Resumen Euroinnova 1. Inglés oral y escrito en el comercio internacional
MF1010_3 Inglés Profesional para Comercio Internacional UF 1 DOCUMENTACIÓN EN INGLÉS PARA EL COMERCIO 1. GESTIÓN DE OPERACIONES DE COMERCIO INTERNACIONAL EN INGLÉS 1.1. Estructuras lingüísticas y léxico relacionado con las operaciones de comercio internacional Speaking on the phone in international trade: La comunicación telefónica es una parte esencial en las relaciones comerciales con clientes. Muchas de las operaciones se realizan a través del teléfono: peticiones de información, presupuestos, entrevistas de ventas, etc... por lo que es necesario conocer las peculiaridades de la comunicación telefónica para poder comunicarnos con fluidez y naturalidad. Some rules to take into account when we are talking on the phone. 1. Speak clearly so the other person can understand you
2. Speak in a polite and friendly voice
3. Let the other person finish, don't interrupt him/her 4. Take notes during the call 5. Always confirm each point of information A. Some useful sentences when talking on the phone Answering the phone: - Good morning/afternoon/evening, Madison Inc. Mary speaking. - Who's calling, please?
Introducing yourself: - This is Claire Simpson speaking. - Hello, this is Anna Johnson from Leicester Inc.
Asking for someone: - Could I speak to Mary James, please? - I'd like to speak to Mary James, please. - Could you put me through to Mary Jones, please? - Could I speak to someone who... - Could I speak to someone in sales, please?
Explaining: - I'm afraid Mrs. James isn't in at the moment. - I'm sorry; she's in a meeting at the moment. - I'm afraid she's on another line at the moment. - I'm sorry, but she is on holidays this week.
Putting someone on hold: - Just a moment, please. - Could you hold the line, please? - Hold the line, please. - Hold on, please Problems - I'm sorry, I don't understand. Could you repeat that, please? - I'm sorry; I can't hear you very well. Could you speak up a little, please? - I'm afraid you've got the wrong number. - I've tried to get through several times but it's always
Putting someone through: - One moment, please. I'll see if Mrs. Smith is available. - I'll put you through. - I'll connect you.
engaged. - Could you spell that, please? Taking a message:
- Can I take a message? - Would you like to leave a message? - Can I give him/her a message? - I'll tell Mrs. Jones that you called as soon she is available - I'll ask him/her to call you as soon as possible.
B. How to receive a telephone call 1- Answer the phone as soon as possible 4- Listen carefully to the customer and identify what he/she wants 2- Greet the caller 5- Pass the call to the person he/she wants to speak to or offer your
help in case it is possible 3- Identify the company and yourself 6- Thank the customer Example - Good morning, ABC associated, Laura speaking, how can I help you? - Hold on a moment, I'll put you through the billing department.
- Good morning, this is John Tomas; I have a problem with a bill.
C. How to make a phone call 1- Identify yourself and your company 3- Always thank for the help offered
2- Expose clearly the reason for your call
Example - Good morning, Sarah speaking, can I help you? - Hold on a moment, I'll see if she is available.
- Good morning, this is Anne from Lema's. Could I talk to the sales manager, please? - Thanks
Questions and replies: En la atención al cliente es esencial el manejo de forma efectiva de las estructuras de pregunta-respuesta, de forma que podamos obtener información de nuestro cliente y a su vez poder responder a las cuestiones que nos puedan plantear. 1.2. Estructuras lingüísticas y léxico relacionado con la contratación y condiciones de la compraventa internacional Adjectives, comparatives and superlatives. +er than as…as Instructions: Imperative Tips for giving instructions: work out the right order for your instructions, keep your sentences short and simple, number your instructions if you wish, use command verbs, use the present or sometimes the future tense and present your writing clearly. It's used for...It's made of.. Condiciones de contratación y financiación Scope and application Terms of Engagement for Professional Services Recurring Engagements
Definitions General contents of an Engagement Document Limitation of liability
Tarifas y precios: cardinal numbers; % per cent, P pence, $ Dollar, € Euro, £ Sterling Pound, ¥ Yen, + plus, - minus, x times 4x2 four times two), / divided by, = equals. 200/1.4 = £ 142.8 Two hundred divided by one point four equals one hundred and forty-two pounds eighty-six. 7-2=5 Seven minus two equals (or is) two
Modos de pago: Payment terms are the conditions under which a seller will complete a sale. Typically, these terms specify the period allowed to a buyer to pay off the amount due, and may demand cash in advance, cash on delivery, a deferred payment period of 30 days or more, or other similar provisions. CASH IN ADVANCE / dinero en efectivo por adelantado Usual Time of Payment: Before shipment Goods Available To Buyer: After payment Risk to Seller: None Risk to Buyer: Complete. Relies on seller to ship exactly the goods expected, as quoted and ordered Comments: Seller's goods must be special in one way or another, or special circumstances prevail over normal trade practices (e.g., goods manufactured to buyer-only specification).
LETTER OF CREDIT (L/C) / letras de cambio Usual Time of Payment: Risk to Seller: Commercial Invoice must match the L/C exactly. Dates must be carefully headed. "Stale" documents are unacceptable for collection. Comments: Letters of Credit require total accuracy in conforming to terms, conditions, and documentation. Consult your United Shipping Associate member for determining feasibility of terms and conditions.
CONFIRMED IRREVOCABLE CREDIT / crédito irrevocable confirmado Usual Time of Payment: After shipment is made, documents presented to the bank. Goods Available To Buyer: After payment Risk to Seller: Gives the seller a double assurance of payments. Depends on the terms of the letter of credit. Risk to Buyer: Assures shipment is made but relies on exporter to ship goods as described in documents. Terms may be negotiated prior to L/C agreement, alleviating buyer's degree of risk. Comments: The inclusion of a second assurance of payment (usually a U.S. Bank) prevents surprises, and adds assurance that issuing bank has been deemed acceptable by confirming bank. Adds cost and an additional requirement to seller.
UNCONFIRMED IRREVOCABLE CREDIT/crédito irrevocable no confirmado Usual Time of Payment: Same as above Goods Available To Buyer: Same as above Risk to Seller: Seller has single bank assurance of payment and seller remains dependent on foreign bank. Seller should contact his banker to determine whether the issuing bank has sufficient assets to cover the amount. Risk to Buyer: Same as above Comments: Credit can be changed only by mutual agreement, as stipulated in a sales agreement. Becomes open account with buyer's bank as collection agent. Foreign bank may have problems making payment in sum or timeliness.
DRAFTS / giro bancario Usual Time of Payment: Remittance time from buyer's bank to seller's bank may still take one week to one month. Risk to Seller: Drafts, by design, should contain terms and conditions mutually agreed upon. Comments: A draft may be written with virtually any term or condition agreeable to both parties. When determining draft tenor (terms and conditions), consult with your banker and freight forwarder to determine the most desirable means of doing business in a given country.
SIGHT DRAFT (with documents against acceptance) / giro bancario a la vista Usual Time of Payment: On presentation of draft to buyer. Goods Available To Buyer: After payment to buyer's bank. Risk to Seller: If draft not honored, goods must be returned or resold. Storage, handling, and return freight expenses may be incurred. Risk to Buyer: Assures shipment but not content, unless inspection or check-in is allowed before payment. Comments: A draft can be a collection instrument used to exchange possession and title to goods for payment. Seller is essentially drawing a check against the bank account of the buyer. Buyer's bank must have pre-approval, or seek approval of the buyer prior to honoring the check. Payble upon presentation of documents.
TIME DRAFTS (with documents against acceptance) / giro bancario aplazado Usual Time of Payment: On maturity of the draft Goods Available To Buyer: Before payment, after acceptance Risk to Seller: Relies on buyer to honor draft upon presentation. Risk to Buyer: Assures shipment but not content. Time of maturity allows for adjustments, if agreed to by seller. Comments: Payable based upon the acceptance of an obligation to pay the seller at a specified time. Although a time draft has more collection leverage than an invoice, it remains only a promissory note, with conditions.
OPEN ACCOUNT / cuenta abierta Usual Time of Payment: As agreed, usually by invoice Goods Available To Buyer: Before payment Risk to Seller: Relies completely on buyer to pay account as agreed Risk to Buyer: None Comments: All terms of payment, including extra charges and terms should be mutually understood and agreed upon prior to open account initiation. Companies conducting ongoing business are candidates for open account terms of payment. Seller must measure not only buyer's credit reliability but the country's as well.
Prórrogas Sample Extension Request Letter Dear , This is to acknowledge that we are in receipt of your
Confirmation of Extension of Payment Date / confirmación de la concesión de la prórroga Dear XXX ,
notice whereby you informed us that the goods shipped to you on (date) did not conform to our agreement dated (date). We regret this unintentional mistake on our part, the reasons for which were (explanation) While we recognize that the time for performing under this agreement has expired, we are requesting that you extend the time to (date) in order that we may cure the defect by replacing the shipment with goods that conform to our agreement. Please accept our apology for this inconvenience. We will be looking forward to your response.
This will acknowledge our telephone conversation of this date. As was stated in our letter dated (date) , we should be receiving our financing by (date). In view of the above, we would appreciate your extending the date for our payment of the account until (date). This will enable us to make sure that all of the appropriate documents have been prepared. We appreciate your courtesies, past and present. It has been a pleasure doing business with your company and we look forward to years of pleasant associations.
Descuentos Discounts dealing with payment - Prompt payment discount. Descuento por pronto pago - Trade discount. Descuento efectuado sobre el precio del catálogo. - Cash discount. Descuento por pago al contado/ en efectivo. - Seasonal discount: Descuento de temporada.
Discounts dealing with quantity - Cumulative quantity discount (or accumulation discounts). Descuento basado en la cantidad adquirida en un periodo de tiempo - Non-cumulative quantity discount. Descuento por volumen de ventas basado en la cantidad de un pedido único para incentivar pedidos grandes y reducir costes de facturación, envío, etc.
Some examples: There is a special offer this week 10% off; If you order before 29th August you will get a 5% discount; If your order is more than 100€ you will not get shipping fees 1.3. Léxico y fonética de las condiciones de entrega: Incoterms: international commercial terms. Son términos de tres letras cada uno que reflejan las normas, de aceptación voluntaria por las dos partes —compradora y vendedora—, acerca de las condiciones de entrega de las mercancías, productos. Se usan para aclarar los costes de las transacciones comerciales internacionales, delimitando las responsabilidades entre el comprador y el vendedor, y reflejan la práctica actual en el transporte internacional de mercancías. La Convención sobre contratos para la venta internacional de mercancías de las Naciones Unidas (en inglés, CISG, U.N. Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods) en su Parte III «Venta de las mercancías» (artículos 25-88) describe el momento en que el riesgo sobre la mercancía se transfiere del vendedor (fabricante o no) al comprador (sea este el usuario final o no), pero reconoce que, en la práctica, la mayoría de las transacciones internacionales se rigen de acuerdo con las obligaciones reflejadas en los incoterms. La CCI (Cámara de Comercio Internacional o ICC: International Chamber of Commerce) se ha encargado desde 1936 (con revisiones en 1945, 1953, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1990, 2000 y 2010) de la elaboración y actualización de estos términos, de acuerdo con los cambios que va experimentando el comercio internacional. Actualmente están en vigor los Incoterms 2010 (desde el 1 de enero de 2011). Los incoterms se agrupan en cuatro categorías: E, F, C, D. Grupo E – Entrega directa a la salida: El vendedor pone las mercancías a disposición del comprador en los propios locales del vendedor; esto es, una entrega directa a la salida. EXW. Ex Works (named place) → ‘en fábrica (lugar convenido)’. El vendedor pone la mercancía a disposición del comprador en sus instalaciones: fábrica, almacén, etc. Todos los gastos a partir de ese momento son por cuenta del comprador. El incoterm EXW se puede utilizar con cualquier tipo de transporte o con una combinación de ellos (conocido como transporte multimodal). Es decir el proveedor se encarga de la logistica y el traslado necesario para que el comprador tenga el suministro del producto en el mismo lugar donde desempeña la tarea productiva. Grupo F – Entrega indirecta, sin pago del transporte principal Al vendedor se le encarga que entregue la mercancía a un medio de transporte elegido por el comprador; esto es, una entrega indirecta sin pago del transporte principal. FAS. Free Alongside Ship (named loading port) → ‘franco al costado del buque (puerto de carga convenido)’.
FOB. Free On Board (named loading port) → ‘franco a bordo (puerto de carga convenido)’
El vendedor entrega la mercancía en el muelle pactado del puerto de carga convenido; esto es, al lado del barco. El incoterm FAS es propio de mercancías de carga a granel o de carga voluminosa porque se depositan en terminales del puerto especializadas, que están situadas en el muelle. El vendedor es responsable de las gestiones y costes de la aduana de exportación (en las versiones anteriores a Incoterms 2000, el comprador organizaba el despacho aduanero de exportación). El incoterm FAS sólo se utiliza para transporte en barco, ya sea marítimo o fluvial.
El vendedor entrega la mercancía sobre el buque. El vendedor contrata el transporte a través de un transitario o un consignatario, pero el coste del transporte lo asume el comprador. El incoterm FOB es uno de los más usados en el comercio internacional. Se debe utilizar para carga general (bidones, bobinas, contenedores, etc.) de mercancías, no utilizable para granel. El incoterm FOB se utiliza exclusivamente para transporte en barco, ya sea marítimo o fluvial.
FCA. Free Carrier (named place) → ‘franco transportista (lugar convenido)’. El vendedor se compromete a entregar la mercancía en un punto acordado dentro del país de origen, que pueden ser los locales de un transitario, una estación ferroviaria... (este lugar convenido para entregar la mercancía suele estar relacionado con los espacios del transportista). Se hace cargo de los costes hasta que la mercancía está situada en ese punto convenido; entre otros, la aduana en el país de origen. El incoterm FCA se puede utilizar con cualquier tipo de transporte: transporte aéreo, ferroviario, por carretera y en contenedores/transporte multimodal. Sin embargo, es un incoterm poco usado.
