,
individual plans were prepared, usually on a monthly basis. The
programme of planned activities was given to their immediate
supervisor for moderation and approval. This was done for two main
reasons, to facilitate budgetary control and the synchronization of
activities with other programmes. However, in spite of these good
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plans on paper, the supervisors often found themselves unable to
follow them to the letter. Unscheduled programmes and activities
such as meetings and workshops cut across their plans.
As far as their workload was concerned, supervisors were asked
several questions: how many schools could they visit; what did they
consider their most important tasks; how much time did they spend
on administrative and pedagogic aspects of their job and on the
different activities?
Pertinent revelations emerged when supervisors indicated
(Table 21) what percentage of their allocated schools and teachers
they were able to visit and inspect in the course of the previous year.
Table 21. Schools visited and teachers inspected by eachsupervisor during the last year (as percentage oftotal responsibility)
Supervisor Percent of schools visited Percent of teachers inspected
EO 20 16
DEO1 64 25
DEO2 80 30
DEO3 68 7
DEO4 70 20
DEO5 75 20
The DEOs succeed in visiting between two-thirds and four-fifths
of their assigned schools, but never more than 30 per cent of teachers.
The main problem encountered was shortage of transport.
Supervisors had to team up with officers from other Ministries,
booksellers or had to resort to public transport to carry out school
visits. Inadequate travel and subsistence allowances and too much
involvement in administrative work also detracted from their efforts.
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The question of workload also needs to be examined from the
point of view of what supervisors perceived as their main tasks as
opposed to what it is that they actually did. Their responses are shown
in Table 22.
Table 22. Supervisors’ tasks
Category of tasks Actual tasks Number of supervisors
Taking most of the Supervision 6 supervisors’ time Report writing 5
Administration 4Staff development 2
Rated by supervisors Supervision 6as the most important Staff development 6
Report writing 5Planning 1
Rated by supervisors Meetings 6as the least important Administration 4
Investigations 2Other (e.g. pastoral, funerals ) 3
Supervisors in Kwekwe regard supervision of teachers, staff
development and report writing as their most important tasks. Least
important are: attending meetings and administration. From their
responses, we learn that among the tasks on which they spend most
of their time, are two which they consider the most important:
supervision and report writing. However, they also spend a lot of
time on administrative duties which they consider of little substance.
On average, supervisors spent more or less the same time on
administrative and on pedagogic work (Table 23). When asked to
indicate what these two terms precisely imply, they agreed that
administration involved office work, investigations, correspondence,
discipline, attending meetings, examinations and resolving disputes,
while pedagogical work had more to do with supervising the
teaching/learning process, including staff development of teachers
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with a view to improving the delivery of the curriculum. But there
were quite big differences between individual officers, with some
spending about three-quarters of their time on administration and
others a similar amount on pedagogy. The EO, head of the office, spent,
as could be expected, most of his time on administrative issues, some
of which were referred to him by the DEOs. Variations among the
DEOs are probably an indication of the different circumstances in
their circuits.
Table 23. Percentage of time spent by supervisors onadministrative and pedagogic work
Respondent Percentage of time spent Percentage of time spenton administrative work on pedagogical work
EO 70 30
DEO1 30 70
DEO2 70 30
DEO3 25 75
DEO4 30 70
DEO5 80 20
Mean 50.8 49.2
An analysis of the two preceding tables, as well as some of the
supervisors’ comments, showed that they would be happier if left
to attend to pedagogical issues rather than administrative ones. This
view was consistent with one of the key functions in their job
description, which is to develop pedagogical standards in schools by
staff development of heads and teachers.
Supervisors were asked finally, how they actually distributed their
time over given activities in an average month. Individual responses
were used to compute the mean time for the group and the results
are summarized in Table 24.
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Table 24. Average percentage time devoted to differentactivities in an average month
Activities Average time spent on activity (%)
Office work 28
School visits 23
Report writing 18
Staff development 15
Attending meetings 11
School functions 3
Investigations 1
Pastoral 1
Total 100
Responses showed that school visits, which form the core part of
the supervisor’s mandate, were overshadowed by office work. Again,
administration-related activities tended to consume a sizeable portion
of the external supervisor’s time.
2. School visits
In an effort to improve pedagogical and administrative practices
in schools, Kwekwe district supervisors made different types of visit,
including full inspections, institutional school inspections, teacher
supervision, follow-up visits, courtesy visits, advisory visits and spot
checks on heads, deputy heads and teachers in charge. Table 25 shows
the types of school visit, their average duration and in how far they
were undertaken by an individual or a team.
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Table 25. Types of visits to schools, average duration andorganisation
Type of visit Average time in school Members
Full inspection 4 hours Team
Institutional 2.5 hours Team
Teacher supervision 2.5 hours Individual
Follow-ups 3 hours Individual/Team
Courtesy 1 hour Individual/Team
Advisory visits 2 hours Team
Spot checks 1 hour Individual
The type that lasts by far the longest was full inspection, which
was carried out by a team. This was to be expected, given that such a
visit looks at all aspects of the school. Institutional, teacher
supervision and follow-up visits were the next in line in terms of
duration. Spot checks and courtesy visits each lasted only one hour,
on average. An important trend is that of the prevalence of team
inspection as opposed to visits by individual supervisors.
Responses from the heads corroborated to a large extent what
the supervisors indicated. There was some difference of opinion
between and among heads and supervisors on the average duration.
This was not surprising given that this also depends on the size of a
school.
When visits are undertaken to schools, it is expected that their
purposes are clear in order to give them focus. Supervisors were asked
to explain the main purposes of school visits. They were unanimous
that the main goal is system improvement, but that the specific
objectives varied from one type to another. The objectives of a full
inspection visit, for instance, were to assess the overall operations of
the school with a view to rendering advice and guidance where
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necessary. On the other hand, the objectives of teacher supervision
were to assess how individual teachers were imparting knowledge
to students. In the process they could also give suggestions for
improvement while searching for good practice for dissemination
to other schools and teachers. A summary of some of the objectives
is given later in Table 28 of this document.
The principle of pre-announced visits seems to be more of an
intention than a reality due to practical constraints. Urban schools
usually received advance warning of impending supervision visits.
However, unannounced visits were unavoidable due to changes
resulting from transport and financial constraints. Urban school heads
indicated that unannounced visits had become more of the norm
rather than the exception. Peri-urban and rural schools rarely
received advance warning, because of the lack of communication
facilities. A rural school head said for instance: “At times we learn
about such visits if we happen to meet supervisors informally during
our shopping visits to urban centres”.