Grupo C – Entrega indirecta, con pago del transporte principal: El vendedor contrata el transporte, pero sin asumir el riesgo de pérdida o daño de la mercancía o de costes adicionales por los hechos acaecidos después de la carga y despacho; esto es, una entrega indirecta con pago del transporte principal. CFR. Cost and Freight (named destination port) → ‘coste y flete (puerto de destino convenido)’. El vendedor se hace cargo de todos los costes, incluido el transporte principal, hasta que la mercancía llegue al puerto de destino. Sin embargo, el riesgo se transfiere al comprador en el momento que la mercancía se encuentra cargada en el buque, en el país de origen. Se debe utilizar para carga general, que no se transporta en contenedores; tampoco es apropiado para los graneles. El incoterm CFR sólo se utiliza para transporte en barco, ya sea marítimo o fluvial.
CIF. Cost, Insurance and Freight (named destination port) → ‘coste, seguro y flete (puerto de destino convenido)’. El vendedor se hace cargo de todos los costes, incluidos el transporte principal y el seguro, hasta que la mercancía llegue al puerto de destino. Aunque el seguro lo ha contratado el vendedor, el beneficiario del seguro es el comprador. Como en el incoterm anterior, CFR, el riesgo se transfiere al comprador en el momento que la mercancía se encuentra cargada en el buque, en el país de origen. El incoterm CIF es uno de los más usados en el comercio internacional porque las condiciones de un precio CIF son las que marcan el valor en aduana de un producto que se importa.7 Se debe utilizar para carga general o convencional. El incoterm CIF es exclusivo del medio marítimo.
CPT. Carriage Paid To (named place of destination) → ‘transporte pagado hasta (lugar de destino convenido)’. El vendedor se hace cargo de todos los costes,
CIP. Carriage and Insurance Paid (To) (named place of destination) → ‘transporte y seguro pagados hasta (lugar de destino convenido)’.
incluido el transporte principal, hasta que la mercancía llegue al punto convenido en el país de destino. Sin embargo, el riesgo se transfiere al comprador en el momento de la entrega de la mercancía al transportista dentro del país de origen. El incoterm CPT se puede utilizar con cualquier modo de transporte incluido el transporte multimodal (combinación de diferentes tipos de transporte para llegar a destino).
El vendedor se hace cargo de todos los costes, incluidos el transporte principal y el seguro, hasta que la mercancía llegue al punto convenido en el país de destino. El riesgo se transfiere al comprador en el momento de la entrega de la mercancía al transportista dentro del país de origen. Aunque el seguro lo ha contratado el vendedor, el beneficiario del seguro es el comprador. El incoterm CIP se puede utilizar con cualquier modo de transporte o con una combinación de ellos (transporte multimodal)
Grupo D – Entrega directa en la llegada. El vendedor soporta todos los gastos y riesgos necesarios para llevar la mercancía al país de destino; esto es una entrega directa a la llegada. Los costes y los riesgos se transmiten en el mismo punto, como los términos en E y los términos en F. Los términos en D no se proponen cuando el pago de la transacción se realiza a través de un crédito documentario, básicamente porque las entidades financieras no lo aceptan. DAT. Delivered At Terminal (named port): ‘entregado en terminal (puerto de destino convenido)’.
DAP
DDP Plazos de entrega: Usually the terms about this include that the seller undertakes to deliver the goods within XXX calendar days of receipt of: The signing of the contract; The confirmation in writing of the order in question, once all payment conditions established in the contract have been fulfilled.; The notification of the opening of a letter of credit by the Buyer. Condiciones de transporte: Usually the seller shall deliver the products to the customer under certain conditions. The goods shall be delivered at the agreed place, and to the transport agent designated by the Buyer, at least 24 hours before the deadline established in the contract. In case the customer fails to take charge of the goods on arrival, the Buyer should be entitled to ask for the payment of the agreed price. Incumplimientos, anomalías y siniestros: Usually, both parts agree by common consent that any dispute shall be referred to the law courts and tribunal of the country of origin of the seller or the buyer and the local authorities where their head office is set. 2. PRESENTACIONES COMERCIALES EN INGLÉS 2.1. Estructuras lingüísticas y léxico habitual en las presentaciones comerciales en inglés Oral presentations / presentaciones orales Una presentación es una charla formal a una o más personas en la que se "presentan" las ideas y la información de una manera clara y estructurada. Las presentaciones tienen un objetivo común, las personas hacen presentaciones con el fin de informar, formar, persuadir o vender. A. Parts of an oral presentation / partes de una presentación oral Beginning- Short introduction / comienzo o pequeña introducción Welcome Good morning, ladies and gentlemen Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen Good afternoon everybody. Explanation of the structure of the presentation. To start I will describe then I'll after that I'll..
Introducing the subject. I'd like to start saying.. Let’s begin by. First of all, I'll The purpose of my presentation is to.. Body of presentation / cuerpo de la presentación Introduce subject in an ordered way, do not mix topics. Now that I have told you about..let's continue with. That's all I have to say about.. End- Short Conclusion / final o conclusión breve Summing up To conclude. In conclusion. To sum up. I'll remind you some of the main point I have mentioned. Recommendations I suggest/propose recommend you.. Thanking your audience. Thank you very much for your attention. Many thanks for your attention. Questions and answers. Do you have any questions? Are there any questions? B. Tools for Oral Presentations / técnicas para las presentaciones orales Overhead projector (OHP) Whiteboard (to use also with OHP) Markers (for the whiteboard) Flipchart. Consists on several leaves of paper, used for small presentations. Slided projector (nowadays out of use) Screen Notebook computer (or laptop) Handouts Fórmulas de marcadores conversacionales: saludo, presentación, despedida, ayuda, interacción Basic Attitudes / actitudes básicas Además de manejar el lenguaje y las estructuras más habituales en inglés es imprescindible tener unas actitudes básicas cuando tratemos con clientes. A continuación se enumeran algunas de las actitudes más importantes. - When speaking on the phone always "smile" even though the other person can't see you he/she can feel that you are nice and willing to help him/hem - Assist the customer as quickly as you can, Customers feel uncomfortable if you keep them waiting for long. - Be positive and helpful, although the other person is angry or disappointed, this would help him to relax. - Speak clearly and in a friendly way, but avoid being familiar or impolite! Characteristics of oral language / características el lenguaje oral Lee el siguiente texto, muy sencillo, en inglés, para irte familiarizando con el vocabulario y expresiones sobre este tema: The principal characteristic of oral language is its immediacy. It is different from the written language in that the oral tends to be more informal and direct, and it is also more expressive than writing. In oral language gestures and body language is very important because they reinforce the transmission of the message There are other important factors when speaking as pitch and intonation. It is essential to try to avoid the use of overused words as "thing, say, good" it is best to find other synonyms Practice: - What is the principal characteristic of oral language? - Name two differences between oral and written language. - What other factors are important when speaking?
- What is essential to avoid in oral language? Answers: - The immediacy, that is, the message gets to the recipient at the moment of speaking - Oral language is more informal and direct - Body language, gestures - The use of overused and vague words. A. Receiving visitors / recepción de visitas A continuación vamos a ver unas reglas de cortesía cuando tratemos con visitas que acuden a nuestro centro de trabajo. Rules for receiving visitors /reglas para recibir visitas - Always greet the visitor. - Offer help or ask for the reason of his/her visit. - Ask for his/her name and company - Offer to take a seat. Examples: V. Good morning, My name's Carmen García. S. Good morning, Ms. García, what can I do for you? V. I have an appointment with Mr. Smith. S. Take a seat, please. I'll tell Mr. Smith you are here. V. Good afternoon, I'm Laurie Thomas, Mrs. Johnson is waiting for me. S. I am afraid Mrs. Johnson is in a meeting at this moment, but it won't take long. Would you like a cup of coffee while you wait? V. A black coffee, only if it is not much trouble for you. Thank you. Small talk / charla coloquial o casual En inglés se conoce como "small talk" a la conversación que se entabla entre dos hablantes sobre temas de interés general, como el tiempo, viajes, alojamiento, etc. Es una regla de cortesía en inglés entablar estas pequeñas conversaciones con clientes, visitas, etc... e.g. How was the flight? ¿Como fue el vuelo? Did you have a good trip ¿Tuvo un buen viaje? Possible answers. It was fine/ rather long/ delayed - What would you like to drink? ¿Qué le gustaría tomar? Possible answers. A cup of coffee, please/ with a dash of milk/ only if it's not too much trouble for you. - What was the weather when you left? ¿Qué tiempo hacía cuando salió? Possible answers. Cold and cloudy/ pretty warm/cool in the evenings/ hot/ rainy/quite chilly - Where are you staying? ¿Dónde se aloja? What is the hotel like? ¿Como es el hotel? Possible answers At the Metropolitan. It is very nice and comfortable/ a bit too noisy/ really great.. B. Greetings / saludos Common Greetings / saludos habituales Vamos a ver los saludos más habituales en inglés: - Good morning- Hasta mediodía (midday) - Good afternoon.- Hasta las 4 o las 5 de la tarde. - Good evening - Good night-No se utiliza como saludo si no como despedida. - Hello/ Hi - See you tomorrow; See you later, So long! Hasta mañana, Hasta luego. - Have a nice day- Que tengas un buen día. - How are you?/ How are you doing? / How are you getting on?. ¿Como estás? ¿Cómo te va? ¿Cómo lo llevas? - I am well (fine) thank you/ Quite well, thank you. Estoy bien, gracias/ bastante bien. - Goodbye/ Bye Special greetings / saludos especiales Saludos y expresiones utilizadas en ocasiones especiales como puede ser na-vidad, año nuevo, etc.
- Happy Christmas/ Merry Christmas. - Happy New Year! Feliz año Nuevo - Happy Easter. Feliz semana santa - Happy Thanksgiving day! Feliz día de acción de gracias (fiesta celebra-da en EE.UU el cuarto jueves del mes de noviembre) - Good luck! Buena suerte - Congratulations/ Well done. Enhorabuena / bien hecho. Shaking hands (dar la mano) Cuando conocemos a alguien de manera formal por primera vez la forma normal de proceder es con un apretón de manos (shaking hands) y decir "How do you do" o "Pleased to meet you" "How do you do?" no es una pregunta real, simplemente significa, "Hello". C. Introductions / presentarse En el siguiente cuadro vamos a ver las fórmulas más habituales para realizar presentaciones de uno mismo y de otras personas en inglés. Introducing yourself / presentarse uno mismo How do you do? My name is Mary Holmes Hell, my name is Mary Holmes and I will be your rep in Tenerife I’d like to introduce myself, my name is Mary Holmes Hello, I’m Mary Introducing others / presentar a otras personas Mrs. Holmes, may I introduce Mr Jones, my boss Louis, I’d like you to meet John Smith, our rep. John, this is Louis Hand Responding to introductions / responder a una presentación How do you do? I am Peter Jackson Pleased to meet you, Mr, Miss Holmes Hello, how are you? Nice to meet you, I am Peter from Savie Hotel On leaving / despedida Goodbye. It’s a pleasure to have met you. Goodbye. Nice to have met you. "How do you do?" es una expresión bastante formal, y como vimos anteriormente no es una pregunta real. En este caso la respuesta correcta sería , "How do you do? Examples It’s my pleasure to introduce Dr Jones How do you do? How do you do? I’d like to introduce Mrs Jenkins I’m glad to meet you. The pleasure is mine. Let me introduce you to Susan Brown Pleased to meet you you Nice meeting you too I’d like you to meet Anne Good to meet you I’ve heard so much about you This is Charles Nice to meet you Same here D. Courtesy rules / reglas de cortesía Some common courtesy rules are: /algunas reglas habituales de cortesía - Say please and thank you and excuse me - Apologize - even if it's a mistake or accident - Do not chew with your mouth open - Do not interrupt while someone is speaking
- If you refuse an invitation understand how that person might feel - It is rude to talk on your cell phone in public Thanking people and responding to thanks / dar las gracias y contestar Vamos a ver varias fórmulas de cortesía para expresar agradecimiento en in-glés y responder a este agradecimiento. - Thank you very much for the information. You've been great help. Muchas gracias por la información, has sido de gran ayuda. - It was my pleasure. Ha sido un placer - Thank you for taking the time to explain it to me. I hope it wasn't too much of a bother. Gracias por tomarse el tiempo de explicármelo, espe-ro que no haya sido mucha molestia. - Not at all. It was the least I could do. En absoluto, es lo mínimo que puedo hacer. - Thanks for all your help. I really appreciate it. Gracias por toda su ayuda, se lo agradezco de verdad. - You're welcome. Good luck. De nada, Buena suerte. - Thanks a million! Muchísimas gracias. - Forget it/ don't worry about it. Olvídelo, no se preocupe por ello. - Thanking for invitations. Gracias por la invitación. - Thank you for inviting me. Of course I'll come. Gracias por invitarme por supuesto que iré. - Thanks for your invitation but I'm afraid I won't be able to come. I've got an appointment. Gracias por su invitación pero me temo que no podré asistir, tengo un compromiso. - I'm sorry to hear that. Siento escucharlo - Can I take you to the airport? ¿Te llevo al aeropuerto? - Thank you, that would be great. Gracias, sería genial. - Thanks, but I'll manage ok by myself. Gracias pero me arreglo bien por mi mismo. Argumentación comercial y características de los productos. A. Introducing products / presentar los productos Vamos a ver como se forman los adjetivos en inglés, fundamentales a la hora de realizar cualquier descripción. Los adjetivos expresan caracterís-ticas y propiedades de los sustantivos y cumplen la función de especificar o resaltar algunas de sus características. Por otro lado veremos algunos ad-verbios utilizados para complementar los verbos, adjetivos o a otros ad-verbios Characteristics of products, adjectives and adverbs /características de los productos, adjetivos y adverbios Los adjetivos se usan para describir nombres Types of adjectives: - Qualitative (Calificativos): good, thin dry, bad, short Demonstratives (Demostrativos): this, that, these, those Distributives, each, every, either. - Quantitive (Cuantitativos): some, any, little, few.. - Interrogative (interrogatives): which? What? - Possesive (Posesivos) my, your, his.. - Numberic (Numéricos): one, third, second.. Grammatical Rules - Adjectives in English do not vary in gender and number e.g. red: rojo, roja, rojos, rojas. - They are placed before the noun We have an interesting job - They are placed after the verb To BE, become, feel, look, seem, smell or taste These documents are wrong He looks (seems) tired It smells bad - To be+adjective has the meaning of "Tener" . e.g. I'm thirsty - When we have more than one adjective we follow the following order as a general rule: Opinion +size +age +form +colour +origin +material +use +noun e.g. a beautiful enormous old oval brown Arabic wool carpet Common adjectives and its opposites Common adjectives and its oposites LONG-SHORT
HIGH-LOW THICK-THIN WIDE-NARROW HEAVY-LIGHT DEEP-SHALOW Physical Characteristics /características físicas Shapes: lines and objects / formas: líneas y objetos
Measures and weight / medidas y peso Distance: 1 inch (in) = 2,54 cm. 1 foot (ft)= 12 inches (30,48 cm) Weight 1 ounce (oz)= 28,35 g 1 pound (lb)= 16 ounces (0,454 kg) Liquids 1gill= 0,14 l (Britain) 0,118 l (USA) 1 pint (pt) = 4 gills (0, 57 l Br-0,473l USA) B. Quantity / cantidad The most usual way to express quantity in English is the use of Quantifiers Some/ Any We use some with countable nouns in Plural and for uncountable nouns. E.g. I need some brochures for my customers. Necesitamos algunos folletos para nuestros clientes. We would like some information about your products. Desearíamos (alguna) información sobre sus pro-ductos. We use any with countable and uncountable nouns in negative and interrogative sentence. I didn't buy any product from the catalogue Did the customer send any order? How much/ How many We use How much for uncountable nouns. e.g. How much does it cost? How many is used for countable nouns. How many samples do you need? A lot of/ Many/ Much We use A lot of in affirmative sentences, with countable and uncountable nouns. We have got a lot of orders this month. They gave us a lot of information. Many is used in interrogative and negative sentences, with countable nouns.
Much is used in negative and interrogative sentences, with uncountable nouns. We didn't get much information about the company. Did you have much time to finish the project? Little/A little- Few/ A Few Little is used with uncountable nouns; the meaning in Spanish would be "poco" as"not enough" e.g. I have little time to finish the project. Tengo poco tiempo para terminar el proyecto (no es suficiente) A Little is also used with uncountable nouns, the meaning is "un poco" as "enough" e.g. I have a little time to finish the project. Tengo un poco de tiempo para terminar el proyecto Few is used with countable nouns, the meaning is "pocos" as not enough I have received few orders this month. He recibido pocos pedidos este mes (connotación negativa) A Few is used with countable nouns the meaning is "unos cuantos" I have received a few orders this month. He recibido unos cuantos pedidos este mes (connotación positiva) C. Aditional Services / otros servicios These are the services that differentiate our company from the rest of the com-petitors, some of them are: Guarantee. Garantía After- Sales service. Servicio post venta Delivery conditions. Condiciones de envío e.g. free delivery, express delivery. Financiation. Financiación (e.g. monthly payment) Technical service. Servicio técnico. Free setting. Montaje/ instalación gratuita e.g We offer a two year guarantee in all our products. Free delivery for orders over $100 Our Technical service is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Free setting is included in all our products. D. Methods of payment / modos de pago Aquí tenemos las formas de pago más utilizadas: Cheque—Cheque Cash-efectivo Notes-billetes Coins-monedas Traveller’s cheque-cheque de viaje Credit card-tarjeta de crédito Bank transference-transferencia A continuación vemos los términos y las expresiones más comunes para hablar de términos y condiciones de pago. - Payment Terms. Términos de pago - Prepayment. Pago por adelantado. - Quotation. Presupuesto (Información del coste del servicio) - Pay (or cash) in advance. Pago por adelantado - Downpayment. Anticipo - Cash on delivery (COD). Pago contra reembolso (a la entrega) - 30/60 days after invoicing. Pago a 30/60 dias fecha. - Pay in instalments. Pago a plazos - Receipt. Recibo o ticket. No confundir con "ticket" en ingles que significa "entrada" (de cine, museo, etc) - Interest-Free Financing. Financiación sin intereses - To settle a Bill. Emitir una factura (también llamada "invoice") - To take a deposit. Tomar una cantidad de dinero por adelantado para efectuar la reserva . - Final payment. El pago de la cantidad restante después del depósito. Useful expressions: - How much is it/ How much is that? ¿Cuánto cuesta? - How would you like to pay ¿Cómo le gustaría pagar? - Do you accept credit cards? ¿Aceptan tarjetas? E. After sale services / servicio postventa What is the after sale service? It is the process of contacting the cus-tomer after the sale. Useful for feedback, to offer further products, to build the relationship & for personal evaluation.
Hay algunos servicios que deben ser realizados después de la venta, como por ejemplo: - Invoices and confirmations. Facturas y confirmaciones. - Further information about the product or service. Información adicional que el cliente pueda necesitar sobre el servicio una vez contratado. (technical service) - Changes and amendments. Cambios y enmiendas - Evaluation of the customer satisfaction. Evaluación de la satisfacción del cliente. - Promotions and offer. Promociones y ofertas para fidelizar a los clien-tes. Practice. Match each of these sentences with one of the after sale service mentioned above. 1. We will offer you a special discount for your next purchase 2. We are calling you to know your satisfaction with the product you have purchased from us. 3. Do not hesitate to contact our technical department if you need any help with the use of the product. 4. You have 30 days to change the product if you are not completely satis-fied with it. 5. Your bill will be sent by the end of the month. Answers 1. Promotion and offers 2. Evaluation of the customer satisfaction. 3. Technical service 4. Changes 5. Invoices and confirmations. Conclusiones, despedida y cierre de las presentaciones comerciales El cierre se define como finalizar, terminar. En venta nos referimos al proceso de hacer que el cliente decida si realiza la compra o no. El cierre es una progresión natural de dirigir las ideas expuestas a una conclusión concreta. Lee el siguiente texto, muy sencillo, en inglés, para irte familiarizando con el vocabulario y expresiones sobre este tema: When To Close / cuándo cerrar Since the close is the process of helping your customer make a decision, you should keep in mind that everything you say during the approach and the demonstration is directed toward closing the sale. You begin closing the sale when you first meet your customer. From the very beginning, all of your talking, thinking, and action is directed toward closing. Remember, the ABC's of selling are extremely vital to your success. ALWAYS BE CLOSING. The Greatest Close / el mejor cierre
As was mentioned earlier, the very best close is a really enthusiastic and excellent presentation. By creating an excitement and desire for your product through an enthusiastic and excellent presentation, a "yes" in the final close is almost assured. One of your purposes for closing is to help fulfill needs, problems, and desires that were established during your demonstration. Something to keep in mind is that many times you have more knowledge than your customer about how your product will fill their needs, problems, and desires. Therefore, it is important that you use your tools of salesmanship to show them how the product you're showing will fill their needs, solve their problems, and fulfill their desires. Remember: The greatest close ever is an enthusiastic, emotional packed, fantastic presentation! Why Close? / ¿por qué cerrar? A basic human instinct is one that we are all aware of and that is to "put off `till tomorrow." One of the biggest problems people have is making decisions, and because of that, many things that could be accomplished never are. Another basic human instinct is that people FEAR making the wrong decision. Because of this FEAR of making the wrong decision, people will put off making any decision. Many times your dealer will want to order the product you're showing but because of his past habit of not making decisions, he will hesitate to make one at the end of your demonstration. It is very important that your customers make a decision--whether it be a yes or a no--so that you can react to that decision and close again or move on if necessary. How To Close / Cómo cerrar The how of closing involves several specific steps. Among these are the trial closes, the use of third person selling, attitude, and knowing your "close questions." Trial Close / cierres parciales It is much easier for the dealer to make decisions on minor points. That is the purpose of the trial close questions. The dealer makes a series of smaller decisions rather than being confronted by one large decision. Trial close questions give you an indication of whether the dealer is interested in ordering or stocking the products or not--it tells you the dealers temperature. Examples - Can you see how having graphical tools built directly into the word processor could make a "finished" newsletter easy? It could, couldn't it. - Wouldn't this product make a great add in with your Pentium computers? Can you see how this version of Windows could make un-deleting easier. It could, couldn't it? - Can you see how Franklin DayPlanner users would love this PIM? Can you see how it would help you become more effective? - If you had this contact management software, wouldn't it help you keep better track of your clients? - Can you see how this program would automate your regular backups? It would, wouldn't it. - Wouldn't it be nice to fax right from windows? Wouldn't you like to use this yourself?
2.2. Redacción y documentación complementaria para reforzar los argumentos de la presentación Elaboración de guiones para la presentación de empresas, productos y/o servicios en ferias, visitas y cartas Golden rule / regla de oro Human attention is very limited. Don't cram too much information, either in each slide, or in the whole talk. Avoid details: they won't be remembered anyway. Organization / organización -‐ Have a very clear introduction, to motivate what you do and to present the problem you want to solve. The introduction is not technical in nature, but strategic (i.e. why this problem, big idea). -‐ If you have a companion paper, mention it during the talk and recommend it for more details. Don't put all the details in the talk. Present only the important ones. -‐ Use only one idea per slide. -‐ Have a good conclusions slide: put there the main ideas, the ones you really want people to remember. Use only one "conclusions" slide. -‐ The conclusion slide should be the last one. Do not put other slides after conclusions, as this will weaken their impact. -‐ Having periodic "talk outline" slides (to show where you are in the talk) helps, especially for longer talks. At least one "talk outline" slide is very useful, usually after the introduction. -‐ Don't count on the audience to remember any detail from one slide to another (like color-‐coding, applications you measure, etc.). If you need it remembered, re-‐state the information a second time. -‐ Especially if you have to present many different things, try to build a unifying thread. The talk should be sequential in nature (i.e. no big conceptual leaps from one slide to the next). -‐ Try to cut out as much as possible; less is better. -‐ Help the audience understand where you are going. Often it's best to give them a high-‐level overview first, and then plunge into the details; then, while listening to the details they can relate to the high-‐level picture and understand where you are. This also helps them save important brain power for later parts of the talk which may be more important. Mechanics / desarrollo -‐ Use a good presentation-‐building tool, like MS PowerPoint. Avoid Latex, except for slides with formulas (Leslie Lamport himself says that slides are visual, while Latex is meant to be logical). Good looks are important. If you need formulas, try TeXPoint, George Necula's Latex for Powerpoint. -‐ Humor is very useful; prepare a couple of puns and jokes beforehand (but not epic jokes, which require complicated setup). However, if you're not good with jokes, better avoid them altogether. Improvising humor is very dangerous. -‐ The more you rehearse the talk, the better it will be. A rehearsal is most useful when carried out loud. 5 rehearsals is a minimum for an important talk. -‐ The more people criticize your talk (during practice), the better it will be; pay attention to criticism, not necessarily to all suggestions, but try to see what and why people misunderstood your ideas. -‐ Not everything has to be written down; speech can and should complement the information on the slides. -‐ Be enthusiastic. -‐ Act your talk: explain, ask rhetorical questions, act surprised, etc. -‐ Give people time to think about the important facts by slowing down, or even stopping for a moment. -‐ Do not go overtime under any circumstance. -‐ Listen to the questions very carefully; many speakers answer different questions than the ones asked. -‐ Do not treat your audience as mentally-‐impaired: do not explain the completely obvious things. Text / texto -‐ Slides should have short titles. A long title shows something is wrong. -‐ Use uniform capitalization rules. -‐ All the text on one slide should have the same structure (e.g. complete phrases, idea only, etc.). -‐ Put very little text on a slide; avoid text completely if you can. Put no more than one idea per slide (i.e. all bullets should refer to the same thing). If you have lots of text, people will read it faster than you talk, and will not pay attention to what you say. -‐ Don't use small fonts.