The question of whether it is really necessary for schools to receive
advance notice of supervision visits, was put to both supervisors and
heads of school. The responses revealed contrasting views. Four of
the six supervisors felt that schools should not be informed. Their
reason was that schools would display artificial performance which,
in most cases, would not reflect how they functioned on a day-to-day
basis. On the other hand, 10 of the 12 heads felt that they should be
informed in advance. One reason being that “some teachers are
nervous by nature ... such advance notice may help them. In any case
guerrilla warfare tactics are outdated”. Another head pointed out that
advance warnings enabled heads to prepare relevant information for
the expected visit.
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Two-thirds of the heads felt the number of visits to be inadequate.
More worryingly, all rural heads felt the number to be totally
inadequate. One head said: “Inadequate, new teachers go for years
without supervision”, while another said: “Not sufficient, untrained
teachers would benefit”. Peri-urban heads expressed mixed views,
while heads of urban schools indicated that visits to their schools by
external supervisors were quite adequate. One urban head brought
up an important dimension by responding: “I have senior teachers
needing fewer visits. Besides, supervision is done mostly by the school
head.” This comment suggests that some heads start to feel that
emphasis should now be on in-school supervision as opposed to
external supervision
In addition to institutional school inspections, teacher-targeted
visits are important and should be undertaken as regularly as possible.
This is meant to monitor the quality of instruction, which depends
to a large extent on the processes in the classroom. Another objective
is to offer professional support and guidance, to ensure that
education delivery is on course. To what extent were such visits
adequate from the teachers’ point of view?
Answers to this question followed the same trend as for heads of
school. Those in urban and peri-urban schools had, comparatively,
been supervised more adequately than those in rural schools. To
obtain further insights into the issue, data were obtained from all
teachers, to determine how regularly teachers in each category of
schools had been supervised. Such data consisted of total teaching
experience of each teacher, the total number of visits for each teacher
during his or her entire teaching experience, and the number of times
he or she was supervised in the last year. These data were collated by
school location to obtain the total experience of all teachers in each
category, total number of visits and those undertaken during the last
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year. For each category of teachers, the average years per visit were
computed by dividing total years’ experience by total number of visits.
The results are shown in Table 26. Characteristics of all interviewed
teachers are shown in Appendix I.
Table 26. Regularity of supervision visits on teachers
Location Number of Total Total Average FrequencyTeachers experience number of years of visits
Interviewed in years visits per visit in 1997
Urban 12 132 42 3.14 2
Peri-urban 13 112 66 1.70 3
Rural 10 114 27 4.22 0
Total 35 358 135 2.65 5
On average, a teacher in Kwekwe district was visited by a
supervisor every 2.65 years. In Kwekwe urban, teachers were
supervised every 3.14 years. Peri-urban teachers were seen more
regularly, every 1.7 years, and Kwekwe rural teachers only every
4.22 years. During 1997, only five of the interviewed teachers were
seen by external supervisors, of whom none in Kwekwe rural. This
is undesirable as rural schools are staffed with the least experienced
and untrained teachers.
Why were visits as rare as this? Urban schoolteachers seemed to
think that supervisors rarely visited their schools because the majority
of heads in the schools were experienced, hence supervision of
teachers was mostly left to them. On the other hand, teachers in rural
schools felt that supervisors had critical shortages of transport, a
situation further exacerbated by inaccessibility of these schools. They
further expressed disquiet that on the few occasions when
supervisors got to their schools, with the little time on hand, they
mostly concentrated on the head and sampled only a few teachers.
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This not only created an artificial picture of the teaching and learning
conditions in such schools, but also left the unsupervised teachers
unguided.
Generally, it can be argued that teacher supervision was weak.
This was mainly because of transport shortages faced by external
supervisors, particularly for rural schools. This is further supported
by the fact that within 1997 alone, supervisors in Kwekwe, on average,
visited only 63 per cent of their schools and supervised only 19.7 per
cent of their teachers.
When preparing for their visits, supervisors mainly referred to
previous reports if available. This served as a point of departure on arrival
at the school: to check if previous recommendations were implemented.
In selecting schools, they gave priority to problem schools as well as
those schools that had not been visited for a long time.
During actual visits to schools, what were the main activities that
external supervisors carried out? This question was put to heads of
school. Table 27 shows the various activities by type of visit.
Table 27. Activities carried out by external supervisorsduring visits to schools
ActivitiesType of visit Examining Classroom Discussing Discussing Discussing Meetingor inspection records observations with head (whole staff) with with
individual communityteachers
Full inspection ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Institutional ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Training supervision ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Courtesy ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Follow-up ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Spot checks ✔ ✔ ✔
Advisory
Note: Activity carried out (✔).Activity not carried out (empty)
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Table 27 can be analyzed in two ways, by type of visit and by activity
carried out. The analysis by type of visit shows that advisory visits
were very different from an inspection and therefore devoid of any
of the activities in the table. An additional explanation lies in the fact
that, in many cases, this type of visit was not carried out in its own
right, but incorporated in the other types. For spot checks, half of
the activities (classroom observations, discussion with whole staff
and discussion with individual teachers) were not carried out.
An analysis by type of activity shows that discussion with the head
forms part of every visit. Individual teachers and the community were
sidelined in a number of visit types, perhaps a regrettable trend given
that these two groups are key players in what goes on in schools.
Both supervisors and heads of school offered some information
about the data collected by supervisors during each type of visit.
During full inspections, all data pertaining to the smooth running of
the school were collected, including the general administration of
the school, type, quantity and quality of infrastructure, lesson delivery,
resource provision, numbers of pupils and teachers and past
performance of the school in terms of examination results. During
institutional visits, data collected pertained mainly to the
administration of the school, infrastructure and resource provision
and parental involvement in the development of infrastructure.
During teacher supervision, the focus was mainly on the interactions
between teachers and students, quantity and quality of work given
and produced, resources available for use and teacher records. For
courtesy visits, supervisors mainly focused on relations in the school
and relations amongst all stakeholders. During follow-up visits,
supervisors mainly concentrated on previous recommendations made
to the school, to check how far these had been followed and
implemented or even improved by the school. Spot checks were
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normally very short visits that aimed at checking on some particular
aspect in the school, like teacher and pupil attendance, school records
or even school cleanliness.
3. Reporting
The Ministry attaches great importance to reporting by
supervisors. The point is stressed in the Chief Education Officer’s
Circular Minute No. 14 of 1988, which states: “Much value is attached
to report writing as the report is a permanent record and, in the majority
of cases, is the only means by which the Ministry gets to know about
the state of education provision in schools”. Whenever supervisors
make inspection visits to schools, reports are mandatory. The Ministry
has provided reporting guidelines on how these must be structured.
This is to ensure uniformity and adequate reporting on all aspects of
the education system.