-‐ Use very few formulas (one per presentation). The same goes for program code (at most one code fragment per presentation). -‐ Do not put useless graphics on each slide: logos, grids, affiliations, etc. -‐ Spell-‐check. A spelling mistake is an attention magnet. Illustrations / ilustraciones -‐ Use suggestive graphical illustrations as much as possible. Don't shun graphical metaphors. Prefer an image to text. In my presentations I try to have 80% of the slides with images. -‐ Do not put in the figures details you will not mention explicitly. The figures should be as schematic as possible (i.e. no overload of features). -‐ Do not "waste" information by using unnecessary colors. Each different color should signify something different, and something important. Color-‐code your information if you can, but don't use too many different colors. Have high-‐contrast colors. -‐ A few real photos related to your subject look very cool (e.g. real system, hardware, screen-‐shots, automatically generated figures, etc.). Real photos are much more effective during the core of the talk than during the intro. I hate talks with a nice picture during the introduction and next only text; they open your appetite and then leave you hungry. -‐ For some strange reason, rectangles with shadows seem to look much better than without (especially if there are just a few in the figure). -‐ Sometimes a matte pastel background looks much better than a white one. -‐ Exploit animation with restraint. Do not use fancy animation effects if not necessary. -‐ However, there are places where animation is extremely valuable, e.g., to depict the evolution of a complex system, or to introduce related ideas one by one. -‐ Use strong colors for important stuff, pastel colors for the unimportant. -‐ Encode information cleverly: e.g. make arrow widths showing flows proportional to the flow capacity. -‐ Use thick lines in drawings (e.g. 1 1/2 points or more). Results / conclusiones -‐ Don't put useless information in result graphs (e.g. the 100% bar for each application). -‐ Label very clearly the axes of the graphs. Explain the un-‐obvious ones. Use large fonts for labels; the default fonts in Excel are too small. -‐ Discuss the results numbers in detail; "milk" them as much as possible. 2.3. Simulación de presentaciones comerciales orales en inglés Contrastes de registros formales e informales y fórmulas habituales Suggested phrases for informal presentations / frases para presentaciones informales Introducing yourself / presentarse - As (a few of/ some of/ many of/ most of/ almost all of) you know, I’m… and… - For those of you who don’t know me already,… - I should probably start by introducing myself. I… - I think most of you know me, but I’ll introduce myself anyway. Explaining your aim / explicar el objetivo - By the end of my presentation, I want to show you that… - I aim to prove to you that/ change your mind about… - The purpose/ aim of today’s presentation is… - My purpose in presenting this to you is… Checking visuals and sound / comprobar el sonido y la visibilidad - Can everyone hear me? - Can you see at the back? - Is the microphone working? - Please let me know if you can’t see or hear. Giving a hook / hacer preguntas al público - Did you know that…? - Have you ever wondered…? - I think this is an important/ interesting topic because…
- There is a famous joke on this topic which goes… Showing awareness of the audience/ conectar con el público - I can see some familiar faces today. - It’s nice to see so many familiar faces. - It’s nice to see so many young people today. - I’m sure you are all still tired from lunch, so… Ending / finalizar - Giving further information - Here is a link for access to today’s PowerPoint slides. - Here is a list of possible further reading on the topic. - You can read more about it via the links on this last slide. - There is a list of original sources on the last page. Stating a conclusion / establecer una conclusión - I think all this proves that… - In conclusion,… - It is quite difficult to draw conclusions, but… - The conclusion I would draw from that would be… - What conclusions can we draw from all the information we have seen today? Well,… Suggested phrases for formal presentations / frases para una presentación formal Greeting / saludos - Hi/ Hello/ Good morning/ afternoon/ evening (everyone/ ladies and gentlemen/ guys) - NOT Good night/ Hiya/ How’s it going?/ What’s up? PROBABLY NOT – How are you? Thanking/ Welcoming / dar la bienvenida - Welcome to… - First of all, I’d like to thank everyone/ you all for coming (to…) - Thanks for coming (to…)/ attending (…) - Let me begin by welcoming you (all) (to…)/ First, I’d like to (warmly) welcome you (to…) - On behalf of… may I welcome you to… - It’s a pleasure to welcome you (to…) - It’s good to see you (all) here (today). - Thank you for finding the time to come and join me for this presentation. - NOT Thank you for your coming/ for listening./ for your kind attention. Giving your name / presentarse - I think most of you know me, but I’ll introduce myself anyway. - As (a few of/ some of/ many of/ most of/ almost all of) you know, I’m… - First of all, I’d like to introduce myself/ let me introduce myself…/ - I should probably start by introducing myself… - For those of you who don’t know me already,… Giving background information about yourself connected to your presentation / relacionarse uno mismo con el contenido de la presentación - I should probably first tell you that… - To give you some background information,… - To explain why I chose this topic,… - Before I start, I should probably explain that… Outlining the presentation / resumir o presentar la charla - I’ll start/ begin/ commence with/ by… - I’ve divided my presentation into… parts/ My presentation is divided into...parts. - In my presentation, I’ll focus on three main… - First, we’ll look at... then we’ll move on to… and finally we’ll focus on… - Secondly/ In the second part of my presentation,… - (And) then/ After that/ The next stage will be to… - To finish up/ Finally/ I’ll end with/ The last stage will be to… - …we’ll focus on/ look at/ examine…/ … I’ll talk about/ present/ explain… - My presentation will last/ I’m going to speak for approximately/ about…
- NOT At first/ At last/ In the end - Moving on to the next topic - Moving onto the next/ second/ last part of my presentation,… - That leads us on nicely to the next point I want to deal with, which is… - If everyone is clear on that point, I’ll move onto the next… Referring to earlier parts of the presentation/ Summarising/ Paraphrasing / hacer referencia a otras cosas - As I mentioned earlier,…/ said in my introduction,… - To try to state the same point in an easier to remember way,… - Let’s look at…again…. - … I mean to say…/ …, meaning…/ … that is… - Basically, what I’m trying to say is… 3. NEGOCIACIÓN DE OPERACIONES DE COMERCIO INTERNACIONAL EN INGLÉS 3.1. Estructuras lingüísticas y léxico habitual en procesos de negociación del comercio internacional. Welcoming / Relationship building / dar la bienvenida I would like to welcome you to … . On behalf of ... I would like to welcome you to ... It's my pleasure to welcome you to ... How was your flight? Would you like something to drink? Suggesting a procedure / sugerir un procedimiento I would like now to begin by suggesting the following procedure / agenda. To start with, I think we should establish the overall procedure. Does that seem acceptable to you? Is there anything you'd like to change? Is this okay with you? Proposing / hacer una propuesta Our basic position is ... There are several options … We propose / suggest … Regarding your proposal, our position is ... Would it be possible … How do you feel about … Do you think you could consider … Responding to suggestions / responder a las sugerencias As far as your proposal is concerned, we think that ... May we offer an alternative? We propose that ... We'd like to make an alternative proposal. We propose that ... From where we stand, a better solution might be ... Considering that I would like to suggest … Now that you mentioned it … Agreeing / mostrar acuerdo I agree with you on that point. That's a fair suggestion. You have a strong point there. I think we can both agree that... I don't see any problem with/harm in that. Objecting / objetar I understand where you're coming from; however,... If you look at it from my point of view... I'm afraid I had something different in mind. That's not exactly how I look at it.
From my perspective... I'd have to disagree with you there. I'm afraid that doesn't work for me. Reasoning / mostrar razonamientos This is because … The reason for that is … … is essential and vital for our customers. We have to / must have … This is a must! Money is all-important! Reassuring / reafirmar Let me reassure you that ... I can promise you that ... Have no doubts that we will ... Giving a hint / centrar la atención en algo Our main concern is … It is vital / crucial that … Our intention is … We might like to … I am willing to accept … if … It would be an alternative to … We can trade this against … There a few things we can compromise … Clarifying / clarificar … is correct, isn’t it? Is it alright with you, if … It seems that … Do you suggest … Are you suggesting that … Do you mean … Does it mean … If I understood you correctly … What exactly do you mean by … ? I'm not sure I fully understand your point. What do you mean by … Could you clarify one point for me? Would you like to elaborate on that? Could you be more specific? So what you're saying is that you... In other words, you feel that... Let me make sure I understand what you’re saying. Is that an accurate summary of where you stand? Would you say that is a fair representation of your position? Can we summarize your position up to this point? Identifying obstacles / identificar problemas The main thing that bothers us is ... One big problem we have is ... The main obstacle to progress at the moment seems to be ... Let's take a closer look at this problem. What exactly is the underlying problem here? I would like to analyze this situation and get to the bottom of the problem. Compromising / expresar compromiso How flexible can you be on that? I’m ready to sign that if you can … .
In return for this, would you be willing to ...? May we offer an alternative? We are ready to accept your offer; however, there would be one condition. We feel there has to be a trade-off here. We would be willing to ..., provided, of course, that ... We'd be prepared to .... However, there would be one condition. What do you think is a fair way to resolve the situation? Would you be willing to accept a compromise? Delaying / posponer algo We would have to study this. Can we get back to you on this later? We'll have to consult with our colleagues back in the office. We'd like to get back to you on it. We'll have to get back to you on it. I don’t have the authority to make that decision by myself. Refusing a proposal / rechazar una propuesta I am afraid we couldn’t agree to that. I’m sorry, we can’t accept that. I'm afraid your offer doesn't go far enough. I'm sorry, but we must respectfully decline your offer. No, that’s out of question. No. I am not interested. That would be very difficult for us because … . That’s not really a viable option for us. That’s totally unacceptable. Unfortunately, we must decline your offer for the following reasons. Accepting a proposal / aceptar una propuesta We are happy to accept this agreement. This agreement is acceptable to us. I believe we have an agreement. We are happy to accept this agreement. I’m all in favor of that. I think we have a deal. I think we will have to agree to We can only agree with you there. I have to admit that you’re right. I am willing to work with that. That’s a deal! It sounds like an alternative / option / possibility … That sounds reasonable. Closing / summarizing / cerrar y resumir Can we review what we have agreed on so far? Now, let’s just take a moment to review what we’ve discussed. So, what we’ve finally decided on is … . Let's make sure we agree on these figures (dates / etc.). Can we check these points one last time? Let's just confirm the details, then. Final greetings / despedidas It has been a pleasure doing business with you. We look forward to cooperating with you again. 3.2. Interacción entre las partes de una negociación comercial Podríamos encontrarnos en una situación de negociación si tenemos que pedir un aumento de sueldo o un ascenso, o con el objetivo de obtener el mejor acuerdo posible de sus proveedores. El resultado ideal es cuando podemos darle a la otra parte lo que necesita y esta nos puede dar a nosotros lo que necesitamos. A veces, una persona necesita llegar a un acuerdo y probablemente tratará de negociar algo a cambio. Lo importante es que ambas partes se sientan contentas con el resultado final: un "ganar-ganar", todos ganan.
Aunque algunas negociaciones son más "importantes" que otras, hay algunas frases útiles que se pueden utilizar en las diferentes etapas de la negociación para dejar su postura clara y para asegurarse de que la otra parte está de acuerdo con usted. Preparation for the negotiation / preparación para la negociación Be prepared! Think about your goals (as well as those of the opposing party) to make sure you are clear about what you want. What can you trade with the other party? Do you have any alternatives that are acceptable to you? If you can also work out possible solutions, then it is easier to find an acceptable outcome. Finally, you should be clear about your "bottom line": the point at which you can offer no more. In rare cases you may even have to be prepared to walk away from the negotiation if you reach a stalemate: a position from which it is impossible to negotiate any more. Starting and outlining your position / comenzar y dejar clara nuestra posición I'd like to begin by saying… I'd like to outline our aims and objectives. There are two main areas that we'd like to concentrate on / discuss. Agreeing / mostrar acuerdo We agree. This is a fair suggestion. You have a good point. I can't see any problem with that. Provided / As long as you….. we will…. Disagreeing / mostrar desacuerdo I'm afraid that's not acceptable to us. I'm afraid we can't agree with you there. Can I just pick you up on a point you made earlier. I understand where you're coming from / your position, but… We're prepared to compromise, but… If you look at it from our point of view,… As we see it… That's not exactly as we see it. Is that your best offer? Summarising / resumir Can we summarise what we've agreed so far? Let's look at the points we agree on. So the next step is… Language points / detalles del lenguaje During a negotiation, you're likely to hear "if" sentences, as the negotiation moves from the stage of exploring issues to the stage of making a deal. If you increased the order size, we could / would reduce the price. (2nd conditional – exploring the issue) So, we'll reduce the price by 5% if you increase the order by 5%. (1st conditional – making a deal) You might also hear "unless" (=if not), "as long as" and "provided (that)" instead of if: As long as you increase your order, we can give you a greater discount. Unless you increase your order, we won't be able to give you a bigger discount. Provided you increase your order, we can give you a bigger discount. 3.3. Solicitud de concesiones, reclamaciones y formulación de expresiones en situaciones de negociación. Mostrar duda, acuerdo y desacuerdo Agreement There is no doubt about it that... I completely / absolutely agree with you. I agree with you entirely. I totally agree with you. I simply must agree with that.
I am of the same opinion. I am of the same opinion. That’s exactly what I think. Disagreement I don't agree with you. I’m sorry, but I disagree. I'm afraid, I can't agree with you. The problem is that... I (very much) doubt whether... This is in complete contradiction to... With all due respect,… I am of a different opinion because ... I cannot share this / that / the view. I cannot agree with this idea. What I object to is... I have my own thoughts about that. Contradecir en parte Partial agreement It is only partly true that... That’s true, but… I can agree with that only with reservations. That seems obvious, but... That is not necessarily so. It is not as simple as it seems. I agree with you in principle, but… I agree with you in part, but… Well, you could be right. Clarificar las opiniones y reformular Does anything I have suggested / proposed seem unclear to you? I'd like to clarify our position. What do you mean exactly when you say…. Could you clarify your last point for me? [video] 3.4. Fórmulas de persuasión en una negociación internacional. Lee el siguiente texto, muy sencillo, en inglés, para irte familiarizando con el vocabulario y expresiones sobre este tema: Focus on the needs of the other party (centrarse en las necesidades de la otra parte). Take time to listen to them carefully and find out about their interests and expectations. This shows that you are really interested in them and they are then more likely to trust and respect you. It will also make it easier for you to outline the benefits of your proposal in terms they understand. Argue your case with logic (argumenta tu postura de forma lógica). Do careful research on your ideas and those of your competitors (if there are any) and make sure that any claims you make can be verified. The more hesitant language (forma de hablar insegura) you use such as "isn't it", "you know", "um mm" and "I mean" the less people are likely to believe your argument. Use positive rather than negative language (use un lenguaje positivo): instead of saying "You're wrong about this", say "That's true, however ...", "That's an excellent idea, but if we look more deeply ....." or "I agree with what you say but have you considered ....".
Subtly compliment the other party(elogie discretamente a la otra parte). For example: "I see that you've done some really excellent research into this". Even though they may realise this is being done, evidence shows that they will still warm to you and be more open to your proposals. Mirroring the other person's mannerisms, e.g. hand and body movements (trata de imitar la forma de moverse de la otra persona). A study at INSEAD Business School found that 67% of sellers who used mirroring achieved a sale compared to 12% who did not. People you mirror subconsciously feel more empathy with you. However, it can be very embarrassing if the other person detects conscious mirroring so it must be very subtle. You need to leave a delay of between two and four seconds before the mirroring action. See our body language quiz for more on this. Try to remember the names of everyone you meet (trata de recordar los nombres de tus interlocutores). It shows that you are treating them as an individual. 3.5. Simulación de procesos de negociación de exportaciones e importaciones de productos. Contrastes de registros formales e informales y fórmulas habituales Vamos a ver a continuación algunas de las diferencias principales entre la comunicación formal e informal en documentaciones comerciales en inglés Differences between formal and informal English / diferencias entre inglés formal e informal Existen varias formas para diferencial el lenguaje formal y el informal en in-glés en el contexto de la atención a clientes, entre ellas podemos encontrar las siguientes: - Use of passive (formal) or active (informal) / uso de la pasiva I'll send you all the documents. All the documents will be sent by the next week. - Personal Form / forma personal If you need any help don't hesitate to contact us (Informal) Any help you may need don't hesitate to contact us (formal) - Some expressions /algunas expresiones Please contact us as soon as possible (informal) Please contact us immediately (formal) - Linking words / palabras de unión Furthermore, in addition to (formal) /Also, and, as well as, besides (informal) Although, however, nevertheless, whereas (formal)/ but, or, so, on the other hand (informal) Regarding, with reference to (formal)/ since, so (informal) Accordingly, consequently, therefore (formal)/ anyway, because, because of (informal) Firstly, finally, in the first place, secondly, (formal)/ after, and, and then, first, last, second, then (informal) - Modal verbs /verbos modales If you need any help please call us (informal) Should you require any help, please call us. (formal) - Use of singular and plural / uso de singular y plural I can help you to solve this problem (informal) We can assist in the resolution of this matter. (formal) Formal Style in business documents / estilo formal en documentos comerciales Some useful structures are those beginning by modal verbs:
● Could ● May ● Would
Son palabras similares, se pueden traducir como “podría” o “le importaría” Useful vocabulary and expressions / vocabulario y expresiones - Could you please send the quotation by email? ¿Podría enviar el presupuesto por email? - May I ask for a trade discount? ¿Podría solicitar un descuento comercial?
- Would you mind sending the goods as soon as possible? ¿Le importaría enviar la mercancía tan pronto como sea posible? - Would you kindly send the invoice by fax? ¿Sería tan amable de enviar la factura por fax? - Would it be possible to have the consignment delivered in our head office? ¿Sería posible que nos sirvieran la mercancía en nuestra oficina central? - Could you please inform us about your terms of trade? ¿Nos podría informar acerca de sus condiciones de compra? Informal language in business documents / lenguaje informal en documentos de negocios We use direct questions: - Can you send me your new catalogue? ¿Me puedes enviar el Nuevo catálogo? - Does your company offer any trade discount? ¿Tu empresa ofrece algún descuento comercial? - When will we receive the consignment? ¿Cuando recibiremos la mer-cancía? Practice. Find for a more formal way to express the sentences above Possible Answer: Would you please send us your new catalogue? We would be grateful if you could offer us a trade discount? Could you please inform us about the delivery date? Synonyms / sinónimos Es esencial el evitar la repetición de términos cuando estamos redactando una comunicación, tanto formal como informal. Aquí enumeramos una serie de términos con sus sinónimos Formal Informal State Say Request Ask For Inform Tell Promptly Quickly Settle Pay Puschase Buy Approve Accept Entonación y puntuación discursiva básica General aspects to present a product or service Aspectos generales para presentar un servicio o producto Tenemos que tener en cuenta los siguientes aspectos para lograr una presen-tación exitosa de nuestro producto o servicio. - Functions: what is the use of the product and the necessities that it will fulfill - Benefits: advantages that the customer will get if he uses your products, in relation to necessities and competence. They have to be enumerated in a clear and understandable way - Characteristics: Technical details about the product or service, duration, packaging...etc. - Untouchable elements. They are everything that makes your product attractive: fashion, newness, exclusivity. - Complements: added articles that make a difference to your product. We should also adequate the presentation to the customer, attract his/her at-tention and listen to him/her to be aware of their necessities. Our presentation should be enthusiastic and reliable. Examples of commercial situations with customers / ejemplos de situaciones comerciales con clientes A. Presentation of a new product / presentación de un nuevo producto Good morning. My name is Peter Thomas and I represent ABC Ltd. I am here to show you the new products we have just launched, that will make your work easy. This new product makes your work faster. It will help you to reduce costs. It is the new product, the lasts product, the newest. They have a lot of complements. Questions made by the customer - How many years of guarantee does it have? - Do you offer any commercial discount? - When will you be able to deliver it? - Do you accept returns/refunds? - Can I get some samples? - Can we see a demonstration?
Replies. - Certainly/Sure/ Of course. - What day will suit you? - Would it be convenient on? B. Presentation of services / presentación de servicios Services are untouchable, so we should emphasize the technical and personal characteristics of it. We can't show customers any samples, we can't show how it works so, the focus should be in the customer service and the quality of our service. Example of a service presentation. Good morning, we are here to present our Cleaning Company called "The cleaners". We are a new com-pany operating in Madrid and we offer special prices and discounts to our customers.. - Enumerate benefits of your service. - It will help you to save time - It will help you to save money. - We offer a fast and effective service. As we have already seen it is important to present the customer the benefits that he or she will get by purchasing our products or services and be prepared to answer all the questions the customer may ask. 4. CONTEXTO SOCIOPROFESIONAL DE LAS OPERACIONES COMERCIO INTERNACIONAL 4.1. Contenidos socioculturales y sociolingüísticos en entornos profesionales internacionales. Cuando estamos trabajando en el comercio global, el conocimiento del impacto que tienen las diferencias culturales es una de las claves para el éxito de nuestro negocio. Cualquiera que sea el sector en que se este operando, financiero, tecnológico o electrónico, las diferencias culturales van a afectar directamente en nosotros y en nuestros niveles de beneficio empresarial. Mejorar la conciencia cultural ayuda a las empresas a desarrollar sus capacidades internacionales. Cuando los aspectos de cultura y comercio interactúan, se desarrollan unas situaciones y escenarios de actuación muy interesantes ycomplicados. La globalización obliga cada vez a a las empresas a hacer estos esfuerzos y a comprender cada vez la importancia de tener los aspectos culturales en cuenta a la hora de iniciar un negocio. Algunos aspoectos importantes son: Body Language / lenguaje corporal Every nation has a separate culture; a part of which is reflected in the behavior and the body language of the people. In an international business, understanding the undercurrents beneath the mannerisms or gestures become necessary. There are chances that behavior might get misinterpreted by people from different cultures. Thus, it requires a skilled coordinator to handle challenging situations during meetings. Communication / comunicación The way of communicating could be different in different cultures. The terms used by some might sound harsh to others. The way in which words are pronounced to impact the intercultural communication in the corporate houses. In fact, it is one of the major hindrance in the process of business communication. Time/ concepto temporal People from Britain and Germany are keen on following the time-bound schedule. The different 'time-cultures' might be the reason behind clashes, between people from diverse cultures. The way in which the boardroom meetings are handled, is also a reason behind differences in opinions. Corporate houses from western countries stick to the schedule during meetings. They get down to business in an outright manner. Other cultures may differ in this aspect of business. The marketing executives sent for international assignments, are bound to face problems in dealing with the corporate cultures of that particular country. Understanding a foreign market and formulating the company policies to cater to the need of international clients is a challenging job. Skilled professionals possessing the quality called 'empathy' are able to deliver the goods in such cases. With today's businesses entering a 'globalized' world, the interaction between different cultures is bound to happen. Merely learning different languages, won't be enough. It is necessary for corporate houses to understand the social
conditions of different countries, to successfully tap the respective markets. Being sensitive to the values and beliefs of different cultures of the world, is necessary. International businesses are not only a way of making profits by the exploitation of international talent, but also a bridge between different nations of the world. Tomorrow's world will rely more on a symbiotic relationship between international businesses and cultures as a whole. 4.2. Elementos significativos en las relaciones comerciales y profesionales. La comunicación es el proceso mediante el cual se puede transmitir información de una entidad a otra. Los procesos de comunicación son interacciones mediadas por signos entre al menos dos agentes que comparten un mismo repertorio de signos y tienen unas reglas semióticas comunes. Tradicionalmente, la comunicación se ha definido como "el intercambio de sentimientos, opiniones, o cualquier otro tipo de información mediante habla, escritura u otro tipo de señales". Todas las formas de comunicación requieren un emisor, un mensaje y un receptor destinado, pero el receptor no necesita estar presente ni consciente del intento comunicativo por parte del emisor para que el acto de comunicación se realice. En el proceso comunicativo, la información es incluida por el emisor en un paquete y canalizada hacia el receptor a través del medio. Una vez recibido, el receptor decodifica el mensaje y proporciona una respuesta. El funcionamiento de las sociedades humanas es posible gracias a la comunicación. Esta consiste en el intercambio de mensajes entre los individuos. Desde un punto de vista técnico se entiende por comunicación el hecho que un determinado mensaje originado en el punto A llegue a otro punto determinado B, distante del anterior en el espacio o en el tiempo. La comunicación implica la transmisión de una determinada información. Communicator / persona que se comunica, emisor o rececptor (sender or encoder) is the one who initiates the communication process. He may be an editor, a reporter, a filmmaker, a teacher, a writer, a speaker, a leader or anybody who takes the initiative to start a dialogue. Before one speaks or writes, the message is conceptualized first and then encoded. An effective communication depends on the communication skill, knowledge level, and attitude of the communicator and how he desires to affect his receiver. An ability to think, to organize thoughts quickly and express himself effectively are some of the attributes of a good communicator. Somebody who uses appropriate words, sentences, tone, etc. may be called a good communicator. He does not fumble, does not look for words and all that he says is accompanied by appropriate gestures and delivered at an acceptable pace. Another element, which is mentioned here, is knowledge level. We must be able to find out the knowledge level of the persons on a particular topic before we start the dialogue. Also, a person must never look down upon the people with whom he communicates. He must never think that the receivers are inferior to him. The attitudes of a person should be mature and the minimum respect due to the other person must be extended to him. Encoding (codificación) is the formulation of messages in the communicator’s mind, that is, the communicator not only translates his purpose (ideas, thoughts or information) into a message but also decides on the medium to communicate his planned message. He must choose the media (speaking, writing, signaling or gesturing) that the receiver can comprehend well. For instance, an illiterate receiver will fail to understand a written message, but can understand it well if told orally. A message is what a communicator actually produces for transmission using spoken or written words, photographs, paintings, films, posters, etc. a great deal of skill and effort is required to formulate a message, the meaning of which should be understandable to the receiver. Actually the purpose of communication is to influence the receiver and get favorable responses so that appropriate decisions can be taken. The success of communication, therefore, depends on what we say and how we say it. A message can enhance or distort effective communication. For instance, in an interview your intention is to impress interviewer, but if you give answers whose meaning is not clear, the interviewer may perceive that you are incompetent for the job. A channel (canal) is the vehicle through which a message is carried from the communicator to the receiver. The channels of communication are many-written, spoken, verbal, non-verbal, mass media like TV, radio, newspapers, books, etc. choosing the appropriate channel, one most suitable for the message as well as the receiver, is a complicated task. Success and failure of communication depends on the selection of the right channel. For example, if you have prepared a campaign on ‘National Integration’ what media would you choose to reach the intended audience? And even after selecting the media you have to decide if it is feasible cost wise, taking into account the number of people and the kind of people who will be exposed to your message, and certain other factors. Actually your intention or desire would be to reach out to the maximum number of people but for efficient communication your attempt should be to minimize time and cost in the total information exchange effort.
The receiver (receptor), at the other end of the communication, is the recipient of the message and must possess the same orientation as the communicator. If the receiver does not have the ability to listen, to read, to think, he will not be able to receive and decode the messages in the manner the communicator want him to. For effective communication, the receiver is the most important link in the communication process. Decoding (decodificación) is the interpretation of the message by the receiver. Actually, the receiver looks for the meaning in the message, which is common to both the receiver and the communicator. Feedback (retroalimentación) is the response or acknowledgement of receiver to the communicator’s message. The exchange is possible only if the receiver responds. Even through fluttering eyelids, raising an eyebrow, making a face, organizing a point and asking for explanation, the message is shaped and reshaped by the communicator and the receiver until the meaning becomes clear. In this way both participants in communication interact and constantly exchange roles. In face-to-face communication the receiver responds naturally, directly and immediately. This provides the communicator an opportunity to improve and make his communication effective. Feedback, thus, provides an opportunity to evaluate what is right or wrong about a particular communication. It helps to regulate the conversation among two or more individuals and also stimulates and reinforces an idea that is desired to be communicated. Noise (ruido o interferencia) is an interruption that can creep in at any point of the communication process and make it ineffective. Environment is one major cause that interferes with message reception: like noises from the roadside, constant chattering of individuals outside the communication act, blaring loudspeaker, faulty transmission, etc. noise can occur in other forms also; poor handwriting, heavy accent or soft speech, communication in a poorly lit room, etc. in fact, these are barriers to effective communication. For smooth and effective communication, it is necessary to eliminate or reduce noise as far as possible. Fórmulas de cortesía y tratamiento de uso frecuente Telephone / al teléfono Make sure that when you cannot answer your phone that your recorded message is sincere and polite. Often it is in the tone of the voice that can display courtesy. Apologizing for not being available when your caller needed to speak to you is a show of courtesy. Stating when you will be back is another courtesy. Most important, returning a message promptly is not only courteous but professional. When answering the phone, smile. It will show in your voice. Listen completely to what your caller has to say before starting to speak. Make sure you ask for permission before putting your caller on hold and wait for the caller to say it's okay. Never hang up without saying good-bye or giving notice that you are ending the call, even if the caller is rude. Email / por email Emails go a long way in business communications. They also last a long time. They can become permanent records of your words. With that knowledge, make sure when you are preparing an email that you read it aloud or otherwise review it to make sure that you not only get your meaning across but that you get it across in a courteous way. Start your emails with a professional salutation that greets your receiver or group of receivers by name (see References 3). Keep in mind this email is not a casual note between friends. Use complete sentences and good grammar. Never write an email when angry or in the mood to vent, as chances are an email sent under these conditions will be missing the courtesies that could make your communication more effective (see References 2). Letters / por carta Often, it is acceptable to send a letter to convey a business communication. As with an email, be sure to have your letter proofread for spelling and format and your grammar checked for correctness. Say thank-you when and where needed. Make sure to close your letter with an appreciation for anticipated time spent by the receiver reading your communication. Face-to-Face / en persona Often the most difficult form of business communication is delivered face-to-face. It is good practice to review in front of a mirror what you plan to say. This will give you a good idea of how your facial expressions change with your message. When visiting another country for business, it is not polite to force your culture on those with whom you are there to do business (see References 1). Understanding cultural differences can help you be courteous when communicating with those from countries where face-to-face courtesies are displayed differently than how you may be accustomed. Bulletin Boards / tablones de anuncios Announcements posted on bulletin boards are common in many workplaces. This practice can sometimes result in rude or crude displays of communication. When in charge of delivering a message to everyone at once, you should strive be courteous to all. Use of slang or uncommon phrases may offend and detract from your intent. Make sure
your bulletin board announcement or newsletter is written with all the consideration given to other professional business communications. 4.3. Diferenciación de usos, convenciones y pautas de comportamiento según aspectos culturales de los interlocutores. Formas africanas de negociación Muchos países africanos tienen sistemas indígenas de resolución de conflictos que han perdurado hasta el presente, a veces absolutamente intactos y, a veces fragmentados por el cambio social rápido. Estos sistemas se basan en enfoques particulares de negociación basados en los lazos de parentesco y el respeto a los mayores, y a las estructuras de la sociedad local en general. En Nigeria, por ejemplo, las personas se organizan en familias extensas (NNU '), pueblo (idu' o obio), el linaje ('duk), y los grupos de linaje (iman). La creencia en la capacidad continuada de los miembros ancianos de las familiar de incidir en la vida de la gente mantiene el control social, por lo que surge la necesidad de contar con leyes o regulaciones formales mínimos. La negociación ocurre dentro de las redes sociales, a raíz de los roles establecidos. Las mujeres en conflicto con los esposos, por ejemplo, han de retractarse y disculparse, preparar una comida ritual que simboliza la restauración de la armonía. En el contexto nigeriano Ibibio, el objetivo de restablecer las redes sociales es primordial, y las diferencias individuales se espera que se descarten en interés del grupo. Para garantizar que el progreso o un acuerdo en una negociación se conserva, las partes deben comprometerse a no invocar el poder de los ancestros para hechizar o maldecir a los otros en el futuro. El objetivo de cualquier proceso, formal o informal, es producir un resultado positivo sin un "residuo de amargura o resentimiento". Los ancianos tienen un poder considerable, y cuando intervienen en un conflicto o una negociación, sus palabras son respetadas. Esto se debe en parte a que algunos ancianos se cree que tienen acceso a poderes sobrenaturales que pueden eliminar los escudos de protección de los demás y causar desastres personales. En otros contextos africanos, estas mismas relaciones y jerarquías tienen una gran importancia a la hora de solucionar conflictos. Estilo japonés de negociación Hay una gran cantidad de material escrito sobre los enfoques de Japón hacia la negociación, y las diferencias entre extranjeros y japoneses. Hay algunos valores que tienden a influir en la comunicación japonesa: centrarse en los objetivos del grupo, la interdependencia y una orientación jerárquica. En las negociaciones, estos valores se manifiestan en la forma de considerar las necesidades del grupo sus metas y en la deferencia a las personas de mayor estatus. Los negociadores japoneses son conocidos por su cortesía, su énfasis en el establecimiento de las relaciones, y su uso indirecto del poder. La importancia que los japoneses conceden al trato cara a cara es una de las razones por la que la cortesía es tan importante y se evita la confrontación. Ellos tienden a utilizar el poder de manera sutil e indirecta, dada tu su preferencia por la armonía y la calma. En estudios comparativos, los negociadores japoneses se mostraban más reacios a revelar información acerca de ellos mismos y de sus objetivos que sus colegas franceses o americanos. Los negociadores japoneses tienden a poner menos énfasis en el significado literal de las palabras utilizadas en la negociación y un mayor énfasis en las relaciones que se establecen antes del inicio de la negociación. También son menos propensos que sus contrapartes extranjeras a ser directivos respecto al procedimiento. Estilos Europeos de Negociación Los estilos europeos de negociación varían según la región, la nacionalidad, el idioma, y muchos otros factores contextuales. Un estudio encontró que los franceses son negociadores muy agresivos, utilizan amenazas, advertencias e interrupciones para lograr sus objetivos. Negociadores alemanes y británicos fueron calificados como moderadamente agresivos en el mismo estudio. Estilos latinoamericanos de Negociación Las expectativas de rol en la negociación influye mucho en los contextos latinoamericanos. La responsabilidad por los demás generalmente se considera más importante que los horarios y la realización de tareas. Su enfoque de negociación se refiere a una orientación policrónica del tiempo y los patrones de comunicación mas comunitarios.