The main reports include those on teachers, school heads, deputy
heads, full and institutional inspections. Supervisors’ comments
indicated that they always wrote these reports, because it was a
requirement except for courtesy visits. However, what was found in
Kwekwe was that supervisors tended to concentrate more on reports
on heads and teachers, rather than on institutions and other aspects.
In writing reports, the supervisors are expected to articulate the
specific purpose of the visit, so as to think clearly about what it is
that they want to report on, even before departure to the school.
This appears logical as it would be the basis upon which
recommendations would be made.
Before finalization, the reports are always discussed with various
parties concerned. All reports are discussed with the school heads,
who give their own observations. To some extent, this influences
the final version of the report, including the recommendations.
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Reports on teachers are also discussed with the individual teachers
and those on departments with the respective heads of department.
Reports on teachers were never discussed with school
communities. Supervisors, heads and teachers argued that such
reports were on professional issues which communities had nothing
to do with. However, they all indicated that some aspects of
institutional reports, related to school enrolment, infrastructural
development and finances, were discussed and distributed to the
senior management in the school, school development committees
and the responsible authority. Supervisors in Kwekwe produced
reports and distributed them as shown in Table 28. At times an
additional copy was produced for the supervisor’s own record.
Table 28. Types and objectives of reports, official copiesand their distribution
Type of report Number Distribution Objectivesof copies
On teachers 4 2 to Head (1 for teacher) • Assess effectiveness1 Regional Office • Identify training needs1 Head Office • Propagate good practice
On heads 3 1 to Head • Assess administrative,1 to R/O • professional effectiveness1 to H/O • Identify training needs
On deputy heads 4 2 to head (1 for Reportee) • Assess administrative,1 R/O • professional effectiveness1 H/O • Identify training needs
Heads of 4 2 to Head (1 for Reportee) • Assess effectiveness ofdepartment 1 R/O department in implementing
1 H/O the curriculum• Render advice
Institutional report 3 1 to Head • Assess availability of1 R/O administrative, physical and1 H/O professional inputs in a
school• Render advice
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The distribution shown in Table 28 is as per Ministry
requirements. The reportee always receives a copy to provide
feedback and/or advice. The copies for other of for a long time fices
are for their information and also to enable them to supervise and
monitor the implementation of recommendations. The school head
plays a pivotal role at the local level and, receives, for this reason, a
copy of every report produced by supervisors. All heads indicated
that they received the reports within an average period of two weeks
to two months.
All reports were written following guidelines provided by the
Ministry. While it may be argued that provision of guidelines ‘kills’
originality and initiative, this was meant “to streamline all reporting
procedures in our system to ensure uniformity and adequate reporting
on all aspects of our education” (Circular Minute No. 14 of 1988).
All reports invariably started with the personal details/data on the
reportee. This included identification details of name and code
number, qualifications (including where and when obtained), type
of appointment, date of joining service, experience, name and code
of school and its responsible authority. Information relating to date
of last visit was also included. Needless to say, these data were
necessary for filing purposes and also to give the history of the
reportee to the reader of the report.
An important feature of all reports is the specific purpose of the
visit. For example, a report on a teacher stated its purpose as “to assess
the competence of the classroom practitioner”, a report on a head as
“to assess the administrative ability of the head and assist where
possible”. Meanwhile, the purpose of the institutional visit was “to
assess the effectiveness of the head as an administrator and the impact
he had generally on his subordinates, the public and the community”.
These examples reveal that the visits could have a pedagogical and/
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or administrative focus and that they incorporate an advisory element
(though not always stated). However, there were occasions when
some supervisors compiled reports without a deliberate statement
of purpose.
All personal reports (on teachers, teachers-in-charge, deputy heads
and heads of school) go on to summarize the reportee’s workload:
their teaching assignment, post of special responsibility and co-
curricular responsibilities. This is followed by the supervisor’s
comments. For example, a report on a teacher had the comment
“teacher is fully utilised and is playing an active role in the school” or
“quite suitable for teaching infants”. A report on a TIC mentioned:
“the TIC felt she was underutilized, with her teaching experience, her
management experience as a TIC and as an Acting Deputy Head. Now
equipped with a Bachelor of Education in Administration and a Policy
Studies Degree she could handle a higher post than being just a Teacher
in Charge of infants”.
The comments are valuable to those responsible for deploying
and assigning teachers to responsibilities. If the comment reflects a
mismatch, between class allocation and qualification and/or
experience for example, this may result in reassignment. The
comment could also highlight cases of teacher over- or under-
utilization.
The coverage of each report depends on its type and purpose.
Reports on a teacher mainly covered pedagogical aspects: the
learning environment, progress of the lesson observed, teaching
documents, supervision of pupils’ written work and personal
qualities of the teacher. The report on a head was more encompassing.
It covered administration (enrolment and staffing, office
organization, infrastructure, development plans, funding),
professional duties (curriculum implementation, professional contact
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with teachers etc.), tone and discipline, relations , and school
achievements.
At times factual evidence was cited in the reports to show that
conclusions were based on hard evidence. The following are some
examples drawn from teachers’ and heads’ reports: “Written work has
received little attention. Jabulani’s four essays of 01/02, 23/02,02/06
and 20/06 had only one of the four marked” (from report on a
teacher). “On the day of the visit, seven creative work exercises had
been written and marked” (from report on a teacher). “The head had
conducted two staff meetings ... parents’ meetings had been held o 22 01,
29/01, 05/02 and 26/02 (from report on a head).
It was also noted that attempts were being made to balance praise
(strengths) and criticism (weaknesses). This has the advantage that
even a negative comment would be seen, by the reportee, in positive
light: “A comprehensive school policy was in place. Highlights on
professional and administrative discharge of duties were clearly
explained. However, there was room to further elaborate on the school’s
standard expectations in writing, quality and quantity of written work
(from report on head). “The head was commended for that efficient
use of the grant. Textbooks too were generally in adequate supply
except in grade seven where in some cases two pupils share a textbook.
The head was, however, advised to encourage class teachers to insist
on proper care for books …”(from a report on an institution).
Almost invariably, reports ended with a summary of the main
points before appropriate recommendations were made: “The teacher
performed well in classroom appearance, scheme plans and
mathematics written work. She was advised to improve on quality and
quantity of media on display, volume and quality of written work in
all other subjects and keeping progress records (from report on a
teacher). Reports on heads in particular had, as part of their format,
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a section on noteworthy achievements before the summary and
recommendations. This always ensures that some positive elements
are captured in the report.