Lederach informa que un término común para el conflicto en Centroamérica es enredo, que significa "enredados" o "atrapado en una red." Explica que en este sentido, enredo significa que el conflicto está incluido en una red íntima de las relaciones en Guatemala y otros países de América Central. Por lo tanto, la negociación se lleva a cabo dentro de las redes, las relaciones se acentúan y se evitan las rupturas abiertas. En América Central, la gente piensa y responde a los conflictos de manera integral. Ellos preferían un enfoque integral del conflicto y la negociación, en lugar de uno lineal y analítico. Cuando los centroamericanos necesitaban ayuda con las negociaciones, tendían a mirar a los participantes internos en lugar de personas neutrales externas, prefiriendo confianza de las relaciones establecidas. Ellos hacen referencia al concepto de confianza para explicar estas preferencias. Confianza significa que "ellos nos conocen" y "los conocemos" y van a "velar por nuestros intereses". AMERICAN NEGOTIATORS
JAPANESE NEGOTIATORS
CHINESE (TAIWAN) NEGOTIATORS
BRAZILIAN NEGOTIATORS
Preparation and planning skill
Dedication to job Persistence and determination Preparation and planning skill
Thinking under pressure
Perceive and exploit power
Win respect and confidence Thinking under pressure
Judgment and intelligence
Win respect and confidence
Preparation and planning skill Judgment and intelligence
Verbal expressiveness Integrity Product knowledge Verbal expressiveness
Product knowledge Demonstrate listening skill
Interesting Product knowledge
Perceive and exploit power
Broad perspective Judgment and intelligence Perceive and exploit power
Integrity Verbal expressiveness Competitiveness
4.4. Giros y modismos adecuados al contexto del comercio internacional. 52 Week High/ Low: The highest and lowest prices that a stock has traded at during the previous year. Many traders and investors view the 52-‐week high or low as an important factor in determining a stock's current value and predicting future price Aftermarket Report: A summary of how shares of an initial public offering (IPO) performed after being introduced on the secondary market. At minimum, an aftermarket report will provide the company's name, its ticker symbol, the offer date, offer price and closing price. Investors can then see whether the new stock increased or decreased in price on the secondary market compared to what investors paid on the primary market. An aftermarket report might also include a company description, basic financial data, basic financial ratios and links to recent news articles about the company. All or None: A condition used on a buy or sell order to instruct the broker to fill the order completely or not at all. If there is insufficient supply to meet the quantity requested by the order then it is canceled at the close of the market. American Stock Exchange (AMEX): The third-‐largest sock exchange by trading volume in the United States. In 2008 it was acquired by the NYSE Euronext and became the NYSE Amex Equities in 2009. The AMEX is located in New York City and handles about 10% of all securities traded in the U.S. Analyst: A financial professional who has expertise in evaluating investments and puts together "buy", "sell" and "hold" recommendations for securities. Also known as a "financial analyst" or a "security analyst".
Arbitrage: The simultaneous purchase and sale of an asset in order to profit from a difference in the price. It is a trade that profits by exploiting price differences of identical or similar financial instruments, on different markets or in different forms. Arbitrage exists as a result of market inefficiencies; it provides a mechanism to ensure prices do not deviate substantially from fair value for long periods of time. Ask: The price a seller is willing to accept for a security, also known as the offer price. Along with the price, the ask quote will generally also stipulate the amount of the security willing to be sold at that price. Sometimes called "the ask." Assignment: The transfer of an individual's rights or property to another person or business. A notice received by an option writer stating that the option sold has been exercised by the purchaser of the option. At the Money: A situation where an option's strike price is identical to the price of the underlying security. Both call and put options will be simultaneously "at the money." For example, if XYZ stock is trading at 75, then the XYZ 75 call option is at the money and so is the XYZ 75 put option. An at-‐the-‐money option has no intrinsic value, but may still have time value. Options trading activity tends to be high when options are at the money. Basis: The variation between the spot price of a deliverable commodity and the relative price of the futures contract for the same actual that has the shortest duration until maturity. A security's basis is the purchase price after commissions or other expenses. Also known as "cost basis" or "tax basis". In the context of IRAs, basis is the after-‐tax balance in the IRA, which originates from nondeductible IRA contributions and rollover of after-‐tax amounts. Earnings on these amounts are tax-‐deferred, similar to earnings on deductible contributions and rollover of pretax amounts. Bear: An investor who believes that a particular security or market is headed downward. Bears attempt to profit from a decline in prices. Bears are generally pessimistic about the state of a given market. Bear Call Spread: A type of options strategy used when a decline in the price of the underlying asset is expected. It is achieved by selling call options at a specific strike price while also buying the same number of calls, but at a higher strike price. The maximum profit to be gained using this strategy is equal to the difference between the price paid for the long option and the amount collected on the short option. Bear Flag: Is a sharp, strong volume decline, several days of sideways to higher price action on much weaker volume followed by a second, sharp decline to new lows on strong volume. Bear Put Spread: A type of options strategy used when an option trader expects a decline in the price of the underlying asset. Bear Put Spread is achieved by purchasing put options at a specific strike price while also selling the same number of puts at a lower strike price. The maximum profit to be gained using this strategy is equal to the difference between the two strike prices, minus the net cost of the options. Bid: An offer made by an investor, a trader or a dealer to buy a security. The bid will stipulate both the price at which the buyer is willing to purchase the security and the quantity to be purchased. The price at which a market maker is willing to buy a security. The market maker will also display an ask price, or the amount and price at which it is willing to sell. Binary Options: A type of option in which the payoff is structured to be either a fixed amount of compensation if the option expires in the money, or nothing at all if the option expires out of the money. These types of options are different from plain vanilla options. Also sometimes referred to as "all-‐or-‐nothing options" or "digital options". Black Swan Event: An event or occurrence that deviates beyond what is normally expected of a situation and that would be extremely difficult to predict. This term was popularized by Nassim Nicholas Taleb, a finance professor and former Wall Street trader. Bollinger Band: A band plotted two standard deviations away from a simple moving average, developed by famous technical trader John Bollinger. Book Value: The value at which an asset is carried on a balance sheet. To calculate, take the cost of an asset minus the accumulated depreciation. The net asset value of a company, calculated by total assets minus intangible assets (patents, goodwill) and liabilities. The initial outlay for an investment. This number may be net or gross of expenses such as trading costs, sales taxes, service charges and so on. Also known as "net book value (NBV)." In the U.K., book value is known as "net asset value." Breakdown: A price movement through an identified level of support, which is usually followed by heavy volume and sharp declines. Technical traders will short sell the underlying asset when the price of the security breaks below a support level because it is a clear indication that the bears are in control and that additional selling pressure is likely to follow.
Breakout: A price movement through an identified level of support or resistance, which is usually followed by heavy volume and increased volatility. Traders will buy the underlying asset when the price breaks above a level of resistance and sell when it breaks below support. Broken Wing Butterfly: The Broken Wing Butterfly Spread, also known as a Skip Strike Butterfly Spread, is neutral options strategy and is a variant of the Butterfly Spread options trading strategy. The Broken Wing Butterfly Spread is simply a butterfly spread with risk inclined to one side. This means that rather than an equal risk when the stock breaks out to topside or downside, the Broken Wing Butterfly Spread transfers all the risk in one direction onto the other in order to create a options trading risk profile with maximum loss when the stock goes either upwards or downwards and totally safe when the stock goes in the protected direction. Broker: An individual or firm that charges a fee or commission for executing buy and sell orders submitted by an investor. The role of a firm when it acts as an agent for a customer and charges the customer a commission for its services. Bull: An investor who thinks the market, a specific security or an industry will rise. Investors who takes a bull approach will purchase securities under the assumption that they can be sold later at a higher price. Bull Call Spread: An options strategy that involves purchasing call options at a specific strike price while also selling the same number of calls of the same asset and expiration date but at a higher strike. A bull call spread is used when a moderate rise in the price of the underlying asset is expected. The maximum profit in this strategy is the difference between the strike prices of the long and short options, less the net cost of options. Most often, bull call spreads are vertical spreads. Bull Flag: The bull flag pattern is found within an uptrend in a stock. This pattern is named for the resemblance of a flag on a pole. The bull flag is a continuation pattern pattern which only slightly retraces the advance preceding it. The technical buy is when price penetrates the upper trend line of the flag area, ideally on volume expansion. Bull Put Spread: A type of options strategy that is used when the investor expects a moderate rise in the price of the underlying asset. This strategy is constructed by purchasing one put option while simultaneously selling another put option with a higher strike price. The goal of this strategy is realized when the price of the underlying stays above the higher strike price, which causes the short option to expire worthless, resulting in the trader keeping the premium. Butterfly: A neutral option strategy combining bull and bear spreads. Butterfly spreads use four option contracts with the same expiration but three different strike prices to create a range of prices the strategy can profit from. The trader sells two option contracts at the middle strike price and buys one option contract at a lower strike price and one option contract at a higher strike price. Both puts and calls can be used for a butterfly spread. Calendar Spread: An options or futures spread established by simultaneously entering a long and short position on the same underlying asset but with different delivery months. Sometimes referred to as an interdelivery, intramarket, time or horizontal spread. Call: An option contract giving the owner the right (but not the obligation) to buy a specified amount of an underlying security at a specified price within a specified time. Candlestick: A price chart that displays the high, low, open, and close for a security each day over a specified period of time. Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE): Founded in 1973, the CBOE is an exchange that focuses on options contracts for individual equities, indexes and interest rates. The CBOE is the world's largest options market. It captures a majority of the options traded. It is also a market leader in developing new financial products and technological innovation, particularly with electronic trading. The CBOE is also referred to as the "See-‐bo". Clearing House: An agency or separate corporation of a futures exchange responsible for settling trading accounts, clearing trades, collecting and maintaining margin monies, regulating delivery and reporting trading data. Clearing houses act as third parties to all futures and options contracts -‐ as a buyer to every clearing member seller and a seller to every clearing member buyer. Commodities: A basic good used in commerce that is interchangeable with other commodities of the same type. Commodities are most often used as inputs in the production of other goods or services. The quality of a given commodity may differ slightly, but it is essentially uniform across producers. When they are traded on an exchange, commodities must also meet specified minimum standards, also known as a basis grade. Any good exchanged during commerce, which includes goods traded on a commodity exchange. Contrarian: An investment style that goes against prevailing market trends by buying assets that are performing poorly and then selling when they perform well. Covered Call: An options strategy whereby an investor holds a long position in an asset and writes (sells) call options on that same asset in an attempt to generate increased income from the asset. This is often employed when an investor has a short-‐
term neutral view on the asset and for this reason hold the asset long and simultaneously have a short position via the option to generate income from the option premium. This is also known as a "buy-‐write". Credit: A contractual agreement in which a borrower receives something of value now and agrees to repay the lender at some date in the future, generally with interest. The term also refers to the borrowing capacity of an individual or company. An accounting entry that either decreases assets or increases liabilities and equity on the company's balance sheet. On the company's income statement, a debit will reduce net income, while a credit will increase net income. Cup and Handle: A pattern on bar charts resembling a cup with a handle. The cup is in the shape of a "U" and the handle has a slight downward drift. The right-‐hand side of the pattern has low trading volume. It can be as short as seven weeks and as long as 65 weeks. As the stock comes up to test the old highs, the stock will incur selling pressure by the people who bought at or near the old high. This selling pressure will make the stock price trade sideways with a tendency towards a downtrend for four days to four weeks... then it takes off. Day Orders: An order to buy or sell a security that automatically expires if not executed on the day the order was placed. A day order is an order that is good for that day only. If it is not filled it will be canceled, and it will not be filled if the limit or stop order price was not met during the trading session. Day Trading: An investor who attempts to profit by making rapid trades intraday. A day trader often closes out all trades before the market close and does not hold any open positions overnight. Some day traders use leverage to magnify the returns generated from small stock price movements. Debt: An amount of money borrowed by one party from another. Many corporations/individuals use debt as a method for making large purchases that they could not afford under normal circumstances. A debt arrangement gives the borrowing party permission to borrow money under the condition that it is to be paid back at a later date, usually with interest. Delta: The ratio comparing the change in the price of the underlying asset to the corresponding change in the price of a derivative. Sometimes referred to as the "hedge ratio." Derivative: A security whose price is dependent upon or derived from one or more underlying assets. The derivative itself is merely a contract between two or more parties. Its value is determined by fluctuations in the underlying asset. The most common underlying assets include stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, interest rates and market indexes. Most derivatives are characterized by high leverage Doji: A name for candlesticks that provide information on their own and also feature in a number of important patterns. Dojis form when a security's open and close are virtually equal Dow-‐Jones Industrial Average (DJIA): The Dow Jones Industrial Average is a price-‐weighted average of 30 significant stocks traded on the New York Stock Exchange and the Nasdaq. The DJIA was invented by Charles Dow back in 1896. Dow Theory: A theory which says the market is in an upward trend if one of its averages (industrial or transportation) advances above a previous important high, it is accompanied or followed by a similar advance in the other. Downgrade: A negative change in the rating of a security. This situation occurs when analysts feel that the future prospects for the security have weakened from the original recommendation, usually due to a material and fundamental change in the company's operations, future outlook or industry. Downtick: A transaction on an exchange that occurs at a price below the previous transaction. In order for a downtick to occur, a transaction price must be followed by a decreased transaction price. This is commonly used in reference to stocks, but it can also be extended to commodities and other forms of securities. Dividend: A distribution of a portion of a company's earnings, decided by the board of directors, to a class of its shareholders. The dividend is most often quoted in terms of the dollar amount each share receives (dividends per share). It can also be quoted in terms of a percent of the current market price, referred to as dividend yield. Mandatory distributions of income and realized capital gains made to mutual fund investors. Dividend Ex-‐Date: The date on or after which a security is traded without a previously declared dividend or distribution. After the ex-‐date, a stock is said to trade ex-‐dividend. Earnings: The amount of profit that a company produces during a specific period, which is usually defined as a quarter (three calendar months) or a year. Earnings typically refer to after-‐tax net income. Ultimately, a business's earnings are the main determinant of its share price, because earnings and the circumstances relating to them can indicate whether the business will be profitable and successful in the long run. EPS: (Earnings Per Share) The portion of a company's profit allocated to each outstanding share of common stock. Earnings per share serves as an indicator of a company's profitability. When calculating, it is more accurate to use a weighted average number of shares outstanding over the reporting term, because the number of shares outstanding can change over time.
However, data sources sometimes simplify the calculation by using the number of shares outstanding at the end of the period. Diluted EPS expands on basic EPS by including the shares of convertibles or warrants outstanding in the outstanding shares number. Equities: A stock or any other security representing an ownership interest. On a company's balance sheet, the amount of the funds contributed by the owners (the stockholders) plus the retained earnings (or losses). Also referred to as "shareholders' equity". In the context of margin trading, the value of securities in a margin account minus what has been borrowed from the brokerage. In terms of investment strategies, equity (stocks) is one of the principal asset classes. The other two are fixed-‐income (bonds) and cash/cash-‐equivalents. These are used in asset allocation planning to structure a desired risk and return profile for an investor's portfolio. Expiration: The last day that an options or futures contract is valid. When an investor buys an option, the contract gives them the right but not the obligation to buy or sell an asset at a predetermined price, called a strike price, within a given time period, which is on or before the expiration date. If the investor chooses not to exercise that right, the option expires and becomes worthless and the investor loses the money paid to buy the option. Exponential Moving Averages: A type of moving average that is similar to a simple moving average, except that more weight is given to the latest data. The exponential moving average is also known as "exponentially weighted moving average". Float: The total number of shares publicly owned and available for trading. The float is calculated by subtracting restricted shares from outstanding shares. A float can also refer to a small portion of the money supply representing a balance that is simultaneously present in a buyers and a payers account. A float results from the delay occurring between the time that a cheque is written and the money actually being deducted from the writer's account. These balances are temporarily double counted as part of the overall money supply. Forward Volatility: A measure of the implied volatility of a financial instrument over a period in the future, extracted from the term structure of volatility (which refers to how implied volatility differs for related financial instruments with different maturities). Fundamental Analysis: A method of evaluating a security that entails attempting to measure its intrinsic value by examining related economic, financial and other qualitative and quantitative factors. Fundamental analysts attempt to study everything that can affect the security's value, including macroeconomic factors (like the overall economy and industry conditions) and company-‐specific factors (like financial condition and management). The end goal of performing fundamental analysis is to produce a value that an investor can compare with the security's current price, with the aim of figuring out what sort of position to take with that security (underpriced = buy, overpriced = sell or short). Futures: A financial contract obligating the buyer to purchase an asset (or the seller to sell an asset), such as a physical commodity or a financial instrument, at a predetermined future date and price. Futures contracts detail the quality and quantity of the underlying asset; they are standardized to facilitate trading on a futures exchange. Some futures contracts may call for physical delivery of the asset, while others are settled in cash. The futures markets are characterized by the ability to use very high leverage relative to stock markets. Futures can be used either to hedge or to speculate on the price movement of the underlying asset. For example, a producer of corn could use futures to lock in a certain price and reduce risk (hedge). On the other hand, anybody could speculate on the price movement of corn by going long or short using futures. Gamma: The rate of change for delta with respect to the underlying asset's price. Gamma is an important measure of the convexity of a derivative's value, in relation to the underlying. In a delta-‐hedge strategy, gamma is sought to be reduced in order to maintain a hedge over a wider price range. A consequence of reducing gamma, however, is that alpha too will be reduced. Gap Up / Down: An up gap forms when a security opens above the previous period's high, remains above the previous high for the entire period and closes above it. Up gaps can form on daily, weekly or monthly charts and are generally considered bullish. A down gap forms when a security opens below the previous period's low, remains below the previous low for the entire period and closes below it. Down gaps can form on daily, weekly or monthly charts and are generally considered bearish. (Good Til Canceled) GTC Order: An order to buy or sell a security at a set price that is active until the investor decides to cancel it or the trade is executed. If an order does not have a good-‐'til-‐canceled instruction then the order will expire at the end of the trading day the order was placed. Gut Spread: An option strategy created by buying or selling an in-‐the-‐money put at the same time as an in-‐the-‐money call. Long gut spreads are used by option traders in instances where they believe that the underlying stock will move significantly, but are unsure whether it will be up or down. In contrast, a short gut spread is used when the underlying stock isn't expected to make any significant movement.
Hard to Borrow List: A list used by brokerages to indicate securities considered difficult or unavailable to borrow for short selling transactions. Head and Shoulders Pattern: A technical analysis term used to describe a chart formation in which a stock's price: A. Rises to a peak and subsequently declines. B. Then, the price rises above the former peak and again declines. C. And finally, rises again, but not to the second peak, and declines once more. Hedge: Making an investment to reduce the risk of adverse price movements in an asset. Normally, a hedge consists of taking an offsetting position in a related security, such as a futures contract. Hedge Fund: An aggressively managed portfolio of investments that uses advanced investment strategies such as leveraged, long, short and derivative positions in both domestic and international markets with the goal of generating high returns (either in an absolute sense or over a specified market benchmark). Legally, hedge funds are most often set up as private investment partnerships that are open to a limited number of investors and require a very large initial minimum investment. Investments in hedge funds are illiquid as they often require investors keep their money in the fund for at least one year. High Frequency Trading: A program trading platform that uses powerful computers to transact a large number of orders at very fast speeds. High-‐frequency trading uses complex algorithms to analyze multiple markets and execute orders based on market conditions. Typically, the traders with the fastest execution speeds will be more profitable than traders with slower execution speeds. As of 2009, it is estimated more than 50% of exchange volume comes from high-‐frequency trading orders. Historical Volatility: The realized volatility of a financial instrument over a given time period. Generally, this measure is calculated by determining the average deviation from the average price of a financial instrument in the given time period. Standard deviation is the most common but not the only way to calculate historical volatility. Also known as "statistical volatility." HODs: High of the Day Implied Volatility: The estimated volatility of a security's price. In general, implied volatility increases when the market is bearish and decreases when the market is bullish. This is due to the common belief that bearish markets are more risky than bullish markets. Implied volatility is sometimes referred to as "vols." In the Money: For a call option, when the option's strike price is below the market price of the underlying asset. For a put option, when the strike price is above the market price of the underlying asset. Being in the money does not mean you will profit, it just means the option is worth exercising. This is because the option costs money to buy. Income: Economic wealth that is generated in exchange for an individual's performance of agreed upon activities or through investing capital. Income is consumed to fuel day-‐to-‐day expenditures. In businesses, income can refer to a company's remaining revenues after all expenses and taxes have been paid. In this case, it is also known as "earnings". Index: A statistical measure of change in an economy or a securities market. In the case of financial markets, an index is an imaginary portfolio of securities representing a particular market or a portion of it. Each index has its own calculation methodology and is usually expressed in terms of a change from a base value. Thus, the percentage change is more important than the actual numeric value. Stock and bond market indexes are used to construct index mutual funds and exchange-‐traded funds (ETFs) whose portfolios mirror the components of the index. Indicator: Statistics used to measure current conditions as well as to forecast financial or economic trends. Indicators are used extensively in technical analysis to predict changes in stock trends or price patterns. In fundamental analysis, economic indicators that quantify current economic and industry conditions are used to provide insight into the future profitability potential of public companies. Industry: A classification that refers to a group of companies that are related in terms of their primary business activities. In modern economies, there are dozens of different industry classifications, which are typically grouped into larger categories called sectors. Individual companies are generally classified into industries based on their largest sources of revenue. For example, an automobile manufacturer might have a small financing division that contributes 10% to overall revenues, but the company will still be universally classified as an auto maker for attribution purposes.
Initial Public Offering (IPO): The first sale of stock by a private company to the public. IPOs are often issued by smaller, younger companies seeking the capital to expand, but can also be done by large privately owned companies looking to become publicly traded. In an IPO, the issuer obtains the assistance of an underwriting firm, which helps it determine what type of security to issue (common or preferred), the best offering price and the time to bring it to market. Also referred to as a "public offering." Investing: The act of committing money or capital to an endeavor (a business, project, real estate, etc.) with the expectation of obtaining an additional income or profit. Investing also can include the amount of time you put into the study of a prospective company, especially since time is money. Inverse Head and Shoulders: A chart pattern used in technical analysis to predict the reversal of a current downtrend. This pattern is identified when the price action of a security meets the following characteristics: A. The price falls to a trough and then rises. B. The price falls below the former trough and then rises again. C. Finally, the price falls again, but not as far as the second trough. Iron Butterfly: An options strategy that is created with four options at three consecutively higher strike prices. The two options located at the middle strike create a long or short straddle (one call and one put with the same strike price and expiration date) depending on whether the options are being bought or sold. The "wings" (options at the higher and lower strike prices) of the strategy are created by the purchase or sale of a strangle (one call and one put at different strike prices but the same expiration date). This strategy differs from the butterfly spread because it uses both calls and puts, as opposed to all calls or all puts. Iron Condor: An advanced options strategy that involves buying and holding four different options with different strike prices. The iron condor is constructed by holding a long and short position in two different strangle strategies. A strangle is created by buying or selling a call option and a put option with different strike prices, but the same expiration date. The potential for profit or loss is limited in this strategy because an offsetting strangle is positioned around the two options that make up the strangle at the middle strike prices. Level 2: A trading service consisting of real-‐time access to the quotations of individual market makers registered in every Nasdaq listed security, as well as market makers' quotes in OTC Bulletin Board securities. Limit Order: An order placed with a brokerage to buy or sell a set number of shares at a specified price or better. Limit orders also allow an investor to limit the length of time an order can be outstanding before being canceled. Depending on the direction of the position, limit orders are sometimes referred to more specifically as a buy limit order, or a sell limit order. Liquidity: The degree to which an asset or security can be bought or sold in the market without affecting the asset's price. Liquidity is characterized by a high level of trading activity. Assets that can be easily bought or sold are known as liquid assets. The ability to convert an asset to cash quickly. Also known as "marketability". There is no specific liquidity formula; however, liquidity is often calculated by using liquidity ratios. LODs: Low of the Day Long The buying of a security such as a stock, commodity or currency, with the expectation that the asset will rise in value. In the context of options, the buying of an options contract. ~Opposite of "short" (or short position). Margin: Borrowed money that is used to purchase securities. This practice is referred to as "buying on margin". The amount of equity contributed by a customer as a percentage of the current market value of the securities held in a margin account. Mark to Market: A measure of the fair value of accounts that can change over time, such as assets and liabilities. Mark to market aims to provide a realistic appraisal of an institution's or company's current financial situation. The accounting act of recording the price or value of a security, portfolio or account to reflect its current market value rather than its book value. 3. When the net asset value (NAV) of a mutual fund is valued based on the most current market valuation. Market Capitalization: The total dollar market value of all of a company's outstanding shares. Market capitalization is calculated by multiplying a company's shares outstanding by the current market price of one share. The investment community uses this figure to determine a company's size, as opposed to sales or total asset figures. Frequently referred to as "market cap Market Order: An order that an investor makes through a broker or brokerage service to buy or sell an investment immediately at the best available current price. A market order is the default option and is likely to be executed because it does not contain restrictions on the buy/sell price or the timeframe in which the order can be executed. A market order is also sometimes referred to as an "unrestricted order."