In general, recommendations to reportees were feasible as they
were based on observations made. For example, recommendations
made to the TIC involved, among others, the need to complete
scheming in one subject, the need to enrich the media column of the
scheme of work and the need to give pupils more practice in sentence
construction and mental mathematics. Those made in one head’s
report, i.e. to introduce more co-curricular activities and to step up
supervision of teachers, were also considered to be within the
capacity of the reportee to implement. However, there were some
which were slightly vague or outside the reportee’s authority, e.g. the
head should construct more teachers’ houses (it requires more than
just the head), the head should take a serious view of education with
production (rather vague).
It was pleasing to note that some supervisors had gone beyond
the stage of making recommendations like a ‘wish list’. They stated
what should be done, by whom and, in some cases, within what time-
frame. For instance: “through this report, the headmaster is advised
to report the teacher’s progress within four months” (from report on a
teacher). Another example is that of a recommendation where the
supervisor set himself a target date for a follow-up visit to check on
recommendations.
The features mentioned above should not be taken to suggest that
supervisors in Kwekwe district had become perfectionists. Rather,
they serve to highlight some positive trends observed in their reports.
They seem to have succeeded in moving from a position where a
report is a chronicle of faults and criticisms, to one where the report,
while stressing what needs to be corrected, gives credit for what has
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been done well. In this respect, it serves both as an instrument to
motivate, while encouraging the professional development of the
reportees.
4. Follow-up, including use of reports
Follow-up
When reports have been sent to schools, the question of follow-
up becomes important, not only to check on implementation, but also
to assist reportees in implementing recommendations. Questions
were asked first about the regularity of follow-up and how satisfied
both supervisors and heads were in this respect. Of the six
supervisors, two indicated that they made regular follow-up on their
recommendations with heads and teachers. The remaining four either
never made any follow-up (1) or did so irregularly (3). They cited
shortage of transport and travelling and subsistence funds as the
cause. This was corroborated by 75 per cent of the heads, who
indicated that supervisors did not undertake regular follow-up to
schools and cited the cause of this as: “supervisors were too few to
cover all schools and, of course, shortage of transport”. Four of the six
external supervisors indicated that they were not satisfied with the
follow-up by the school, but five said that they were quite happy with
what was done at administrative levels. The heads (58 per cent) on
the other hand, indicated that they were in general satisfied with the
level of follow-up. On further analysis, it emerged that those who
were satisfied were urban and some peri-urban heads. Rural school
heads were dissatisfied with the level of follow-up made by
supervisors. Heads were particularly concerned with the fact that
supervisors were not systematic in their follow-up. Some heads
indicated: “when they come they rarely find out if anything was done
about their recommendations”. Another head responded:
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“recommendations made by one supervisor were completely ignored
by the next one because they take too long to make follow-ups”.
According to the heads, follow-up seemed to receive more
attention at school level. All heads indicated that they discussed
supervision reports with all their teachers in a staff meeting and
developed action plans on how recommendations would be
implemented. However, recommendations pertaining to individual
teachers were discussed only with the teachers concerned.
Supervision reports relating to provision of facilities in schools and
their funding were discussed further with school development
committees and responsible authorities.
Given the various issues and problems highlighted above, could
supervision be said to have any impact on schools? The views of both
supervisors and heads were sought on this issue. Of the six
supervisors, three believed supervision to have a ‘very strong’ impact,
one thought impact was ‘strong’ and two ‘fair’. They said their overall
satisfaction was based on the fact that their recommendations were
usually implemented. As a result, administrative and professional
competences of heads and teachers were improving in schools.
Headteachers were asked to rate supervision impact levels on a
six-point scale ranging from negative (1), no impact (2), limited
positive impact (3), fairly positive impact (4), high positive impact
(5) and very high positive impact (6), with reference to different
aspects of school functioning. As shown in Table 29, responses from
heads show that impact was, on average, quite high. The mean rating
of 4.6 lies between fairly positive and high positive.
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Table 29. Heads’ responses on impact of supervision inschools
Area Mean rating
Urban Peri-urban Rural Allschools schools schools schools
Administration of school 5 . 7 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 8
School infrastructure 5 . 0 3 . 3 4 . 0 4 . 1
Availability of teaching 4 . 3 4 . 3 4 . 6 4 . 4and learning materials
Teacher presence 5 . 3 4 . 5 4 . 8 4 . 9
Teacher lesson preparation 6 . 0 4 . 5 5 . 2 5 . 2
Classroom teaching 6 . 0 4 . 3 4 . 2 4 . 8+ Lesson delivery
Student presence 6 . 0 4 . 3 4 . 2 4 . 8
Student performance 4 . 3 4 . 3 3 . 8 4 . 1
Relations with staff 5 . 3 4 . 3 3 . 8 4 . 5
Teacher motivation 5 . 7 4 . 3 3 . 4 4 . 5
Staff development 5 . 7 3 . 8 4 . 6 4 . 7
Development and use of resources 6 . 0 4 . 0 4 . 0 4 . 7
Mean 5 . 4 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 6
When rated by school location, urban schools rated the impact
higher, at 5.4, than peri-urban and rural school heads, 4.2 and 4.3,
respectively. The mean ratings also show that the greatest impact was
felt in the areas of teacher lesson preparation, teacher and student
presence and administration. The least impact, on the other hand,
was felt in the areas of school infrastructure and student performance.
Supervisors expressed the view that improvement in transport
supplies, availability of funds, staff development for both teachers
and heads and reduction of their workload could increase the impact
of supervision in schools.
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In discussions with supervisors, heads of school and teachers, it
was clear that supervision visits were irregular. Did this affect relations
between supervisors and schools? Both supervisors and heads
indicated that this was not the case, because both parties were aware
that transport problems affected the regularity of supervision visits
to schools. One head felt strongly, though, that schools needed to be
visited more often to create better professional working relations.
As part of impact assessment, the heads were asked to identify the
type of visits and activities that they felt were most useful. Teacher
supervision was rated as the most useful, followed by full and
institutional inspections. Courtesy visits were also considered as
important, because they were less threatening and allowed a free
exchange of views and ideas.
On activities during supervision visits, post-supervision meetings
were considered the most useful because these afforded staff the
opportunity to share ideas and discuss their views openly with
supervisors. It was further indicated that these meetings enhanced
dialogue and discussion which facilitated an accurate assessment of
the school’s strengths and weaknesses.
A majority of heads of school (58 per cent) felt that time devoted
to each of the activities was inadequate, especially in rural schools.
This was, perhaps, a result of the fact that travelling to rural schools
took time, leaving very little time to spare for school supervision.
The view was corroborated by teachers who were interviewed in
one of the rural schools.