Market Maker: A broker-‐dealer firm that accepts the risk of holding a certain number of shares of a particular security in order to facilitate trading in that security. Each market maker competes for customer order flow by displaying buy and sell quotations for a guaranteed number of shares. Once an order is received, the market maker immediately sells from its own inventory or seeks an offsetting order. This process takes place in mere seconds. Mutual Fund: An investment vehicle that is made up of a pool of funds collected from many investors for the purpose of investing in securities such as stocks, bonds, money market instruments and similar assets. Mutual funds are operated by money managers, who invest the fund's capital and attempt to produce capital gains and income for the fund's investors. A mutual fund's portfolio is structured and maintained to match the investment objectives stated in its prospectus. Naked Call: An options strategy in which an investor writes (sells) call options on the open market without owning the underlying security. This stands in contrast to a covered call strategy, where the investor owns the security shares that are eligible to be exercised under the options contract. This strategy is sometimes referred to as an "uncovered call" or a "short call". Naked Put: A put option whose writer does not have a short position in the stock on which he or she has written the put. Sometimes referred to as an "uncovered put." Option Industry Council (OIC): A cooperative formed in 1992 by U.S. options exchanges and Options Clearing Corporation (OCC) to educate investors and financial advisers regarding the benefits and risks of exchange-‐traded equity options. Options: A financial derivative that represents a contract sold by one party (option writer) to another party (option holder). The contract offers the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy (call) or sell (put) a security or other financial asset at an agreed-‐upon price (the strike price) during a certain period of time or on a specific date (exercise date). Out of the Money: For a call, when an option's strike price is higher than the market price of the underlying asset. For a put, when the strike price is below the market price of the underlying asset. Over the Counter (OTC): A security traded in some context other than on a formal exchange such as the NYSE, TSX, AMEX, etc. The phrase "over-‐the-‐counter" can be used to refer to stocks that trade via a dealer network as opposed to on a centralized exchange. It also refers to debt securities and other financial instruments such as derivatives, which are traded through a dealer network. P/E Ratio: A valuation ratio of a company's current share pricecompared to its per-‐share earnings. EPS is usually from the last four quarters (trailing P/E), but sometimes it can be taken from the estimates of earnings expected in the next four quarters (projected or forward P/E). A third variation uses the sum of the last two actual quarters and the estimates of the next two quarters. Also sometimes known as "price multiple" or "earnings multiple". Penny Stock: A stock that trades at a relatively low price and market capitalization, usually outside of the major market exchanges. These types of stocks are generally considered to be highly speculative and high risk because of their lack of liquidity, large bid-‐ask spreads, small capitalization and limited following and disclosure. They will often trade over the counter through the OTCBB and pink sheets. Premarket: A period of trading activity that occurs before the regular market session. The pre-‐market trading session typically occurs between 8:00 -‐ 9:30 A.M. EST each trading day. Many investors and traders watch the pre-‐market trading activity to judge the strength and direction of the market in anticipation for the regular trading session. Premium: The total cost of an option. The difference between the higher price paid for a fixed-‐income security and the security's face amount at issue. Price-‐to-‐Earnings-‐to-‐Growth: A ratio used to determine a stock's value while taking into account earnings growth. Put: An option contract giving the owner the right, but not the obligation, to sell a specified amount of an underlying asset at a set price within a specified time. The buyer of a put option estimates that the underlying asset will drop below the exercise price before the expiration date. Quantitative Easing: A government monetary policy occasionally used to increase the money supply by buying government securities or other securities from the market. Quantitative easing increases the money supply by flooding financial institutions with capital, in an effort to promote increased lending and liquidity. Ratio Spread: An options strategy in which an investor simultaneously holds an unequal number of long and short positions. A commonly used ratio is two short options for every option purchased. Resistance: The price at which a stock or market can trade, but not exceed, for a certain period of time. Often referred to as "resistance level".
Reverse Stock Split: A reduction in the number of a corporation's shares outstanding that increases the par value of its stock or its earnings per share. The market value of the total number of shares (market capitalization) remains the same. Rho: The rate at which the price of a derivative changes relative to a change in the risk-‐free rate of interest. Rho measures the sensitivity of an option or options portfolio to a change in interest rate. Sales: The amount of sales generated by a company after the deduction of returns, allowances for damaged or missing goods and any discounts allowed. The sales number reported on a company's financial statements is a net sales number, reflecting these deductions. Scalping: A trading strategy that attempts to make many profits on small price changes. Traders who implement this strategy will place anywhere from 10 to a couple hundred trades in a single day in the belief that small moves in stock price are easier to catch than large ones. Scans: A list of stocks, sorted and filtered according to criteria that vary with the scan. Sectors: An area of the economy in which businesses share the same or a related product or service. Economies are comprised of four sectors. The primary sector involves the extraction and harvesting of natural products from the earth (e.g., agriculture, mining and forestry). The secondary sector consists of processing, manufacturing and construction. The tertiary sector provides services, such as retail sales, entertainment and financial services. The quaternary sector is made up of intellectual pursuits, like education. An industry or market sharing common characteristics. Investors use sectors to place stocks and other investments into categories like technology, health care, energy, utilities and telecommunications. Each sector has unique characteristics and a different risk profile. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): A government commission created by Congress to regulate the securities markets and protect investors. In addition to regulation and protection, it also monitors the corporate takeovers in the U.S. The SEC is composed of five commissioners appointed by the U.S. President and approved by the Senate. The statutes administered by the SEC are designed to promote full public disclosure and to protect the investing public against fraudulent and manipulative practices in the securities markets. Generally, most issues of securities offered in interstate commerce, through the mail or on the internet must be registered with the SEC. Short: The sale of a borrowed security, commodity or currency with the expectation that the asset will fall in value. In the context of options, it is the sale (also known as "writing") of an options contract. Short Interest: The quantity of stock shares that investors have sold short but not yet covered or closed out. Short interest is a market-‐sentiment indicator that tells whether investors think a stock's price is likely to fall. Short interest can also be compared over time to examine changes in investor sentiment. Investors use short interest to make predictions about the direction a particular stock is headed, and to measure the bullishness or bearishness of investors' sentiment towards the market as a whole. Short Squeeze: A situation in which a lack of supply and an excess demand for a traded stock forces the price upward. During a short squeeze, individuals holding short positions are typically forced to purchase shares in situations where the price increases rapidly, in order to exit their short position. Short squeezes occur more often in smaller-‐cap stocks with small floats. Simple Moving Averages: A simple, or arithmetic, moving average that is calculated by adding the closing price of the security for a number of time periods and then dividing this total by the number of time periods. Short-‐term averages respond quickly to changes in the price of the underlying, while long-‐term averages are slow to react. Stock Split: A corporate action in which a company's existing shares are divided into multiple shares. Although the number of shares outstanding increases by a specific multiple, the total dollar value of the shares remains the same compared to pre-‐split amounts, because no real value has been added as a result of the split. In the U.K., a stock split is referred to as a "scrip issue," "bonus issue," "capitalization issue" or "free issue." Stop: An order to buy or sell a security when its price surpasses a particular point, thus ensuring a greater probability of achieving a predetermined entry or exit price, limiting the investor's loss or locking in his or her profit. Once the price surpasses the predefined entry/exit point, the stop order becomes a market order. Also referred to as a "stop" and/or "stop-‐loss order." Stop-‐Loss: An order placed with a broker to sell a security when it reaches a certain price. A stop-‐loss order is designed to limit an investor's loss on a security position. Also known as a "stop order" or "stop-‐market order". Strangle: An options strategy where the investor holds a position in both a call and put with different strike prices but with the same maturity and underlying asset. This option strategy is profitable if there are large movements in the price of the underlying asset. This is a good strategy if you think there will be a large price movement in the near future but are unsure of which way that price movement will be.
Strike: The price at which a specific derivative contract can be exercised. Strike prices is mostly used to describe stock and index options, in which strike prices are fixed in the contract. For call options, the strike price is where the security can be bought (up to the expiration date), while for put options the strike price is the price at which shares can be sold. The difference between the underlying security's current market price and the option's strike price represents the amount of profit per share gained upon the exercise or the sale of the option. This is true for options that are in the money; the maximum amount that can be lost is the premium paid. Support: The price level which, historically, a stock has had difficulty falling below. It is thought of as the level at which a lot of buyers tend to enter the stock. Often referred to as the "support level". Swing Trading: A style of trading that attempts to capture gains in a stock within one to 365 days. Swing traders use technical analysis to look for stocks with short-‐term price momentum. These traders aren't interested in the fundamental or intrinsic value of stocks, but rather in their price trends and patterns. Technical Analysis: A method of evaluating securities by analyzing statistics generated by market activity, such as past prices and volume. Technical analysts do not attempt to measure a security's intrinsic value, but instead use charts and other tools to identify patterns that can suggest future activity. Theta: A measure of the rate of decline in the value of an option due to the passage of time. Theta can also be referred to as the time decay on the value of an option. If everything is held constant, then the option will lose value as time moves closer to the maturity of the option. Theta is part of the group of measures known as the "Greeks" (other measures include delta, gamma and vega) which are used in options pricing. Tick: The minimum upward or downward movement in the price of a security. The term "tick" also refers to the change in the price of a security from trade to trade. Since 2001, with the advent of decimalization, the minimum tick size for stocks trading above $1 is 1 cent. Trailing Stop: A stop-‐loss order set at a percentage level below the market price -‐ for a long position. The trailing stop price is adjusted as the price fluctuates. The trailing stop order can be placed as a trailing stop limit order, or a trailing stop market order. Also known as a Trailing Stop Order. Trendline: A line that is drawn over pivot highs or under pivot lows to show the prevailing direction of price. Trendlines are a visual representation of support and resistance in any time frame. Upgrade: A positive change in the rating of a security. An upgrade is usually triggered by a steady improvement in the fundamentals and financials of the entity that has issued the security. Upgrades to the credit rating of corporate issuers of debt securities are issued by rating agencies, such as Standard & Poor's. Upgrades to investment ratings for stocks and fixed-‐income securities are issued by equity and bond analysts respectively at brokerage houses. In the context of portfolio management, the term "upgrade" also refers to a strategy whereby the risk profile and quality of the portfolio is improved by including blue-‐chips in it, while eliminating speculative stocks. Uptick: A transaction occurring at a price above the previous transaction. In order for an uptick to occur, a transaction price must be followed by an increased transaction price. This term is commonly used in reference to stocks, but it can also be extended to commodities and other securities. VIX: The ticker symbol for the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) Volatility Index, which shows the market's expectation of 30-‐day volatility. It is constructed using the implied volatilities of a wide range of S&P 500 index options. This volatility is meant to be forward looking and is calculated from both calls and puts. The VIX is a widely used measure of market risk and is often referred to as the "investor fear gauge". There are three variations of volatility indexes: the VIX tracks the S&P 500, the VXN tracks the Nasdaq 100 and the VXD tracks the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Volatility: A statistical measure of the dispersion of returns for a given security or market index. Volatility can either be measured by using the standard deviation or variance between returns from that same security or market index. Commonly, the higher the volatility, the riskier the security. A variable in option pricing formulas showing the extent to which the return of the underlying asset will fluctuate between now and the option's expiration. Volatility, as expressed as a percentage coefficient within option-‐pricing formulas, arises from daily trading activities. How volatility is measured will affect the value of the coefficient used. Volume: The number of shares or contracts traded in a security or an entire market during a given period of time. It is simply the amount of shares that trade hands from sellers to buyers as a measure of activity. If a buyer of a stock purchases 100 shares from a seller, then the volume for that period increases by 100 shares based on that transaction.
Watchlist: A list of securities being monitored closely by a brokerage or exchange in order to spot irregularities. Firms on the watch list might be suspected of regulatory violations, about to issue new securities, attracting usually heavy volume, etc. A list of securities being monitored for potential trading or investing opportunities. An investor or trader may have a watch list of several, dozens or even hundreds of trading instruments. The investor waits for certain criteria to be met-‐-‐such as trading over a certain volume, breaking out of a 52-‐week range or moving above its 200-‐day moving average-‐-‐before placing trade orders. Yield Curve: A line that plots the interest rates, at a set point in time, of bonds having equal credit quality, but differing maturity dates. The most frequently reported yield curve compares the three-‐month, two-‐year, five-‐year and 30-‐year U.S. Treasury debt. This yield curve is used as a benchmark for other debt in the market, such as mortgage rates or bank lending rates. The curve is also used to predict changes in economic output and growth. 4.5. Aspectos de comunicación no verbal según el contexto cultural del interlocutor. Hay varias formas de comunicación no verbal. Las siguientes señales no verbales pueden ser de utilidad a la hora de comunicar nuestro interes por los demás. Facial expressions / expresiones facials: The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures. Body movements and posture / movimiento corporal y postural: Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand up, or hold their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements. Gestures / gestos: Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon, and use our hands when we’re arguing or speaking animatedly—expressing ourselves with gestures often without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be careful to avoid misinterpretation. Eye contact / contacto visual: Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s response. Touch / contacto: We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about the messages given by the following: a firm handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring pat on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm. Space / espacio: Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other person was standing too close and invading your space? We all have a need for physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy, aggression, dominance, or affection. Voice / la voz: It’s not just what you say, it’s how you say it. When we speak, other people “read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. Things they pay attention to include your timing and pace, how loud you speak, your tone and inflection, and sounds that convey understanding, such as “ahh” and “uh-‐huh.” Think about how tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or confidence.Proximidad física y esfera personal RECUERDA La comunicación telefónica es una parte esencial en las relaciones comerciales con clientes. En la atención al cliente es esencial el manejo de forma efectiva de las estructuras de preguntarespuesta, de forma que podamos obtener información de nuestro cliente y a su vez poder responder a las cuestiones que nos puedan plantear. Algunos de los documentos aduaneros para el comercio internacional son: Shipper’s Export Declaration, Certificates of origin, Free trade agreements, Customs Invoices, Certificates of destruction or export y Export declaratation. El uso de adjetivos comparativos y superlativos es muy común en inglés, tanto en lenguaje oral como escrito, para describir productos, lugares, situaciones, etc...
En inglés, la forma de dar instrucciones se hace mediante el tiempo imperativo. Para hablar de dinero se usan los números cardinales. Las condiciones de pago son las premisas por las que un vendedor completa su venta. Los incoterms son términos de tres letras cada uno que reflejan las normas, de aceptación voluntaria por las dos partes —compradora y vendedora—, acerca de las condiciones de entrega de las mercancías. Una presentación es una charla formal a una o más personas en la que se "presentan" las ideas y la información de una manera clara y estructurada. Además de manejar el lenguaje y las estructuras más habituales en inglés es imprescindible tener unas actitudes básicas cuando tratemos con clientes. La negociación es muy importante en una actividad comercial Se debe tener la habilidad de persuadir, de conceder peticiones, de denegar peticiones y de mostrar acuerdos y desacuerdos. El contexto sociocultural de una actividad comercial internacional es muy importante, clave para el exito en los procesos de importacion.