Use of reports
The production of reports is not an end in itself. These reports
are meant for use by various levels and actors in the Ministry to
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improve the performance of the system, through spreading good
practice or by following up on poor performance. It is primarily for
these reasons that each report ends with recommendations which, if
implemented, should see improvement in the identified areas. The
critical question to ask is: how were reports being used by the
Ministry in general and by Kwekwe district in particular?
In Zimbabwe, reports are not published. Instead, the report is
expected to be most useful to the reportee to consolidate strengths
and improve on the identified weaknesses. Other recipients, like
heads, are expected to play a supportive role in assisting the reportees
in this regard. At times, however, the report could well have a
demotivating effect, especially if it dwells only on weaknesses. The
opposite could be true, where a glowing report could make the
reportee sit back and assume that all was well. In Kwekwe district,
the reports were found to be generally balanced in the sense that
they highlighted both strengths and weaknesses and subsequently
made recommendations.
The reports on schools and teachers should be filed at four levels:
at school, district office, regional office and head office. The reports
make a telling permanent record of the reportee and should be
available for consultation as and when necessary. The reports should
be filed and stored in cabinets or shelves in registries at each level.
Schools in Kwekwe generally had copies of reports. The district
office, although it should file copies, generally did not have any. It is
true that the relevant official circular (No. 14 of 1988) does not include
the district office in the distribution list. Perhaps this calls for the
revision of the circular, as this undermined efforts of supervisors
when they wanted to make follow-ups on previous reportee
recommendations. Without these reports, supervisors had nothing
to go by when visiting schools.
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The Ministry makes use of the reports at various levels. At the
school level, the head uses the report to identify staff development
needs, mainly based on the recommendations made by the supervisor,
and to monitor the teachers’ progress. At central and regional levels,
the report is used for monitoring, correction and promotional
purposes. It is the duty of the Standards Control Units at these two
levels to scrutinize the reports and identify weaknesses in curriculum
delivery. Interventions in the form of staff development are then
instituted. Where good practice exists, this is disseminated to all
regions, districts and schools for consideration and adoption.
Supervision reports can therefore have wide implications on the
education system. They have a bearing on allocation of resources to
schools and within schools. At the school level, a report could
influence the reallocation of classes among teachers. In discussions
with supervisors, it emerged that teachers were redeployed from one
school to another on the basis of recommendations made in the
reports (for instance where there was a concentration of untrained
teachers in one school). At national level, reports have been used to
obtain external assistance from funding agencies when the plight of
some schools had been highlighted in the reports. As a result, some
schools have benefited from donor-funded teachers’ houses,
classrooms and textbooks. Supervision reports are also used as a
sensing mechanism of what goes on in teacher-training colleges.
Should deficiencies be found in the newly qualified teachers, head
offices of the two Ministries liaise to take corrective action on the
basis of the reports.
Promotion prospects of teachers depend on good performance.
At times the supervisor’s report happens to be the only independent
testimony of such performance outside the school. In Zimbabwe
appeal procedures exist in cases of unfavourable reports either on
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performance or misconduct as laid down by the employer (the Public
Service Commission) in the Public Service (General) Regulations. In
cases of dissatisfaction, teachers can appeal directly to the employer
provided all other channels of communication have been exhausted.
These are that, if a complaint is directed against a head, the teacher
writes a letter to the DEO/EO stating areas of dissatisfaction. The letter
should be acknowledged by the head before posting. On receipt of
the letter at district level, supervisors would investigate the matter
and try to reach an amicable solution. Should this fail, the matter will
be referred to the DRD/RD who will also try to resolve the matter.
Should this also fail, the matter will be referred to head office and,
ultimately, to the employer. Appeal and disagreements over reports
have been rare. It has often been argued that this is because these
reports have a professional character. However, the bureaucratic
nature of the appeal process may also be discouraging to genuine
cases of grievance.
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IV. OVERALL ASSESSMENT
This final part focuses on the critical issues of impact, problems
and emerging trends. It is based on the views and perceptions of the
external supervisors, heads of school and teachers in Kwekwe district
and on the more general information collected in the country as a
whole.
1. Impact on school functioning and quality
In Zimbabwe, like in many other countries, supervision has
evolved from its traditional thrust of policing and enforcing rules
and regulations to that of advising, guiding, information dissemination
and stimulation. Its targets include schools and those who operate
within them, the ultimate objective being to influence what goes on
in the schools so as to improve the quality of education. We will first
pose the question: to what extent are supervision and support
services having an impact on what goes on in the schools in Kwekwe
district? An evaluation of the level of impact was based on comments
obtained from interviewed supervisors, school heads and teachers
in that district. A number of more general remarks on the impact of
supervision will conclude this section.
The Kwekwe supervisors expressed the view that they were
having an impact on the functioning of schools. During their visits,
they identified needs of schools and teachers, incorporated these in
the form of recommendations in their reports, and disseminated them
to various interested parties. They indicated that they were pleased
with responses to their recommendations, especially with school
heads, who were always willing to implement them. As a result, heads
in the district were reported to have improved the administration of
their schools. The same reports were also ‘creating’ vital information
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and making it available to other users who, in their various ways,
influenced the development of schools.
In spite of these positive perceptions, external supervisors
consistently complained of various constraints that inhibited their
work. Transport was one of them and workload another. They spent
more time on what they considered less important tasks (e.g. attending
meetings) at the expense of their most important tasks (e.g. supervising
schools and in-servicing teachers and heads). Given these sentiments,
their perception of impact must be viewed with caution. Among
strategies to improve their approach, supervisors suggested the
provision of adequate transport and allowances as well as rationalizing
their workload.
The opinion of heads of school regarding impact was on the whole
‘highly positive’, but somewhat more mitigated than that of
supervisors. They identified the areas where the greatest impact was
felt as school administration, teacher presence, teacher lesson
preparation and delivery and student presence (See Table 29). The
heads, however, felt that current visits were inadequate, hence,
provision of more resources would further enhance the functions of
supervisors. There was also a feeling, among urban heads, that daily
functioning of schools could only be improved if some supervisory
functions were devolved to the school level. In other words, some
urban heads were suggesting that they should be given the
responsibility to supervise the teachers in their own schools.
Interviewed teachers expressed sentiments that varied by school
location. All nonetheless agreed that supervision visits were too
infrequent: most indeed are only visited once in a while. This is
especially disturbing in rural schools, since these have more recently
appointed and untrained teachers. The low frequency of visits also
tended to affect promotional prospects, since these depended, to a
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large extent, on external reports. In the event of partial assessment
of teachers by heads, supervisors’ intervention as mediator was also
needed. In terms of frequency of visits, therefore, the peri-urban and
urban teacher benefited more than the rural teacher and the impact
of supervision was accordingly greater.
One aspect that both heads and teachers appreciated was the post-
supervision conference, when reports were discussed between the
supervisor and heads and teachers. This gave some of them an
opportunity to engage in a serious two-way dialogue with external
supervisors, which was viewed as the best strategy to improve
teaching and learning in schools. Teachers in rural schools expressed
a reservation that this was ineffective as long as the majority of
teachers had not been visited by supervisors. They felt that only
would then any critique towards improvement make sense.
Another issue to consider in assessing impact is that of norms to
be set for supervisors on the number of schools and teachers they
are expected to visit within a certain period. At the moment
supervisors visit schools without any official guidelines, following
only their individual plans. Norms existed before the massive
expansion in educational provision at independence. But because of
this expansion, norms (that each school should be visited three times
a year and each teacher supervised on each school visit) seem to have
been forgotten about. Even documentary evidence to that effect also
seems to have vanished. The Ministry should seriously consider
resuscitating and reformulating pertinent norms to guide officers in
planning and assessing their own work. The Ministry needs also to
be more clear as to the number of teachers that should be allocated
to each supervisor. In Kwekwe district, one supervisor is in charge
of 266 teachers in rural areas and another of 455 teachers in urban
centres. One could say that the differences are compensated for by
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the fact that the rural supervisor travels long distances to schools as
compared to the urban supervisor. However, one cannot expect that
a supervisor can visit and make reports on all these teachers within a
year. Considering the high expectations of teachers, this ratio must
be reduced, maybe through putting in place a policy that the
supervision of teachers will be decentralized to heads of school.
Looking at Zimbabwe as a whole, the study identified several ways
in which supervision and support services are having an impact on
school functioning and the quality of teaching. The following are
some of these aspects:
(a) Identification of the needs of schools: Supervision visits have
resulted in the identification of specific needs in the schools.
The supervisors compile reports and make recommendations
that have sensitized both the Ministry and the donor community.
In response, new/special schools in disadvantaged areas have
been opened and existing schools have been assisted with the
provision of classrooms, teachers’ accommodation, sanitation
facilities and the supply and distribution of teaching and learning
equipment and materials. Analysis of, and reporting on, the
staff situation in schools by supervisors has resulted in improved
deployment and better teacher utilization.
(b) Community involvement in the running of schools: Reports
compiled by supervisors on schools include how they relate to
their communities. On the basis of such reports, courses have
been organized for heads of school, for School Development
Committees (SDCs) and School Development Associations
(SDAs) to advise them on how to cultivate and nurture
community participation. SDCs and SDAs have since emerged as
key players and partners in school development.
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(c) Advising schools on Ministry regulations: Supervisors conduct
courses to advise heads and teachers on their conditions of
service and Public Service (Disciplinary) Regulations. Such
workshops also serve to inform the participants on various
developments in the education sector and on the provisions of
current circulars.
(d) Improved school management: Supervisors advise heads on
various aspects of school management and administration. These
include mission statements, office organization, filing, record-
keeping, public relations, etc. In-service workshops are also
organized to address identified needs in these areas at cluster
or district levels. It is also at such fora that the good practices
seen in some schools are disseminated by the supervisors. As a
result, heads of school have reported improved school
attendance by both teachers and pupils, with more staff
commitment and better examination results.
(e) Government/Ministry support to schools: The Ministry pays all
registered schools per-capita grants for the purchase of teaching
materials. These are based on the enrolment data provided by
heads through the regional offices. The Ministry also pays
building grants-in-aid to non-government secondary schools
for the construction of classrooms, workshops, laboratories,
libraries and toilet facilities. Their disbursement is based on
recommendations contained in the reports compiled by
supervisors in general and the education officer (Buildings) in
particular.
(f) Specific school and teaching improvement initiatives: In-service
workshops on lesson preparation and planning, classroom
management assessment and evaluation and maintenance of
records for both trained and untrained teachers have become
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an ongoing strategy by supervisors to improve pedagogical
practices. Provision of specifications of different types of
buildings and advice on the maintenance of school buildings
and school grounds has resulted in a more conducive
pedagogical and physical environment in schools.
2. Synthesis of main problems
The fact that supervisors and school staff assess supervision as
having a positive impact on schools, does not imply that no problems
are experienced. At a general level and in Kwekwe district, the general
opinion was that more could have been achieved were it not for a
number of factors that have impacted and continue to impact
negatively on the system. A distinction can be made between four
areas: structure and organization of the service; management issues;
the working conditions; and, finally, the daily operation, in particular
the attitudes of supervisors.
Structural and organisational problems
• Centralization by Ministry
Although government preaches decentralization as a policy, some
critical areas, such as finances, remain centrally controlled. In
Kwekwe, most funds to facilitate the running of the district office
were kept and accounted for at regional level, except those for use
of telephones and vehicle hire. Because district offices were not in
control of their budget, funds could be exhausted without their
knowledge, which made planning difficult. It would be better that
district offices be accountable for all their funds. Regions are not in
a much better position. While they seem to control their own funds,
vote allocations are centrally controlled through the Central Payments
Office (CPO), which eventually releases cheques as required by
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districts or regional offices. While this can be regarded as a budgetary
control measure, it causes delays, including in the payment of
travelling and subsistence advances, and thus undermines the
operations of supervisors. If the decentralization policy is to work
effectively, this situation needs to be changed.
• Marginalization of communities
In Kwekwe district, communities are only involved in the physical
development of schools. Supervisors rarely met communities when
visiting schools, a situation that can be regarded as retrogressive to
the development of schools. Supervision reports were not made
available to communities. Perhaps, it is now high time communities
were given prominence in both administrative and professional
issues. This may ensure transparency in the way schools are run, may
ensure a sense of ownership of schools amongst local communities
and could, to some extent, help in lightening the workload of
supervisors.
• Absence of clear norms
The lack of supervision norms – relating to the numbers of schools
and teachers per supervisor or the frequency of visits – seems to have
contributed to creating more disparities between schools. There is a
need for the Ministry to establish basic supervision norms for
supervisors, which will allow for an easier assessment of their
performance. This will ensure that supervisors work to targets and
that schools benefit optimally from such services.
Management related problems
• Recruitment
The hierarchy for primary supervisors is well defined and does
not present problems of accountability. However, at the secondary
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level, the EO and heads of large schools occupy posts which fall within
the same grade. As a result, some heads do not accept advice from
EOs. Another problem is that, due mainly to bureaucratic delays, some
posts lie vacant for long periods, especially for secondary-school EOs.
This sometimes forces other officers to cover two different subjects,
undermining their effectiveness and compromising quality in some
subject areas. A third problem concerns the scarcity of women
supervisors. Females tend not to apply for this post. They feel that
the distances to be travelled are too long and absence from the family
would be too prolonged.
• Induction training
Specialized training in supervision does not exist. This in effect
restricts recruitment to officers of a certain level of experience and
therefore of a certain age. There are no opportunities for young
teachers who demonstrate relevant potential. In Kwekwe district,
for instance, the majority of officers had not undertaken any induction
course that would fully prepare them for their role as supervisor.
However, all had been attached to experienced officers for the first
few weeks in their job. This is not a bad system, but is insufficient: it
appears to be some sort of ‘fire fighting’ to enable officers to be
functional, rather than to give them a thorough grounding in their
expected functions.
• Support
Most supervisors need to be periodically updated on current
innovations in content and pedagogy which the young teachers may
have been exposed to in their training. This is to avoid conflict
between the application of the old and the new methodologies.
Current in-service provision is inadequate and, where it is undertaken,
does not fully cover these trends. This leaves supervisors starved of
much-needed information in this area.
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Some assistance can be obtained from the reporting formats for
use during inspection. But another predicament appears: regional
offices have demanded that reports be written in long narrative form
to capture detail. This has made supervisors’ reporting tasks more
arduous and more time-consuming and does not seem to give them
the necessary flexibility. An offshoot of this are lengthy delays in
providing feedback to reportees.
• Monitoring and evaluation
Field monitoring of supervision and support service officers is
lacking in Zimbabwe. The analysis of work plans and reports, as well
as performance of schools under their charge, remain the only key
measures of the performance of supervisors. This is not adequate. It
is envisaged that monitoring and evaluation will be facilitated by the
introduction of the new performance appraisal system as this will
require discussion and agreement over work plans as well as their
implementation.
• Career development
‘Supervision and support’ is not regarded as a career in its own
right and no efforts to transform it into that direction are evident.
Career opportunities are scarce: DEOs and EOs can aspire to the jobs
of DRD (only 18 posts at present) and RD (only nine posts at present).
The road to those heights is often bumpy and unenviable for most
officers in the supervisory grade of DEO and EO.
Working conditions
Several aspects need to be discussed here, most of which are
related to a scarcity of resources and a scarcity of personnel. The lack
of resources leads to serious difficulties with transport, a crucial
problem.
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• Transport
The problem of transport shortage for supervisors seems to have
come to stay. Some teachers are known to have gone for close to a
decade before being visited by a supervisor, even in schools that are
accessible. Report after report by successive Secretaries for Education
have lamented the shortage of transport. As an example, the Annual
Report of the Secretary for Education (1994:10) noted that: “in districts
where vehicles were not available, low levels of supervision were
experienced” or “Education officers did a sterling job in the
supervision of schools despite the lack of transport.” In Kwekwe
district, the unavailability of transport was by far the biggest problem
that affected the quality and frequency of supervision services. From
discussions and questionnaires completed by the supervisors, it
emerged clearly that while the officers were motivated to visit their
schools, this was thwarted by lack of transport. This forced officers
to even travel with booksellers, a situation that tended to compromise
professional standards. Firstly, travelling with one supplier means that
heads of school should buy educational resources from that supplier.
Secondly, should a supervisor want to spend more time in one school
than the other, this is likely to be at variance with the interests of the
supplier, who may want to sell books to as many schools as possible
by the end of the day. This forces supervisors to cut short their visits
to needy schools. The lack of transport also hinders the
implementation of follow-up visits.
• Travelling and subsistence allowances
Financial constraints in school supervision have been a feature of
every annual report to the Ministry. Supervisors complained that
travel and subsistence allowances were insufficient and also that there
were delays in processing advances and reimbursements. This has
impacted negatively on the commitment of the supervisory staff.
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• Workload
The workload of officers in the supervision and support services
is too heavy. There are two aspects to this. Supervisors are expected
to perform too many different activities, such that, in Kwekwe for
example, about 28 per cent of their time was spent on office work
rather than supervising teachers. Obviously, it cannot be expected
that supervisors would be fully free from performing some
administrative tasks or attending meetings. District supervisors are
arms of development for the Ministry and, as officers at the point of
service delivery, attending meetings cannot be avoided altogether.
But the Ministry needs therefore to streamline the functions of
supervisors to avoid role conflict. The seond aspect of the overload
of work concerns the numbers of schools and teachers under one
supervisor (300 on average). This has made it impossible for
supervisors to visit all teachers within, say, a year.
• Salaries
This was felt to be an issue in the Kwekwe district. The majority
indicated that salaries paid to them were far below the cost of living
and were lagging behind those paid to workers in the private sector.
• Office accommodation and secretariat
While office accommodation is generally adequate at regional
offices, several district offices do not have these facilities and have
to rely on rented offices or operate from regional offices. The result
is that some officers live far away from their place of work and from
their schools. In Kwekwe district, the problem was not so much one
of office accommodation, but of the absence of requisite equipment
in these offices. Such equipment includes computers, photocopiers
and filing cabinets. Their provision would facilitate speedy processing
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of reports, as well as provide secure storage of important documents.
In addition – and this is a general problem – both human and material
resources within the clerical service departments are inadequate. The
main effect of this is that of lengthy delays in the processing of reports
and in feedback. Cases of reports reaching intended reportees a year
or more after the date of supervision have been acknowledged, by
which time they will have lost their effect.
Daily operation
• Unfavourable supervisors’ attitudes
These seem to emanate from the fact that supervisors feel that
the recommendations they make after school visits are being ignored
or not prioritized by senior Ministry officials. Moreover, the
recommendations made to schools are sometimes not being
implemented by the schools themselves, either due to shortage of
tutorial materials and equipment for both teachers and pupils, or
heavy teaching loads for heads and heads of department. Also, some
Ministry policies undermine supervisors’ work. One example is the
policy of ‘free education’, which makes it difficult to persuade parents
to contribute towards infrastructural development in schools.
3. Present trends and innovations
The problems encountered in the provision of supervision and
support services have awakened both policy planners and supervisors
to new realities. This section focuses on current attempts to rise to
the pertinent challenges as presented by these problems.
• Devolution of supervision to the local level
Clusters
Under the Better Schools Programme of Zimbabwe, clusters of
schools have been formed throughout the whole country, with the
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aim of strengthening local capacities for in-servicing teachers,
carrying out instructional supervision in schools, as well as sharing
expertise and resources. In Kwekwe district, for instance, there were
altogether 21 clusters. These are linked to the main district resource
centre, which has been provided with a library and typing equipment
through combined community, donor and government efforts. This
programme has been received with enthusiasm. Both the schools and
the district office see it as having potential to improve the quality of
education in the district.
At the same time, the introduction of ‘Home EOs’ in secondary
schools who are expected to assume a fatherly position with their
schools and serve as the first port of call for teachers and heads in a
district, has brought supervision closer to the school level.
School autonomy and in-school supervision
This trend is gradually taking root in Zimbabwe and has the full
backing and support of the Ministry. Each school has a board
composed of members of the administration and teacher
representatives. Not only does this board supervise, assist and advise
teachers on a day-to-day basis, but it also assesses and recommends
them for salary advancements and/or promotion. In Kwekwe district,
the impact of such boards was felt most in urban schools, where there
was less mobility and hence better retention of experienced heads.
In-school supervision also involved School Development
Committees on aspects such as construction projects, maintenance
of infrastructure and dealing with ‘difficult’ parents. Each school in
Kwekwe had such a functional committee whose efforts had resulted
in improvements in school infrastructure and school-community
relations.
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To strengthen headteacher capacities, a Programme for School
Heads in Africa has prepared seven modules to serve as resource
materials for school heads within what has become popularly known
as the Better Schools Programme. The programme is supported by
Ministries of Education in Africa, the Commonwealth Secretariat,
UNESCO and the Netherlands Embassy in Zimbabwe. The modules
cover, among other things, core elements of supervision aimed at
improving management and professional skills of heads.
• Changing role of supervisor
The supervisor’s role in Zimbabwe has been redefined. The
supervisor is seen as the adviser and confidant rather than an
inspector. The supervisor does not charge teachers any more in cases
of misconduct. That function has been left to one of the external
support service officers (EO Professional Administration and
Services). As a result, relations between supervisors and heads and
teachers were reported to be cordial. There is also more emphasis
on clinical supervision rather than traditional inspection.
• Openness and transparency
Linked to the above change, is a trend towards more openness
and transparency. This has the full backing of the Ministry, which has
taken the lead through its promotion procedures, where vacant posts
are advertised nationally and suitable applicants are invited to apply.
The Ministry also convenes a promotions committee that involves all
regional directors to interview short-listed candidates and the most
senior, effective and good performers are recommended for
consideration by the Public Service Commission. This system of
promotion ensures that the most suitable candidates are promoted,
while motivating those that do not perform well, to do so. The list of
those that are finally promoted is also advertised nationally. With the
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299
restructuring of the Ministry, regional posts will be advertised
nationally, but individual regions will interview the applicants. This
strategy is seen as bringing the responsibility for appointment and
promotion closer to the point of service delivery, that is, the schools.
There is also a gradual departure from unannounced visits to pre-
informed visits. In Kwekwe district, the intention was to be open
and transparent by ensuring that visits to schools were announced.
However, these appear to remain only intentions as, in practice, they
have not been easy to implement due to a variety of constraints. The
trend is more evident in the fact that supervisors have adopted post-
supervision conferences as a strategy. They have become more of the
norm rather than the exception and have been well received by all
heads and teachers in the district. The expectation is that these
measures will dispel the suspicion with which many supervisors had
been viewed.
• Whole school supervision concept
There is an increased emphasis on whole school supervision rather
than individual teacher supervision. Some of the activities in line with
this trend involve staff from Standard Control Unit at head office,
who visit sampled schools within a region so as to get first-hand
information on curriculum implementation and innovation,
management, relations and developmental programmes. On the basis
of their findings, strong recommendations are sent to the regional
director for consideration and probable action.
• Training
Attempts are made to improve the preparation and updating of
supervisors. Course materials have been finalized for external
supervisors through co-operation amongst the Southern African
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Development Community (SADC) states and the Commonwealth
Secretariat. The course materials serve as a staff-development base
for external supervisors in understanding their roles and functions
towards schools.
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CONCLUSION
This study of external supervision and support services has revealed
a number of lessons from which the Ministry of Education can learn,
in its quest for enhancing the quality of education.
What emerges is that the services are manned by officers who are
well qualified and experienced both academically and professionally.
However, qualifications alone are not enough to guarantee efficiency
and effectiveness. Related training in the form of induction and in-
service, which were glaringly lacking in, for instance, Kwekwe, are
needed. The Ministry needs to address this.
A variety of problems, that included lack of means to visit schools,
poor working conditions and heavy workloads, emerged as
characterizing supervision and support services. These resulted in
less visits to schools, especially rural schools where, regrettably, such
services were needed most. This situation does not augur well for
the motivation and effectiveness of supervisors. During discussions
with supervisors, there were even growing fears among them that
the much talked about rationalization of the public service, in general,
and the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture, in particular, might
result in a reduction in the number of supervisors. However, it was
hoped that the Commission of Enquiry into Education and Training
would address, among other issues, supervision-related problems.
On a more positive note, it was observed that external supervisory
services were still considered necessary and useful by heads and
teachers, in spite of sentiments expressed on the need to empower
heads to do more supervision. This gives the impression that the
external supervisor is still held in high esteem as a source of new
ideas and arbitrator in situations of conflict.
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Other positive trends noted were the need to mobilize local
resources and the need for more openness and transparency. These,
coupled with the need to improve working conditions of supervisors,
can only help to improve education delivery in the schools.
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APPENDIX I. DATA ON INTERVIEWED SCHOOL STAFF INKWEKWE DISTRICT
Data on heads of School
Head Gender Age Experience as: Qualifications
Head Head Teacher Other Academic Professional(in school)
1 M 56 12 11 12 ‘O’ level CE
2 M 41 14 3 6 ‘O’ level CE
3 M 50 22 16 8 ‘O’ level T3
4 F 50 2 2 26 ‘O’ level DE
5 M 49 13 10 12 ‘A’ level BED
6 F 44 1 1 21 ‘O’ level T3
7 M 44 13 3 8 ‘A’ level CE
8 M 54 14 7 13 ‘O’ level DE
9 M 58 20 10 18 ‘O’ level CE
10 M 54 26 6 32 ‘O’ level CE
11 F 42 2 1 18 1(TIC) ‘O’ level CE
12 M 33 6 1 7 ‘O’ level CE
Mean 47.9 12.1 5.9 15.1
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Data on teachers
Gender Age Experience
Category Number Years Number Years Number
Male 17 21-25 1 1-5 1526-30 8 6-10 831-35 13 11-15 636-40 6 16-20 1
Female 18 41-45 1 21-25 246-50 2 26-30 051-55 2 31-35 356-60 2 36-40 0
Total 35 35 35
Academic qualifications Professional qualifications
Qualification Number Number Qualification Number Numberfemale female
Standard 6 5 1 PTL 5 1
ZJC 0 0 T3 1 0
Grade 11 2 2 CE 13 7
‘O’ level 28 15 D E 15 10
‘A’ level 0 0 B. Ed. 1 0
Total 35 18 Total 35 18
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